The language system as a structural formation. Language as a systemic-structural formation

A language system is a set of linguistic elements of any natural language, located in relationships and connections with each other, which form a certain unity and integrity. Members of systems receive their significance only when there are other members of the system and depend directly on them. ([k] in a language without [x] is not the same as [k] in a language without [x], the meaning of each case varies depending on the number of cases in the language in general). The most important element language system– linguistic sign. Signs mean words - two-sided ideal-material entities. The ideal side is the signified, the external (material) side is the signifier. The interpretation of a sign can be biliteral (dual nature of the sign) and monoteral (material side only) Theory language sign developed by Ferdinand de Saussure, he identified three types of signs:

A) iconic (motivated, having similarities with designated objects - road signs)

B) signs-symbols (semi-motivated, only partially determined by what they mean (red cross, coat of arms of the USSR)

C) signs-signals (conditional, non-conditional, motivated by the fact that they are always associated with the situation (red traffic light, bell, three whistles, speech, interjections). Signs should be distinguished from signs or symptoms, in which the signified and the signified are in a causal relationship. investigative connection. They do not convey information purposefully, like signs. Properties of a linguistic sign:

1) materially ideal

2) the linguistic sign is primary (the signs of other systems are secondary - first language and speech, then signals)

3) arbitrariness of signs (lack of natural connection between signifier and signified)

4) motivation (the presence of a natural connection between the signifier and the signified (house, hand - unmotivated, house - little house, mittens - what is on the hands)

5) changeability (the signifier changes, but the signified remains (eye-eye, finger-finger), the signified changes, the signifier is unchanged (wretch - good for nothing, freak - in Polish beauty, stink - Czech perfume, shame - Czech spectacle, shame - Serbian actress).

6) asymmetry (one signifier has many signifieds (polysemy), one signified has many signifiers (synonyms) à moving connection, constant change of languages)

7) The linear nature of the signifier (speech has a duration in space).

Each component of the language system does not exist in isolation, but only in opposition to other components of the system. The structure of a language system is called structure. If a system is a collection of elements connected by certain relationships, then structure is the type of these relationships, the way the system is organized. Thus, structure is not an independent entity, but a characteristic of the system. Since language is one of the complex systems, in order to understand this system, it is stratified into smaller systems. In each subsystem there is a set of homogeneous units that are in certain connections and relationships with each other.

Main units:

1. phoneme (enters into connections and relationships with phonemes, the function is a material sign of language, and the first function is perceptual - the object of perception, and the second significative - has the ability to distinguish higher, significant units of language - morphemes, words, sentences (not-bot-mot -cat, steel-table-chair, pine-pine-pine)),

2. morphemes (like a phoneme, the function is semaseological, that is, to express the concepts of a) real-root (-red-), b) non-root meanings of features (-ost, without-, re-) and meanings of relations (-у, -ish )

3. word (function - nominative - name objects and phenomena proper names they just call it common nouns combine nominative and semaseological functions),

4. sentence (function – communicative)

These subsystems are called language levels. Language levels are subsystems of the general language system, each of which is characterized by a set of relatively homogeneous units and a set of rules governing their use and grouping into various classes and subclasses. The main levels of language: phonemic, morphemic, lexical and syntactic. Signs that distinguish the levels:

1) Units of the same level must be homogeneous

2) Unit lower level must be part of a higher level unit.

3) Units of any level must be distinguished by segmenting language structures more complex than themselves.

In addition, there is also a syllable and a phrase - units of an intermediate level, that is, components of a unit of the nearest highest level of language, consisting of a number of units of the nearest lower level.

Units of language can be one-sided (phoneme, syllables - their function in the formation and distinction of sound shells of two-sided units) and two-sided (have both sound and meaning, express either the meaning itself or serve to convey it - morphemes, words, sentences)

Units of language can enter into three types of relations: paradigmatic (relations of opposition and functional identity of linguistic elements, and they can be appositive (between invariant units of language - wooden + table) and equivalent (between variants of one invariant - table, table, table)), syntomatic ( relations of compatibility of elements of the same level in a speech chain (phoneme with phoneme, word with words)) and hierarchical (between language units according to their degree of complexity).

