Introduction……………………………………………………………..2
1 Dialectal (regional) vocabulary……………………………………3
2 Use dialect vocabulary in speech………………………..3
3 Special (professional terminological) vocabulary…..5
4 Use of special vocabulary in speech………………………6
5 Slang vocabulary…………………………………………………..7
6 Using jargon in speech……………………………..7
7 Computer jargon………………………………………………………...8
8 Archaisms……………………………………………………………11
9 Neologisms………………………………………………………12
10 Borrowed words…………………………………………….13
11 Phraseologisms…………………………………………………….13
Conclusion………………………………………………………15
Literature…………………………………………………………….16
Introduction
Any person for whom Russian is a native language knows what the words mean money, There is, cranberry, meadow, tractor, but not everyone is familiar with such words as finagi(money), take(eat, eat) Pozhanka(meadow), crane(cranberry).
Words money, There is, cranberry, meadow, tractor belong to public vocabulary(the term “national vocabulary” in to a certain extent conditional, since most people do not use non-words in their speech literary words. On the other hand, people with little culture are unaware of many literary book words). Its understanding and use do not depend either on the place or on the professional affiliation of a person. It is the national vocabulary that forms the basis of the national Russian language. The popular vocabulary includes literary words: trees, think, tiny, liar etc., not literary vocabulary, which is common among people of various professions and ages: fool, brainy, foolish, will do etc.
Non-national vocabulary is vocabulary, the understanding and use of which is related to a person’s profession, his place of residence, occupation, etc. Non-national vocabulary includes dialect, special and slang words.
1 Dialectal (regional) vocabulary
Dialect(otherwise regional) vocabulary is that part of non-national vocabulary that is a characteristic feature of the speech of the population of any locality, region, district. There are words used only by residents northern regions: roe(plow), lava(bridge), greenhouse(bonfire), etc.
There are words characteristic of southern cities: order(forest), roe(Earth), area(bushes), etc.
Dialect words that are used in fiction are called dialectisms. The term “dialectism” includes not only what relates to the peculiarities vocabulary of this or that dialect, or dialect, but also what constitutes its phonetic, word-forming or grammatical feature. For example: floppy(funny), roh(then), wisely(for a long time), entot(this) phonetic dialectisms; tying hay(fresh hay), at me(I have), steppe(steppes), scold(scolds) grammatical dialectisms; once again(one day), flatly(layer), along(along) derivational dialectisms.
Among the lexical dialectisms there are:
actually lexical dialectic words that have synonyms with a different root in a literary language: peplum(Beautiful), vir(whirlpool), cats(boots), chapura(heron), etc.
semantic dialecticisms are words that have a meaning in a given dialect (dialect) that is unusual for general popular use. For example: envious, in some dialects it means (zealous), cloud(storm), lips(mushrooms), order(forest), impudent(sudden), etc.
ethnographic dialectic words that name objects and phenomena that are characteristic of the life of the population only in a given area and are unknown in other areas or differ in some specific way from them: Duleyka(wadding jacket), scaffolding(skirt made from a piece of fabric), tonets(thin pancake made from unleavened dough), etc. In other words, ethnographic dialectism, or ethnography, is the local name for a special, local thing. Ethnographisms do not have a national synonym, so their meaning can only be conveyed descriptively.
Phraseological dialectisms stable phrases, known in given value only in some area: to fall into boredom (get bored), as if one sat down in salt (wasted away), death without death (something difficult, heavy), etc.
2 Use of dialect vocabulary in speech
Since dialect vocabulary is one of the words that is not generally known, not popular, the natural question is how and to what extent it can be used for artistic purposes. The degree and nature of the use of dialect words are determined by the theme of the work, the object of the image, the goals that the author sets for himself, his aesthetic ideal, skill, etc. For example, in L. N. Tolstoy, dialectisms are found not only when conveying the speech of peasants, but sometimes in the author’s language, where they are given without any explanation. In I. S. Turgenev, such words have the nature of quotations, inclusions, alien to the general verbal context. At the same time, they are supplied with notes that reveal their meaning, about
Words, the use of which is typical for people living in a certain area, constitute dialect vocabulary. Dialect words are used mainly in oral speech, since the dialect itself is mainly oral colloquial speech residents of rural areas.
Dialectal vocabulary differs from the national vocabulary not only in its narrower scope of use, but also in a number of the following features:
1) Phonetic;
2) Grammatical;
3) Lexico-semantic.
