Alexander's brothers 1. Beginning of the reign of Alexander I

Reign of Alexander I (1801-1825)

March 12, 1801 as a result palace coup Alexander I ascended the throne. As a child, Alexander was taken from his parents and raised by his grandmother, Catherine the Great. The Empress appointed the Swiss nobleman F. Laharpe as the prince's tutor, who had a huge influence on the formation of the liberal views of the future autocrat. Trying to adapt to the confrontation between Catherine II and his father, Alexander Pavlovich was forced to maneuver between two opposing factions, which influenced the formation of such qualities of his character as cunning, insight, caution and duplicity. The fact that Alexander I knew about the impending conspiracy against Emperor Paul I, but due to weakness and thirst for power, could not prevent the murder of his father, contributed to the development of his suspiciousness and distrust of others.

Liberal reforms 1801-1815

Having become emperor, Alexander I fully showed himself to be cautious, flexible and far-sighted. politician, extremely careful in his reform activities.

The first steps of the new emperor lived up to expectations Russian nobility and testified to a break with the policy of Emperor Paul and a return to transformative activities Catherine the Great.

Alexander I returned the disgraced nobles, lifted restrictions on trade with England, and lifted the ban on the import of books from abroad. The emperor also confirmed the privileges for nobles and cities specified in Catherine’s Charters.

At the same time, Alexander I, in order to develop liberal reforms government system created the Secret Committee (May 1801 - November 1803), which included: P. Stroganov, A. Czartoryski, V. Kochubey and N. Novosiltsev. The secret committee was not official government agency, but was an advisory body under the sovereign. The main issues discussed at the meetings of the Secret Committee were reforms of the state apparatus towards limiting autocracy, peasant question and the education system.

The result of the activities of the Secret Committee of the country was the reform of higher government bodies. On September 8, 1802, a Manifesto was published, according to which, instead of collegiums, ministries were established: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and Justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry.

In resolving the peasant issue discussed in the Secret Committee, Alexander I was extremely careful. The emperor considered serfdom to be a source of social tension, but was convinced that society was not ready for radical reforms. On February 20, 1803, a decree on “free cultivators” was issued, which provided landowners with the opportunity to free peasants with land for a ransom. The decree was advisory in nature and was not very popular among landowners: during the entire period of the reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of serfs became “free tillers”.

Since the autumn of 1803, the importance of the Secret Committee began to decline, and its place was taken by the Committee of Ministers. To continue the transformation, Alexander I needed new people who were personally loyal to him. New round reforms were associated with the name of M. Speransky. Alexander G made Speransky his main adviser and assistant. By 1809, Speransky, on behalf of the emperor, prepared a plan for government reforms called “Introduction to the Code state laws" According to this plan, it was necessary to implement the principle of separation of powers (legislative functions were concentrated in the hands of the State Duma, judicial functions in the hands of the Senate, executive functions in the ministries). According to M. Speransky’s plan, the entire population of Russia was divided into three classes: the nobility, the “middle estate” (merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants) and the “working people” (serfs, artisans, servants). All classes received civil rights, and the nobles have political rights.

The Emperor approved Speransky's plan, but did not dare to carry out large-scale reforms. The transformations affected exclusively central system public administration: in 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative advisory body under the emperor.

In 1810-1811 the reform of the ministerial management system, which began back in 1803, was completed. According to “ General institution ministries" (1811) eight ministries were formed: foreign affairs, military, maritime, internal affairs, finance, police, justice and public education, as well as the General Directorate of Posts, the State Treasury and a number of other departments. Strict autocracy was introduced. Ministers appointed by the tsar and accountable only to him formed the Committee of Ministers, the status of which as an advisory body under the emperor was determined only in 1812.

At the beginning of 1811, the State Council refused to approve the draft of new reforms. The failure of Speransky’s entire plan became obvious. The nobility clearly felt the threat of the destruction of serfdom. The growing opposition of conservatives became so threatening that Alexander I was forced to stop the reforms. M. Speransky was removed and then exiled.

Thus, the reforms at the beginning of the first period of the reign of Alexander I were very limited, but they sufficiently strengthened his position as an autocratic monarch, being the result of a compromise between the liberal and conservative nobility.