Currently the concepts system And structure are differentiated as follows: term system denotes an object as a whole, and under structure is understood as a set of connections and relationships between constituent elements. A system is an ordered hierarchical whole that has a structure embodied in a given substance and is designed to fulfill certain goals.

The linguistic system has several types of units, of which the most defined and generally accepted are the phoneme, morpheme and lexeme. They were intuitively identified long before the principle of systematicity was established in linguistics. These units appear in two forms - abstract and concrete. Thus, the abstract unit of the phonemic tier - the phoneme - always appears in the form of allophones, the morpheme appears in the form of allomorphs, etc.

One common approach to language is to represent it in the form complex system, which is formed by units different levels.

Levels of language ~ tiers of the general language system. Types of language levels:

Phonemic (phonological) - describes the sound side of the language;

Morphemic (morphological);

Syntactic;

Lexical (lexical-semantic) - studies meaning as single word, and a whole class of words, united by a common grammatical or word-formation meaning.

A. The phonemic level of language is studied in the following disciplines:

Phonetics - speech sounds in all their diversity, description of their articulatory and acoustic characteristics and rules of use in the language;

Phonology is the sound structure of a language from a functional and systemic point of view (phonemes, their phonological features and functions);

Morphonology - phoneme as part of a morpheme.

B. The lexical level of language is represented by the following sciences:

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language and the word as its basic unit, the structure of the lexical composition of a language, methods of its replenishment and development, the nature of relationships within different groups vocabulary and between them;

Semasiology - studies lexical semantics, the correlation of a word with the designated object of reality and the concept expressed by it;

Onomasiology - issues related to the technique of naming in language, to the division of the world in the course of human cognition.

C. Morphological level language:

Morphology - studies the structure of a word, its morphemic composition and forms of inflection (classification of systems of inflectional forms), parts of speech and principles of their identification;

Word formation - the structure of words, means and methods of forming new words, conditions for the appearance and functioning of new words in the language.

5. The syntactic level of language is studied by syntax. This is a section of linguistics that describes the mechanisms of language that contribute to the formation of speech:

Ways of combining words and word forms into phrases and sentences;

Types syntactic connections words and sentences.

Concept language level. (main levels of language and their units)

Level is a part of the language system, which includes units of the same type and the same name for a given level.

Basic language levels:

Lower level (phonetic)

Morphological level

Lexical level

Syntactic level.

There are also additional levels:

a) word-formation

b) morphonological.

Residue-free division of the text. The text cannot be divided into units of additional levels.

The units are linguistic and speech.

At the lower phonetic level, the unit is the phoneme (allophone). Phoneme is the smallest unit sound system language, which is an element of the sound shell of words and morphemes, which serves to distinguish them.

At the morphological level, the unit of language is the morpheme, and the unit of speech is the allomorph. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. This is a two-sided unit - it has a plan of expression and a plan of content. The sound shell of a morpheme is called “morph”, and the semantic side is called “seme”. Allomorph is a set of morphs that differ in position in a word.

At the lexical level, the unit of language is the lexeme, the unit of speech is the word. A lexeme is a word considered as a unit of the vocabulary of a language in the totality of all its specific grammatical forms and the inflections expressing them, as well as all possible values(semantic options); abstract two-way vocabulary unit. Representing a set of forms and meanings characteristic of the same word in all its uses and implementations, a lexeme is characterized by both formal and semantic unity.

On syntactic level, the unit of language is a sentence, the unit of speech is a statement or phrase. sentence - a statement containing a predicative syntagm

Units of language levels:

1) phonemic level – phonemes – minimal structural and functional sound unit in a language, represented by a series of alternating sounds, serving to recognize and distinguish significant units of language (words, morphemes).

2) morpheme – the minimally significant part of a word that is not divided into smaller units of the same level.

3) syntactic – sentence, text, phrase.

The main levels of the language system were identified back in Ancient Greece.

Levels meaning:

1) levels make it possible to reveal the systemic nature of the language, the relationships between elements and subsystems.

2) Levels allow you to draw a precise boundary between the main linguistic disciplines.

3) Allows you to divide the whole language material into parts convenient for linguistic analysis.

Principles for identifying levels:

A) the units of each level are homogeneous;

B) lower-level units within higher-level units

C) level units should be distinguished by segmentation

D) units of each level must be signs or consist of them.