According to these features, they differ following types dialectisms:
A) Phonetic dialectisms - words that reflect phonetic features of this dialect:
Barrel - barrel;
Vankya - Vanka;
Tipyayagok - boiling water (South Russian dialectisms);
Kuricha - chicken;
Tsyasy - clock;
A person is a person;
Nemchi - Germans (Northwestern dialectisms).
b) Grammar dialectisms are words that have grammatical characteristics different from those in the literary language.
1) The use of a neuter noun as a noun in South Russian dialects feminine: Whole field; Such a thing; The cat smells whose meat it has eaten.
2) In northern Russian dialects, the use of the form is widespread dative case instead of a prepositional one:
In the cellar - in the cellar; In the club - in the club; In the table - in the table.
3) Using words with a different morphemic structure, but having the same root, instead of commonly used lexemes:
Sideways - on the side;
Dozhzhok - rain;
Ъеч - to run;
Burrow - hole, etc.
c) lexical dialectisms - words that differ in form and meaning from words in the popular vocabulary:
Kochet - rooster;
Korets - ladle;
The other day - the other day, recently;
Inda - even;
Ground - manure;
Tutarit - to speak;
To clear away - to harrow, etc.
Among the lexical dialectisms, local (local) names of things and concepts common in a given area stand out. Such words are called ethnographisms, For example:
Paneva - special variety skirts in the Ryazan, Tambov and Tula regions;
Nalygach is a special belt or rope tied to the horns of oxen in those areas where oxen are used as draft force; Ochep - a pole at a well, with the help of which water is obtained; Cats are birch bark bast shoes.
A dialectal word may differ from a commonly used one not only in form (phonetic, morphemic, grammatical), but also lexical meaning. In this case they talk about semantic dialectisms, for example:
Yawn - scream, call;
Dark - very much (I love dark = I love it very much);
Guess - recognize someone by sight;
Top - ravine (South Russian dialects);
Plow - sweep the floor (Northern Russian dialects);
Divno - a lot (Siberian dialects), etc.
Dialectisms are often used as artistic expressive means in works fiction to achieve the following goals:
1) Speech characteristics character;
2) Transmission of local color;
3) The most accurate naming of things and concepts.
Examples of such use of dialectisms can be found in the works of many word artists:
It was frosty and biting, but in the evening it began to cool down (T.)
The verb to rejuvenate in Oryol and Tula dialects means “to become cloudy, to tend toward bad weather,” as V. I. Dal explains in his dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language.
We went to the forest, or, as we say, to order (Turg.) The whole face seemed to turn blue (Babel) We are used to eating bread without weight (Shol.)
Basic vocabulary Ukrainian language form words that everyone understands and accepts. They are called commonly used. But there are words that are used only in a certain area, in certain dialects, adverbs. Such words are called dialectal.
What are dialects and dialectisms?
Dialects (or adverbs) are a division of a language that unites a group of dialects related to each other in a number of ways general phenomena, unknown to others talk.
The set of Ukrainian dialects according to the peculiarities of phonetic features, lexical composition, morphological and syntactic differences is divided into three dialect groups or adverb: northern, southeastern, southwestern.
Dialectisms (or provincial isms) are words used in individual dialects or dialects and are not common in the language of the entire people. These are territorial (regional) dialectisms and social ones, functioning only in a certain social group.
Dialect vocabulary is often found in everyday conversational style. Well-mannered man must monitor his speech and use commonly used standardized words of the Ukrainian language.
Dialect vocabulary is widespread in works of fiction. Examples of its masterful use for the purpose of depicting local color are observed in the works of Panas Myrny, Lesya Ukrainsky, I. Franko, O. Gonchar, M. Stelmakh, D. Pavlychko and others. This is how M. Kotsiubynsky describes pictures of the life and everyday life of the Hutsuls, using dialect vocabulary: “Now Ivan was already a guy, slender and strong, like a spruce, he smeared his curls with oil, wore a wide belt and a lush chair.”
It should be noted that excessive use of dialect vocabulary makes reading works difficult. We must be very careful when using dialect vocabulary, taking care that it does not clog up the language and does not make it difficult for readers to perceive the works.
In modern literary languages, dialect vocabulary is very rare. And it is not used at all business speech, scientific and journalistic styles.