Conservative period of the reign of Alexander I

The second period of the emperor’s reign is traditionally called “conservative” in historical literature, despite the fact that at that time such liberal reforms as the introduction of the Polish constitution, the granting of autonomy to Bessarabia, and the relief of the situation of peasants in the Baltic states were carried out.

External events 1812-1815 relegated Russia's internal political problems to the background. After the end of the war, the issue of constitutional reforms and serfdom again became the focus of attention of society and the emperor himself. A draft Constitution was developed for the Polish lands that were part of Russia. This constitution became a kind of trial step, an experiment that was supposed to precede the introduction of a constitution in Russia.

In November 1815 The Polish constitution was approved. It retained the monarchy, but provided for the creation of a bicameral parliament (Sejm). The government had to be responsible to the Sejm, freedom of the press, equality of all classes before the law, and personal inviolability were also guaranteed. And at the opening of the Sejm in 1818, in the speech of Alexander I, a promise was actually made to introduce a constitution in Russia. In March 1818, the emperor instructed a group of his advisers led by N. Novosiltsev to develop a constitution for Russia. The constitution was developed, but was never implemented - Alexander I did not dare to go into direct confrontation with the opposition.

In April 1818, Alexander I granted autonomous administration of Bessarabia. According to the “Charter of Education of the Bessarabian Region”, the highest legislative and executive power was transferred to Supreme Council, part of which was elected from the nobility. Back in 1804, the “Regulations on the Livland Peasants” were approved, which prohibited the sale of serfs without land, a fixed duty that freed peasants from conscription. In May 1816, the emperor signed the “Regulations on Estonian Peasants”, according to which they received personal freedom, but all the land remained the property of the landowners. Peasants could rent land and later buy it. In 1817, the “Regulation” was extended to Courland and Livonia (1819).

However, due to the oppositional sentiments of the nobility, who did not want to part with their privileges, the reformist intentions of Alexander I were replaced by an openly reactionary course. In 1820, the State Council rejected the tsar's proposed bill banning the sale of serfs without land. In addition, the wave of European revolutions of 1820-1821. and uprisings in the army convinced him of the untimeliness of the reforms. IN recent years During his reign, Alexander I did little internal affairs, focusing on problems Holy Alliance, which became a stronghold European monarchs against liberation and national movements. It was at this time that the influence of A. Arakcheev increased, after whom the regime established in the country was called “Arakcheevism” (1815-1825). Its clearest manifestation was the creation of the military police in 1820, strengthening of censorship, the prohibition in 1822 of the activities of secret societies and Masonic lodges in Russia, and the restoration in 1822 of the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia. Indicative was the creation of “military settlements”, in which, under the strictest regulation and control, peasants carried out agricultural duties along with agricultural duties. military service.

Thus, liberal reform projects to abolish serfdom and provide Russia with a constitution were not implemented due to the reluctance of the overwhelming mass of the nobility to transform. Without receiving support, reforms could not be carried out. Fearing a new palace coup, Alexander I could not go against the first estate.

In November 1825, the emperor unexpectedly died in Taganrog (according to another version, he secretly entered a monastery). The second son of Paul I, brother of Alexander I, Constantine, renounced rule in 1822. The Manifesto, drawn up in 1823, in which Paul’s third son, Nicholas, was appointed successor, was kept secret from the heir. As a result, in 1825 a situation of interregnum arose.

On December 23, 1777, Alexander I was born - one of the most controversial Russian emperors. The conqueror of Napoleon and the liberator of Europe, he went down in history as Alexander the Blessed. However, contemporaries and researchers accused him of weakness and hypocrisy. “The Sphinx, unsolved to the grave, is still being debated about again,” - this is how the poet Pyotr Vyazemsky wrote about him almost a century after the birth of the autocrat. About the era of the reign of Alexander I - in the RT material.

An exemplary son and loving grandson

Alexander I was the son of Paul I and grandson of Catherine II. The Empress did not like Paul and, not seeing in him a strong ruler and a worthy successor, she gave all her unspent maternal feelings to Alexander.