Figures and merisms are differentiated features of phonemes (l – l’)

Semes are the smallest signs. The morphological level is something between a phoneme and a morpheme (For example, the alternation of sounds in roots: hand - pen).

Not all linguists believe that the text belongs to the language system. Text refers to speech.

Level properties:

- autonomy. (each level is organized according to its own laws, but the levels are interconnected, autonomy does not imply isolation)

- indecomposability of units. (indivisibility not smaller than units of the same kind within the level)

Level units:

Offer– a unit of language that serves to express thoughts and contains a predicative basis (subjects and predicate).

Word– the central unit of the language system, serving to name objects and their properties, actions, states..., possessing semantic, phonetic and grammatical features, specific to each language.

Morpheme– minimum sign. It has a form and full content (the morpheme has the meaning of past and future). A morpheme is not a syllable!

Phoneme- a unit of the sound structure of a language that distinguishes larger meaningful units.

The phoneme does not have a full-fledged meaning; many scientists consider it a full-fledged sign, since it helps to distinguish larger units.

There are paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between units within the same level of language. IN paradigmatic relationships are groups of units that are more or less homogeneous, similar in function, for example, declension forms of the same noun or conjugation forms of the same verb. From such groups, stored in the memory of speakers and listeners in the form of a set of tools that provides opportunities for choice, when constructing each specific utterance, individual units are extracted, inextricably linked with other units and presupposing their simultaneous existence. The paradigm consists of units that are mutually exclusive in one position.

Syntagmatic relations between linguistic signs are relations of linear (in the flow of speech) dependence, manifested in the fact that the use of one unit allows, requires or prohibits the use of another unit of the same level associated with it.

Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are inextricably linked: the presence of paradigms of homogeneous units (phoneme variants, synonymous morphemes, synonymous words, inflectional forms, etc.) creates the need for choice, and syntagmatic dependencies determine the direction and result of the choice.

Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are found at all levels of language and in the structure of all languages ​​of the world.

The elements of language are unequal: they are in hierarchical relations of sequential dependence that form a vertical model of language as consisting of tiers. The lowest levels (tiers) are phonetic and morphological, the highest are lexical and syntactic. Hierarchical relations between units of different levels consist in the inclusion of a unit of a lower level into a unit of a higher level.

Exactly close connection of all elements of language, their interdependence and interdependence allow us to speak of language as a single structure. Moreover, each language has its own special structure, formed as a result of long historical development.

Language is a historically developed, specifically human system signs and methods of their connection, which serves to convey thoughts, feelings, expression of the will of people and is the most important means human communication.

Language as a special kind of sign system:

Communication is the exchange of information. We need language to communicate. The word replaces the object. The word is symbol objects of reality, i.e. sign.

Words are the most numerous and main signs in a language. Other units of language are also signs. A sign is a substitute for an object for the purpose of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke an image of an object or concept in the mind of the interlocutor. The sign has the following properties:

the sign must be material, accessible to perception; the sign is directed towards the meaning; the content of a sign does not coincide with its material characteristics, while the content of a thing is exhausted by its material properties; the content and form of the sign are determined distinctive features; a sign is always a member of a system, and its content largely depends on the place of a given sign in the system.

Meaning is the content of a linguistic sign, formed as a result of the reflection of extra-linguistic reality in the minds of people. The meaning of a language unit in the language system is virtual, i.e. determined by what the unit can stand for. In a specific statement, the meaning of a linguistic unit becomes relevant, since the unit correlates with a specific object, with what it actually means in the statement. There are objective and conceptual meanings. Subject meaning consists in the correlation of a word with an object, in the designation of an object.

Conceptual meaning serves to express a concept that reflects an object, to define a class of objects denoted by a sign.

In our speech, we also use gestures and facial expressions ( non-verbal communication) along with the use of language.

Language differs from gestures and facial expressions in that it is more important. Facial expressions and gestures are secondary. Language is a tool for knowing the world (to name means to know). Language performs the function of preserving and transmitting any knowledge.

Books collect and transmit information, so language is also a means of developing culture.

Language as a system- structural education:

Language is a complex multi-level organism, a system in which smaller units are combined into larger ones (sounds, letters, words).