Literary language serves tall forms socio-political, cultural relations, and richer in its lexical composition, grammatical structure. It has a standardized dictionary, grammatical forms and a pronunciation system that are mandatory for everyone who uses it.
In Ukrainian it happens complex process interactions between literary language and dialect vocabulary, the process of erasing differences between literary national language and territorial dialectisms. Everything that is outdated in territorial dialectisms is gradually disappearing and being replaced by national means of expression. But the literary language does not simply displace local dialects from the linguistic practice of their speakers, but together absorbs from them everything that can enrich it with new means of expressiveness, imagery, expressiveness: new lexical and grammatical elements. However, excessive use of dialect vocabulary does NOT enrich the language, but only clutters it with unnecessary words.
So, on the one hand, the literary language absorbs all the best, most valuable, vital and typical from the dialect vocabulary and thanks to this it is enriched and improved. On the other hand, elements of the literary language penetrate into dialect vocabulary and bring it closer to the common language. The literary language is increasingly influencing local dialects and helping to bring their system closer to the national language.
So Ivan flew in the valley until it was empty. The glass margins are back in the valleys, dismantled by the owners, the odtrembitals are compacting theirs, the trampled grasses lie... Only groups with spuzars remain. They must wait until the fire goes out, that fire of the valley that itself was born, like a god, the mass itself, and fall asleep. And when they were no longer there, a ghost and nipa came to the upset mountain in flocks and in paddocks, there was nothing left for her (M. Kotsyubinsky).
Vocabulary is the most moving part language system, it is constantly evolving. The development of the lexical system is associated with two reciprocal processes. On the one hand, this is a process updates, which is aimed at meeting the ever-growing needs of society in new categories. On the other hand, this obsolescence some elements of the lexical system, which implies their replacement or obsolescence. If we are talking about the field organization of vocabulary, then in connection with this the relationship between the core and the periphery changes. New words, at first rarely used, are updated and usually move from the periphery to the center and gradually move to the core of the lexical system. And vice versa: words that have lost their relevance move from the center to the periphery and, ultimately, fall out of use altogether. These are constant and never-ending processes in vocabulary, balanced by social needs.
Central part vocabulary consists of words that are relevant for modern speakers of a particular language. These include primarily common vocabulary that is understandable to all speakers of a given language, regardless of what they do, what their profession is, where they live, what social strata of society they belong to, what age, etc. It is necessary for everyday communication. Such words define the composition active vocabulary of the language. In Russian, for example, these are words like man, head, hands, face, child. school, bread, salt, water; teach, drink, eat, talk, watch, see, sit, stand; good, bad, bright, smart, long; close, far, early, late, here, there, ahead; one, two, million; you, yourself, yours, yours, which, whose, which; oh, oh, meow; for, before, about, at; even if, obviously, maybe, of course, yes, no etc.
However, to active vocabulary includes not only commonly used words: it also includes those that are limited in their use special terms And professionalism, book words, emotionally expressive vocabulary etc. The words of active vocabulary have neither a shade of obsolescence nor a shade of novelty.
Stands out against the active background passive vocabulary, which includes words that are rarely used in everyday communication and not always understandable to native speakers. They have either ceased to be relevant, necessary in the process of communication, or are outdated ( outdated words), or vice versa, appeared relatively recently and have not yet become familiar, relevant, and have not completely entered into common use(neologisms).
The boundaries between passive and active vocabulary are mobile and changeable; in the process of language development they are constantly changing; words of active vocabulary change from passive (so, for example, in Soviet era V passive dictionary passed the words sovereign, empress, hussar, orderly, policeman, gymnasium, high school student etc., and the words collective farm, collective farmer, collective farmer, collective farm, state farm, state farm, Komsomol, Komsomol member, Komsomol member, Komsomol etc.).
| PASSIVE DICTIONARY |
| ACTIVE DICTIONARY |
Dialectal vocabulary
In the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, from the point of view of the scope of its use, two main layers are distinguished: national words and words limited in their functioning by the dialect and social environment.
Popular vocabulary- This common vocabulary for all Russian speakers. It is the necessary material for the expression of concepts, thoughts and feelings. The bulk of these words are stable and used in all styles of speech ( water, earth, book, table, spring, author, alphabet, promise, walk, talk, start, kind, nice, red, fast, beautiful etc.).
Dialectal vocabulary is characterized limited use. It is not part of the lexical system of the common language. This or that dialect word belongs to one or more dialects (dialects) of the national language.