Since childhood, the future Emperor Alexander I often spent time with his grandmother in Winter Palace, but at the same time he managed to visit Gatchina, where his father lived. According to Doctor of Historical Sciences Alexander Mironenko, it was this duality, the desire to please grandmother and father who were so different in temperament and views, that formed controversial nature future emperor.

“Alexander I loved to play the violin in his youth. During this time, he corresponded with his mother Maria Feodorovna, who told him that he was too keen on playing a musical instrument and that he should prepare more for the role of an autocrat. Alexander I replied that he would rather play the violin than, like his peers, play cards. He didn’t want to reign, but at the same time he dreamed of healing all the ulcers, correcting any problems in the structure of Russia, doing everything as it should be in his dreams, and then renouncing,” Mironenko said in an interview with RT.

According to experts, Catherine II wanted to pass the throne to her beloved grandson, bypassing the legal heir. And only sudden death The empress in November 1796 violated these plans. Paul I ascended the throne. The short reign of the new emperor, who received the nickname “Russian Hamlet,” began, lasting only four years.

The eccentric Paul I, obsessed with drills and parades, was despised by all of Catherine’s Petersburg. Soon, a conspiracy arose among those dissatisfied with the new emperor, the result of which was a palace coup.

“It is unclear whether Alexander understood that the removal of his own father from the throne was impossible without murder. However, Alexander agreed to this, and on the night of March 11, 1801, the conspirators entered the bedroom of Paul I and killed him. Most likely, Alexander I was ready for such an outcome. Subsequently, it became known from memoirs that Alexander Poltoratsky, one of the conspirators, quickly informed the future emperor that his father had been killed, which meant he had to accept the crown. To the surprise of Poltoratsky himself, he found Alexander awake in full uniform in the middle of the night,” Mironenko noted.

Tsar-reformer

Having ascended the throne, Alexander I began developing progressive reforms. Discussions took place in the Secret Committee, which included close friends of the young autocrat.

“According to the first reform of government, undertaken in 1802, collegiums were replaced by ministries. The main difference was that in collegiums decisions are made collectively, in ministries all responsibility rests with one minister, who now had to be chosen very carefully,” Mironenko explained.

In 1810, Alexander I created the State Council - the highest legislative body under the emperor.

“Repin’s famous painting - the ceremonial meeting of the State Council on its centenary anniversary - was painted in 1902, on the day of approval of the Secret Committee, and not in 1910,” Mironenko noted.

The State Council as part of the transformation of the state was developed not by Alexander I, but by Mikhail Speransky. It was he who laid the principle of separation of powers at the basis of Russian public administration.

“We should not forget that in an autocratic state this principle was difficult to implement. Formally, the first step - the creation of the State Council as a legislative advisory body - was taken. Since 1810, any imperial decree was issued with the wording: “Having heeded the opinion of the State Council.” At the same time, Alexander I could issue laws without listening to the opinion of the State Council,” Mironenko explained.

Tsar Liberator

After the Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns, Alexander I, inspired by the victory over Napoleon, returned to the long-forgotten idea of ​​reform: changing the image of government, limiting autocracy by the constitution and solving the peasant question.

Alexander I in 1814 near Paris

© F. Kruger

The first step in solving the peasant question was the decree on free cultivators in 1803. For the first time in many centuries of serfdom, it was allowed to free the peasants, allocating them with land, albeit for a ransom. Of course, the landowners were in no hurry to free the peasants, especially with the land. As a result, very few were free. However, for the first time in the history of Russia, the authorities gave the opportunity to peasants to leave serfdom.

The second significant act of state of Alexander I was the draft constitution for Russia, which he instructed to develop a member of the Secret Committee Nikolai Novosiltsev. A longtime friend of Alexander I fulfilled this assignment. However, this was preceded by the events of March 1818, when in Warsaw, at the opening of the meeting of the Polish Council, Alexander, by decision Congress of Vienna gave Poland a constitution.

“The Emperor uttered words that shocked all of Russia at that time: “one day the beneficial constitutional principles will be extended to all the lands subject to my scepter.” It's like saying in the 1960s that Soviet power will no longer exist. This frightened many representatives of influential circles. As a result, Alexander never decided to adopt the constitution,” Mironenko noted.