Language levels:

1) phonetics - the lowest language level (studies sounds, stress, syllables, intonation, orthoepy)

2) morphemics (the science of minimal significant parts words - root, suffix, prefix, etc.) and word formation (the science of how individual words are obtained from morphemes).

3) lexicology - the science of vocabulary language. Studies the meaning of a word, its functioning, origin (=etymology), and the active use of the word.

4) morphology (the science of structure) - the science of grammatical categories and word forms.

5) syntax - the science of the structure of phrases and sentences.

Functions of language: communicative (means of communication), integrating (means of communication of several nations), cognitive, cumulative, naming, reproduction, expression of will, emotional, aesthetic, educational, indicative.

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More on topic 3.1 Language as a systemic-structural formation and as a special kind of sign system:

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3. Topic 3. Man as an object and the psyche as a subject for the study of psychology (preliminary systemic presentation)

Question 1. The significance of previous theories for the development of modern linguistics: ancient philosophy, ancient grammatical tradition, universal grammars.

1) Naming theory in ancient philosophy language. This theory does not yet contain specialized knowledge about language, and it is not included in the body of linguistics itself, but is nevertheless considered important for the creation of linguistics. ! This theory establishes the integrity of the connection between the plane of content and the plane of expression, each of which has a different structure, but both cannot exist without each other.

2) Language and speech or linguistics of universal grammars (traditions of China, Egypt, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome). They mark the emergence grammatical theory, provide a tool and method for describing a language.

3) Universal grammar "Port-Royal". It reveals the commonality of the systems of linguists, because they are all based on the same universal human logic. Gives rise to logical grammar, linguistic typology, because they quite clearly distinguished between the synthetic and analytical structure of the language (although such terms did not yet exist).

Question 2 The importance of previous theories for development modern linguistics: comparative historical linguistics, systemic linguistics, structuralism. Main trends of modern science of language.

4) Comparative historical linguistics. This method is considered revolutionary because... penetration into the mechanism of the tongue occurs, because A language is studied by studying its history and comparing it with other languages. As a result, a genological classification of the world's languages ​​is created. During the same period, naturalism (Schleicher) and psychologism (Potebnya, Steinthal) emerged as a separate movement. They deal with the problem of the relationship between the natural and psychological principles in language. Humboldt (“The language of a people is its spirit, and the spirit is its language. And there is nothing more identical to each other.” His position is based on cognitive linguistics. G. Laid the foundations of the modern concept of the modern concept of language and thinking.) – creator general linguistics. Under his influence, such movements as: ethnolinguistics, generative linguistics, cognitive science, and discourse linguistics were created. Proclaims one of the main principles - principle historicism, which states that any research should be historical in nature. Historicism - accounting historical roots, prospects.

5) Systemic linguistics. Saussure, Courtenay, Fortunatov. They are characterized by a view of language as a systemic-structural formation (linguistics), and they determine the sign nature of the language. Based on the works of Saussure and Courtoney, a basic approach to language was formed. Language consists of: separate clear elements that are interconnected, connecting with each other, they form qualitatively new formations. Sounds do not carry any meaning, unlike words.

6) Structuralism ( most of 20th century, 50s, 60s, 70s - the heyday of Saussure) is the dominant trend. Explores internal organization language. The organization of language provides the basis for linguistic modeling, affirms the most important principle of linguistics, considering languages ​​as systems, the parts of which exist only in their interconnection, interdependence, and gives rise to modern trends. Rigorous study of language structure. Description of the phoneme, differential features.

7) Modern period(based on all already established provisions) is characterized by two main processes: differentiation and integration scientific research. Differentiation is the branching of scientific linguistic research, its specialization. Integration – the emergence of a new discipline at the intersections different sciences. Directions: sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics. Linguoculturology - studies language based on cultural values. Text linguistics, MCC, discourse theory - the text is considered as belonging to a discourse, discourse is a text immersed in life, i.e. taking into account communicators, communication parameters, communication situation. Discourse is a set of texts that coincide in these parameters, for example, legal discourse. Cognitive linguistics interprets in a new way the relationship between language and thinking, language and reality. Conceptology - studies concepts Gender linguistics - differences between male and female speech. Semaseology – studies the content linguistic units. Communicative linguistics – language is studied as a means linguistic communication; examines how language performs its communicative functions; communication strategies and tactics are considered; communicative categories that are realized in texts generated for the purpose of communication. Linguopragmatics is the content and structure of a speech work depending on the situation and purpose of communication.