A dialect is a type of language operating in a certain territory and is characterized by specific dialect features(in addition to features characteristic of the entire language). These features are the result of local changes in the national language at different times. The history of the development of dialects is connected with the history of their speakers. At present, only traces of the distant past have been preserved in dialects.
Dialectal vocabulary- these are words characteristic of one dialect or several dialects; tinsel"cheekbones" (Smolensk), beckon“to wait, to hesitate” (Arkhangelsk), basco“good, beautiful” (Novgorod), worse"path" (Vladimir), fight"to grumble" (Vologda), father"father" (Ryazan), toothLooking“gums” (Bryansk) and words known to all dialects of Northern Russian, Southern Russian dialects and Central Russian dialects. Wed: Northern Russian dialect words: yell"to plow the ground" plow 1) “sweep the floor”, 2) “cut the bread poorly, in thick slices”, drag LOOSE"last year"; South Russian: speed up"to harrow the ground after plowing" summer"last year", Paneva“peasant homespun woolen skirt of a special cut (rubbed)”, “duck” roll; Central Russian: bridge 1) “canopy”, 2) “floor”, 3) “steps leading from the hallway to the courtyard”, Anadys"recently", zApon"apron".
Based on the nature of the differences in dialect vocabulary, there are non-opposed And opposed dialect words.
Non-opposed lexical units- these are elephants that exist in some dialects and are not used in others due to the lack of relevant objects, concepts, etc.
In this dialect vocabulary the following groups of words are distinguished:
(1) Words associated with the features of the local landscape, with local natural conditions. For example, Smolensk, Pskov - tank ' swamp, swampy place" harrier"a particularly swampy place in the swamp." In areas where there are no swamps, such words are absent.
(2) Words denoting features material culture edges ( ethnographic dialectisms), for example, types of clothing that are common in one territory and absent in another. Wed. the already mentioned southern Russian word Paneva (panyava): in the territory of the Northern Russian dialects, peasants wore sundresses, not panevas; in Pskov and Smolensk regions andaraki("a skirt made of homespun linen"). Smolensk casing, burka and accordingly Tula fur coat, short fur coat are not different names the same object, but denote various items– specific local types of clothing.
This also includes a group of words that denote different household items with the same or similar function. For example, bucket – tsebar – dEzhka – tub – names of items in which water is stored in the house in winter, but there is a difference between them: bucket– a metal or wooden vessel with handles in the form of a bow, cEbar- a large wooden bucket with ears, only cattle are allowed to drink from it, dezhka – wooden vessel, but without ears and handle, tub - wooden vessel (barrel), different in shape from tsebra, and from dezhki.
Most of dialect vocabulary consists of words opposed corresponding names in literary language and other dialects. The following types of contrasted dialect words are distinguished:
1) actual lexical dialectisms – words that have no matches in the literary language and other dialects: pole - ruble - stick“an object used to fasten sheaves, hay on a cart”; jelly – well (well); grip – stag – forks“an object used to remove pots and cast iron from the oven”; squirrel – veksha – vaverka; cloud - gloom; boring - boring etc.
2) lexical-semantic dialectisms – words that coincide in form with the words of the literary language, but have a specific meaning: weather– “weather in general”, “ good weather", "bad weather".
3) word-formation dialectisms – words of the same root, differing from words of the literary language and other dialects in their word-formation structure with the same meaning: scourge - biyak - scourge - scourge - scourge"scourge, part of a flail"; here - tutachki"Here"; there - tamaka - tamochki"there".
4) phonetic dialectisms – words in which the same root morpheme can differ in different dialects separate sounds: bathhouse - bathhouse; trouser - hook - rutabaga - belly"swede"; karomysel – karomisel – karemisel“a device on which buckets are carried”; estate - estate; log – berno – berveno;
6) accentological dialectisms are words of different dialects identical in meaning, which are contrasted by place of emphasis: cold - cold(liter. Cold), cold - cold(liter. cold), carrot - carrot, carrot - carrot (liter. carrot); talk - talk(liter, speak).