Alexander I's plan to free the peasants was also not fully implemented.

“The Emperor understood that it was impossible to liberate the peasants without the participation of the state. Specific part peasants must be redeemed by the state. One can imagine this option: the landowner went bankrupt, his estate was put up for auction and the peasants were personally liberated. However, this was not implemented. Although Alexander was an autocratic and domineering monarch, he was still within the system. The unrealized constitution was supposed to modify the system itself, but at that moment there were no forces that would support the emperor,” Mironenko explained.

According to experts, one of the mistakes of Alexander I was his conviction that communities in which ideas for reorganizing the state were discussed should be secret.

“Away from the people, the young emperor discussed reform projects in the Secret Committee, not realizing that the already emerging Decembrist societies partly shared his ideas. As a result, neither one nor the other attempts were successful. It took another quarter of a century to understand that these reforms were not so radical,” Mironenko concluded.

The mystery of death

Alexander I died during a trip to Russia: he caught a cold in the Crimea, lay “in a fever” for several days and died in Taganrog on November 19, 1825.

The body of the late emperor was to be transported to St. Petersburg. The remains of Alexander I were embalmed. The procedure was unsuccessful: complexion and appearance the sovereign has changed. In St. Petersburg, during the people's farewell, Nicholas I ordered the coffin to be closed. It was this incident that gave rise to ongoing debate about the death of the king and aroused suspicions that “the body was replaced.”

© Wikimedia Commons

The most popular version is associated with the name of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich. The elder appeared in 1836 in the Perm province, and then ended up in Siberia. In recent years he lived in Tomsk in the house of the merchant Khromov, where he died in 1864. Fyodor Kuzmich himself never told anything about himself. However, Khromov assured that the elder was Alexander I, who had secretly left the world. Thus, a legend arose that Alexander I, tormented by remorse over the murder of his father, staged own death and went to wander around Russia.

Subsequently, historians tried to debunk this legend. Having studied the surviving notes of Fyodor Kuzmich, researchers came to the conclusion that the handwriting of Alexander I and the elder had nothing in common. Moreover, Fyodor Kuzmich wrote with errors. However, lovers of historical mysteries believe that the end has not been set in this matter. They are convinced that it has not yet been carried out genetic examination the remains of the elder, it is impossible to draw an unambiguous conclusion about who Fyodor Kuzmich really was.

In the last years of his life, he often spoke of his intention to abdicate the throne and “retire from the world,” which, after his unexpected death from typhoid fever in Taganrog, gave rise to the legend of “elder Fyodor Kuzmich.” According to this legend, it was not Alexander who died and was then buried in Taganrog, but his double, while the tsar lived for a long time as an old hermit in Siberia and died in Tomsk in 1864.

Name

Childhood, education and upbringing

Frederic Cesar Laharpe, tutor of Alexander I

The many-sided character of Alexander Romanov is based to a large extent on the depth of his early education and difficult situation his childhood. He grew up in the intellectual court of Catherine the Great; the Swiss Jacobin teacher Frederic Caesar La Harpe introduced him to the principles of humanity of Rousseau, the military teacher Nikolai Saltykov - to the traditions of the Russian aristocracy, his father passed on to him his passion for military parades and taught him to combine spiritual love for humanity with practical concern for his neighbor. These opposites remained with him throughout his life and influenced his politics and - indirectly, through him - the fate of the world. Catherine II considered her son Paul incapable of taking the throne and planned to elevate Alexander to it, bypassing his father.

Elizaveta Alekseevna

For some time, Alexander served in the Gatchina troops formed by his father. Here Alexander developed deafness in his left ear “from the strong roar of the guns.”

Accession to the throne

In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education.

In 1820, instructions were sent to universities on the “correct” organization of the educational process.

In 1821, verification of the implementation of the instructions of 1820 began, which was carried out very harshly, biasedly, which was especially observed at the Kazan and St. Petersburg universities.

Attempts to solve the peasant question

Upon ascending the throne, Alexander I solemnly declared that from now on the distribution of state-owned peasants would cease.

12 Dec 1801 - decree on the right to purchase land by merchants, bourgeois, state and appanage peasants outside the cities (landed peasants received this right only in 1848)

1804 - 1805 - the first stage of reform in the Baltic states.