Question 8. Language as a systemic and structural formation. Modern performance about the system and structure of language, units and tiers of the language system.

1) Language consists of individual elements, i.e. units of language. Units of language are its elements that have such properties as: reproducibility, constancy of features in the language system, or the formation of speech according to certain models, the implementation of certain functions. ! The function of the word and word combination is to name the object of reality. The function of a sentence is communicative.

2) These elements are interconnected in various ways and of varying complexity. There are 2 global types of relationships: paradigmatic and syntagmatic, which are transformed into more specific ones. An example is chess.

3) Changes in individual elements cause changes in the system as a whole. General property system is not reduced to the sum of the properties and elements that make it up. Elements of a language system, connecting with each other, give rise to new meaning. Example - phonemes, connecting with each other, form a new word, meaning and meaning.

Language units form the levels of language: phonetic (sounds and prosodic phenomena), lexical (words and phraseological units), morphological (morphemes and word forms), syntactic (phrases and sentences). These tiers form subsystems in common system language. Units in these levels are interconnected systemic relations. Each tier has its own functions in systemic organization language. For example, phonetic serves as a building material; and the lexical one is the central tier, the main function of which is to reflect reality; the function of the morphological is to serve as the “skeleton” of the language system, a means structural organization language units; syntactic – communicative function, i.e. serve as a means of expressing and communicating thoughts. Systems approach to the study of reality is fundamental not only in linguistics, but also in other sciences. It is due to the fact that the objects around us are systemic and structural formations. Language is one of these objects. All historical linguistics are attempts to systematize linguistic units and phenomena in one way or another. This is the same thing modern linguistics.

Lecture, abstract. Language as a systemic-structural formation. The iconic nature of language. Types of linguistic signs, their nature and interaction. - concept and types. Classification, essence and features.

Book table of contents open close

History of linguistics as a deepening and expansion of linguistic theory, methods of scientific and educational analysis of language.
Early stage of development of linguistics.
Comparative historical linguistics: prerequisites for development, founders of the method.
The origins of comparative historical linguistics in Russia.
Comparative-historical method of studying languages. Genealogical typology of the world's languages. Genealogical classification of languages
The emergence of theoretical (philosophical) linguistics. W. Humboldt's concept of language.
Development of comparative historical linguistics in the 19th century. Naturalistic direction in the science of language.
Neogrammatism as a linguistic school of the 19th century, its principles.
Kazan linguistic school I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N.V. Krushevsky, V.A. Bogoroditsky.
Moscow linguistic school. F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov, A.A. Peshkovsky.
The linguistic concept of F. de Saussure and his influence on modern linguistics.
Structuralism as a leading direction in linguistics of the 20th century. Structural typology of languages.
Structural and typological classification of the world's languages ​​(morphological, syntactic).
Language as a systemic-structural formation. The iconic nature of language. Types of linguistic signs, their nature and interaction.
Language as a system of signs. Significant situation.
Systemic-structural nature of language. Paradigmatics and syntagmatics of linguistic units.
Systemic-structural nature of language. Oppositional relations of linguistic units and types of linguistic oppositions. Variability of linguistic units.
Structural-semantic methods and techniques of language learning: distributional analysis, analysis by direct components, transformational, component.
Sociolinguistics and its problems. Language situation and language policy.
Language and society. Main aspects of this problem. Basic functions of the language (basic and derivatives).
Forms of existence of language in society (dialectal and supra-dialectal) and their specificity. Literary languages ​​and their typological originality.
Social typology of languages. Types of language situations.
Language and society. Language policy. Typological features of language policy.
Language norm. Specificity of literary language norms.
Development of domestic linguistics in the 20-40s and 50-70s. XX century
ABOUT THE THREE ASPECT OF LANGUAGE PHENOMENA AND ABOUT EXPERIMENT IN LINGUISTICS
Linguistic views of V.V. Vinogradova
Language as a historical phenomenon. Antinomies of speaker and listener, usage and possibilities, code and text, signifier and signified.
Language universals and their types.
Typology of linguistic analysis methods.