In the Russian lexical system, groups of words are distinguished, the scope of which is limited by one or another territorial location. Such groups are called dialectal. At their core, these are dialects of the peasant population, which still retain certain phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic features. This makes it possible to identify phonetic dialectisms (zh[o]na instead of wife, p[i]snya, m[i]sto instead of song, place; dum[a]t instead of thinks in Northern Russian dialects; n[i]su, r[ I]ka instead of carry, river; [hv]artuk instead of apron, etc. in South Russian dialects); morphological dialectisms (for example, I saw with my own eyes, spoke with smart people), where there is a coincidence of the endings of the creative and dat. cases of plural numbers in northern dialects, and here we go [t] instead of carries, will go or at m[i]n[e], at s[i]b[e] instead at me, at myself - in the south) and lexical dialectisms, among which the actual lexical and lexical-semantic ones stand out .
Actually, lexical dialectisms are words that coincide with general literary ones in meaning, but differ in their sound complex. They name the same concepts as identical words in the literary language, i.e. are synonyms. Thus, the actual lexical dialectisms are the words: golitsy, shubenki (northern) - mittens; basque (northern) - beautiful; veksha (northern) - squirrel; stitch (southern) - path; row (southern) - disdain, neglect; beam (southern) - ravine, gai (southern) - forest, etc.
Lexical-semantic dialectisms are words that coincide in spelling and pronunciation with literary ones, but differ from them in their meaning. Such dialectisms are homonyms in relation to literary words. For example: whiskey (Kursk, Voronezh) - hair on the entire head and whiskey (lit., plural from the temples) - the side of the skull above the line running from the ear to the eye; hair growing on the side of the skull in front of the ear; cheerful (southern, Ryazan) - elegant, beautifully decorated and cheerful (lit.) - full of energy, healthy, energetic; kozyulya (southern, Kaluga, Orlov, Kursk) - snake and kozyulya (lit.) - wild goat; wad (Volzh.) - the bow of the ship, the very front of it; wad (northern, eastern) - hemp chaff and wad (lit.) - a bunch of hemp, fabric, paper for driving a charge.
For the most part, dialect words are not included in the general literary language. But through colloquial speech(especially through vernacular) dialectisms penetrate into the literary language.
Some names associated with the cycle of agricultural work came from dialects into the literary language, various kinds crafts, qualities, actions, phenomena, etc. For example: harrow (harrow), furrow, spindle, fork (cabbage), cake, creepy, bin (bin), strawberry, swell, shock, caulk, uproot, shaggy, mumble, dragonfly, pothole, frail, heron, etc.
One of the ways to penetrate dialect words into a literary language is their skillful, moderate use in newspaper publications and in the language of fiction. Abuse of locals speech means clogs the language and deprives it of the ability to perform its main function - communicative (Latin communicatio - message, connection), and also reduces its impact on the reader.
So, if in a literary language there are, for example, the words ukhvat, pot, mochalka and others, then there is no need to introduce the equivalent dialectisms rogach, makhotka, vekhotka (from the word vekhot - this is how mochalka is called in the Ural dialects). (See, for example, I.S. Turgenev in the story “Bezhin Meadow”: There are all these gullies all around, and in the ravines there are roe deer, where the first southern dialect “dry ravines” is explained right there, and the second “vipers” becomes clear from what follows text.)
Russian writers of the 20th century also use words from local dialects. (for example: A.S. Novikov-Priboy, M.A. Sholokhov, P.P. Bazhov, V.M. Shukshin, V. Belov, V. Astafiev, V. Rasputin, M. Halfina, etc.), which they also serve as a means of imparting special expressiveness to speech and creating local flavor. See, in V. Astafiev’s story “On a Distant Northern Peak”: A small sloping mountain for these places - about five miles long and a mile across, all overgrown with forest, thorn [i.e. rosehip, sib. - M.F.] and blueberry, - surrounded on all sides by disastrous, impassable screes<...>
In establishing the norms for the use of dialectisms, as well as the boundaries of their use, the articles of A.M. played a major role. Gorky, written by him during the discussion about language, held in 1934 in connection with the discussion of Panferov’s novel “Whetstones”.
For modern literary language, dialectisms provide less and less figurative means, even when people from the peasant environment are depicted, since the growth of culture of the entire population, as well as the influence of means mass media contribute to the fact that the process of rapprochement of local dialects with the literary language is taking place more and more actively. This process covers the entire dialect system, but the most permeable is lexical system. At the same time, a complex, multi-stage process of radical restructuring of dialect vocabulary is observed: a narrowing of the scope of use of individual dialectisms until their complete disappearance from the dialect dictionary due to changes in methods of speaking agriculture, the extinction of individual crafts, the replacement or disappearance of many social and everyday realities, etc.
Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language - M., 2002.