March 10, 1809 - the decree abolished the right of landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for minor offenses. The rule was confirmed: if a peasant once received freedom, then he could not be assigned to the landowner again. Those who came from captivity or from abroad, as well as those taken through conscription, received freedom. The landowner was ordered to feed the peasants in times of famine. With the permission of the landowner, peasants could trade, take bills, and engage in contracts.

In 1810, the practice of organizing military settlements began.

For 1810 - 1811 Due to the difficult financial situation of the treasury, over 10,000 state-owned peasants were sold to private individuals.

On Nov. 1815 Alexander I granted a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland.

On Nov. 1815 Russian peasants are forbidden to “seek freedom.”

In 1816, new rules for organizing military settlements were introduced.

In 1816 - 1819 ends peasant reform in the Baltics.

In 1818, Alexander I instructed the Minister of Justice Novosiltsev to prepare a State Charter for Russia.

In 1818, several royal dignitaries received secret orders to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom.

In 1822, the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia was renewed.

In 1823, a decree confirmed the right of hereditary nobles to own serfs.

Peasant liberation projects

In 1818, Alexander I instructed Admiral Mordvinov, Count Arakcheev and Kankrin to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Mordvinov's project:

• peasants receive personal freedom, but without land, which remains entirely with the landowners.
• the amount of the ransom depends on the age of the peasant: 9-10 years - 100 rubles; 30-40 years old - 2 thousand; 40-50 years -...

Arakcheev's project:

• The liberation of the peasants should be carried out under the leadership of the government - gradually redeeming peasants with land (two dessiatines per capita) by agreement with the landowners at prices in the given area.

Project Kankrin:

• the slow purchase of peasant land from landowners in sufficient quantities; the program was designed for 60 years, i.e. before 1880

Military settlements

In con. 1815 Alexander I begins to discuss the project of military settlements, the first experience of implementation of which was carried out in 1810-1812. on the reserve battalion of the Yelets Musketeer Regiment, located in the Bobylevsky eldership of the Klimovsky district of the Mogilev province.

The development of a plan for creating settlements was entrusted to Arakcheev.

Project goals:

1. create a new military-agricultural class, which on its own could support and staff standing army without burdening the country's budget; the size of the army would be maintained at wartime levels.
2. free the country's population from constant conscription - maintain the army.
3. cover the western border area.

In Aug. In 1816, preparations began for the transfer of troops and residents to the category of military villagers. In 1817, settlements were introduced in the Novgorod, Kherson and Sloboda-Ukrainian provinces. Until the end of the reign of Alexander I, the number of districts of military settlements continued to grow, gradually surrounding the border of the empire from the Baltic to the Black Sea.

By 1825, there were 169,828 regular army soldiers and 374,000 state peasants and Cossacks in military settlements.

In 1857, military settlements were abolished. They already numbered 800 thousand people.

Forms of opposition: unrest in the army, secret societies of the nobility, public opinion

The introduction of military settlements met with stubborn resistance from peasants and Cossacks, who were converted into military villagers. In the summer of 1819, an uprising broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov. In 1820, peasants became agitated on the Don: 2,556 villages were in revolt.

The entire regiment stood up for her. The regiment was surrounded by the military garrison of the capital, and then sent in full force to Peter and Paul Fortress. The first battalion was put on trial by a military court, which sentenced the instigators to be driven through the ranks, and the remaining soldiers to exile to distant garrisons. Other battalions were distributed among various army regiments.

Under the influence of the Semenovsky regiment, fermentation began in other parts of the capital's garrison: proclamations were distributed.

In 1821, secret police were introduced into the army.

In 1822, a decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges.

Foreign policy

The first wars against the Napoleonic Empire. 1805-1807

Russian-Swedish War 1808 - 1809

The cause of the war was the refusal of the King of Sweden, Gustav IV Adolf, to Russia's offer to join the anti-British coalition.

Russian troops occupied Helsingfors (Helsinki), besieged Sveaborg, took the Aland Islands and Gotland, the Swedish army was driven to the north of Finland. Under pressure from the English fleet, Aland and Gotland had to be abandoned. Buxhoeveden, on his own initiative, agrees to conclude a truce, which was not approved by the emperor.

In December 1808, Buxhoeveden was replaced by O.F. von Knorring. On March 1, the army crossed the Gulf of Bothnia in three columns, the main one being commanded by P.I. Bagration.

• Finland and the Åland Islands passed to Russia;
• Sweden pledged to dissolve the alliance with England and make peace with France and Denmark, and join the continental blockade.

Franco-Russian alliance

Patriotic War of 1812

Alexander I in 1812

Greek Revolution

Views of contemporaries

The complexity and contradictory nature of his personality cannot be discounted. With all the variety of reviews from contemporaries about Alexander, they all agree on one thing - the recognition of insincerity and secrecy as the main character traits of the emperor. The origins of this must be sought in the unhealthy environment of the imperial house.

Catherine II adored her grandson, called him “Mr. Alexander”, and predicted, bypassing Paul, to be the heir to the throne. The august grandmother actually took the child away from the parents, establishing only visiting days, and she herself was involved in raising her grandson. She composed fairy tales (one of them, “Prince Chlorine,” has come down to us), believing that literature for children was not at the proper level; compiled “Grandmother’s ABC,” a kind of instruction, a set of rules for raising heirs to the throne, which was based on the ideas and views of the English rationalist John Locke.

From his grandmother, the future emperor inherited flexibility of mind, the ability to seduce his interlocutor, and a passion for acting bordering on duplicity. In this, Alexander almost surpassed Catherine II. “Be a man with a heart of stone, and he will not resist the appeal of the sovereign, he is a real seducer,” wrote Alexander’s associate M. M. Speransky.

The Grand Dukes - brothers Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich - were brought up in a Spartan way: they got up early, slept on hard, ate plain, healthy food. The unpretentiousness of life later helped to endure the hardships of military life. The main mentor and educator of the heir was the Swiss republican F.-C. Laharpe. In accordance with his convictions, he preached the power of reason, the equality of people, the absurdity of despotism, and the vileness of slavery. His influence on Alexander I was enormous. In 1812, the emperor admitted: “If there had not been La Harpe, there would have been no Alexander.”

Personality

The unusual character of Alexander I is especially interesting because he is one of the most important characters in the history of the 19th century. An aristocrat and a liberal, at the same time mysterious and famous, he seemed to his contemporaries a mystery that everyone solves in his own way. Napoleon considered him an "inventive Byzantine", a northern Talma, an actor who was capable of playing any significant role.

Father's murder

Another element of the character of Alexander I was formed on March 23, 1801, when he ascended the throne after the assassination of his father: a mysterious melancholy, ready at any moment to turn into extravagant behavior. At the beginning, this character trait did not manifest itself in any way - young, emotional, impressionable, at the same time benevolent and selfish, Alexander decided from the very beginning to play great role on the world stage and with youthful zeal began to realize his political ideals. Temporarily leaving in office the old ministers who overthrew Emperor Paul I, one of his first decrees appointed the so-called. a secret committee with the ironic name "Comité du salut public" (referring to the French revolutionary "Committee of Public Safety"), consisting of young and enthusiastic friends: Viktor Kochubey, Nikolai Novosiltsev, Pavel Stroganov and Adam Czartoryski. This committee was to develop a scheme internal reforms. It is important to note that the liberal Mikhail Speransky became one of the tsar's closest advisers and drew up many reform projects. Their goals, based on their admiration for English institutions, far exceeded the capabilities of the time and even after they were elevated to the ranks of ministers, only a small proportion of their programs were realized. Russia was not ready for freedom, and Alexander, a follower of the revolutionary La Harpe, considered himself a “happy accident” on the throne of the kings. He spoke with regret about "the state of barbarity in which the country was found due to the serfdom."

Family

The last years of the reign of Alexander I

Alexander I Pavlovich

Alexander claimed that under Paul “three thousand peasants were distributed like a bag of diamonds. If civilization were more developed, I would end serfdom, even if it cost me my head.” Addressing the issue of widespread corruption, he was left without people loyal to him, and filling government positions with Germans and other foreigners only led to greater resistance to his reforms from the “old Russians.” Thus, the reign of Alexander, begun with a great opportunity for improvement, ended with the heavier chains on the necks of the Russian people. This happened to a lesser extent due to the corruption and conservatism of Russian life and to a greater extent due to the personal qualities of the tsar. His love of freedom, despite its warmth, was not based in reality. He flattered himself, presenting himself to the world as a benefactor, but his theoretical liberalism was associated with an aristocratic willfulness that did not tolerate objections. “You always want to teach me! - he objected to Derzhavin, the Minister of Justice, “but I am the emperor and I want this and nothing else!” "He was ready to agree," wrote Prince Czartoryski, "that everyone could be free if they freely did what he wanted." Moreover, this protective temperament was combined with the habit weak characters seize every opportunity to delay the application of the principles he publicly supported. Under Alexander I, Freemasonry became almost a state organization, but was prohibited by a special imperial decree in 1822. At that time, the largest Masonic lodge in the Russian Empire, “Pont Euxine,” was located in Odessa, which the emperor visited in 1820. The Emperor himself, before his passion for Orthodoxy , patronized the Freemasons and in his views was more of a republican than the radical liberals of Western Europe.

In the last years of the reign of Alexander I, A. A. Arakcheev acquired special influence in the country. A manifestation of conservatism in Alexander’s policy was the establishment of Military settlements (since 1815), as well as the destruction of the professorial staff of many universities.

Death

The emperor died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog from fever with inflammation of the brain. A. Pushkin wrote the epitaph: “ He spent his entire life on the road, caught a cold and died in Taganrog».

The sudden death of the emperor gave rise to a lot of rumors among the people (N.K. Schilder, in his biography of the emperor, cites 51 opinions that arose within a few weeks after Alexander’s death). One of the rumors reported that " the sovereign fled in hiding to Kyiv and there he will live in Christ with his soul and begin to give advice that the current sovereign Nikolai Pavlovich needs for better management state" Later at 30-40 years XIX century, a legend appeared that Alexander, tormented by remorse (as an accomplice in the murder of his father), staged his death far from the capital and began a wandering, hermit life under the name of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich (died January 20 (February 1), 1864 in Tomsk).

Tomb of Alexander I in the Peter and Paul Cathedral

This legend appeared during the life of the Siberian elder and became widespread in the second half of the 19th century. In the 20th century, unreliable evidence appeared that during the opening of the tomb of Alexander I in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, carried out in 1921, it was discovered that it was empty. Also in the Russian emigrant press in the 1920s, a story by I. I. Balinsky appeared about the history of the opening of the tomb of Alexander I in 1864, which turned out to be empty. The body of a long-bearded old man was allegedly placed in it in the presence of Emperor Alexander II and the minister of the court Adalberg.

On the night of March 11-12, 1801, when Emperor Paul I was killed as a result of a conspiracy, issue resolved about the accession to Russian throne his eldest son Alexander Pavlovich. He was privy to the conspiracy plan. Hopes were pinned on the new monarch to carry out liberal reforms and soften the regime of personal power.
Emperor Alexander I was raised under the supervision of his grandmother, Catherine II. He was familiar with the ideas of the Enlightenmentists - Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau. However, Alexander Pavlovich never separated thoughts about equality and freedom from autocracy. This half-heartedness became a feature of both the transformations and the reign of Emperor Alexander I.
His first manifestos indicated the adoption of a new political course. It proclaimed the desire to rule according to the laws of Catherine II, to lift restrictions on trade with England, and contained an amnesty and the reinstatement of persons repressed under Paul I.
All work related to the liberalization of life was concentrated in the so-called. A secret committee where friends and associates of the young emperor gathered - P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubey, A. Czartoryski and N.N. Novosiltsev - adherents of constitutionalism. The committee existed until 1805. It was mainly involved in preparing a program for the liberation of peasants from serfdom and reform political system. The result of this activity was the law of December 12, 1801, which allowed state peasants, petty bourgeois and merchants to acquire uninhabited lands, and the decree of February 20, 1803 “On free cultivators,” which gave landowners the right, at their request, to free the peasants with their land for ransom.
A serious reform was the reorganization of higher and central authorities state power. Ministries were established in the country: military ground forces, finance and public education, the State Treasury and the Committee of Ministers, which received a unified structure and were built on the principle of unity of command. Since 1810, in accordance with the project of a prominent statesman those years of M.M. Speransky, the State Council began to operate. However, Speransky could not implement a consistent principle of separation of powers. The State Council turned from an intermediate body into a legislative chamber appointed from above. Reforms early XIX centuries never touched the foundations of autocratic power in the Russian Empire.
During the reign of Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland annexed to Russia was granted a constitution. The Constitutional Act was also granted to the Bessarabia region. Got yours legislature— The Sejm — and the constitutional structure of Finland, which also became part of Russia.
Thus, constitutional government already existed in part of the territory of the Russian Empire, which raised hopes for its spread throughout the country. In 1818, the development of the “Charter of the Russian Empire” even began, but this document never saw the light of day.
In 1822 the emperor lost interest in state affairs, work on reforms was curtailed, and among the advisers of Alexander I, the figure of a new temporary worker stood out - A.A. Arakcheev, who became the first person in the state after the emperor and ruled as an all-powerful favorite. The consequences of the reform activities of Alexander I and his advisers turned out to be insignificant. The unexpected death of the emperor in 1825 at the age of 48 became the reason for open speech from the most advanced part Russian society, so-called Decembrists, against the foundations of autocracy.

Patriotic War 1812

During the reign of Alexander I there was a terrible test for all of Russia - liberation war against Napoleonic aggression. The war was caused by the desire of the French bourgeoisie for world domination, a sharp aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions in connection with wars of conquest Napoleon I, Russia's refusal to participate in the continental blockade of Great Britain. Agreement between Russia and Napoleonic France, concluded in the city of Tilsit in 1807, was temporary. This was understood both in St. Petersburg and Paris, although many dignitaries of the two countries advocated maintaining peace. However, contradictions between states continued to accumulate, leading to open conflict.
On June 12 (24), 1812, about 500 thousand Napoleonic soldiers crossed the Neman River and
invaded Russia. Napoleon rejected Alexander I's proposal for a peaceful solution to the conflict if he would withdraw his troops. Thus began the Patriotic War, so named because it was fought not only against the French regular army, but also almost the entire population of the country in the militia and partisan detachments.
The Russian army consisted of 220 thousand people, and it was divided into three parts. The first army - under the command of General M.B. Barclay de Tolly - was located on the territory of Lithuania, the second - under General Prince P.I. Bagration - in Belarus, and the third army - under General A.P. Tormasov - in Ukraine. Napoleon's plan was extremely simple and consisted in defeating the Russian armies piece by piece with powerful blows.
The Russian armies retreated to the east in parallel directions, conserving strength and exhausting the enemy in rearguard battles. On August 2 (14), the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration united in the Smolensk area. Here, in a difficult two-day battle, the French troops lost 20 thousand soldiers and officers, the Russians - up to 6 thousand people.
The war was clearly taking on a protracted nature, the Russian army continued its retreat, leading the enemy with it into the interior of the country. At the end of August 1812, M.I. Kutuzov, a student and colleague of A.V. Suvorov, was appointed commander-in-chief instead of Minister of War M.B. Barclay de Tolly. Alexander I, who did not like him, was forced to take into account the patriotic sentiments of the Russian people and army, general dissatisfaction with the retreat tactics chosen by Barclay de Tolly. Kutuzov decided to give general battle French army in the area of ​​the village of Borodino, 124 km west of Moscow.
On August 26 (September 7) the battle began. The Russian army was faced with the task of exhausting the enemy, undermining its combat power and morale, and, if successful, launching a counteroffensive themselves. Kutuzov chose a very successful position for the Russian troops. The right flank defended natural barrier- the Koloch River, and the left - artificial earthen fortifications - flushes, occupied by troops Bagration. The troops of General N.N. Raevsky, as well as artillery positions, were located in the center. Napoleon's plan envisaged breaking through the defenses of Russian troops in the area of ​​Bagrationov's flushes and encircling Kutuzov's army, and when it was pressed against the river, its complete defeat.
The French launched eight attacks against the flushes, but were unable to completely capture them. They managed to make only slight progress in the center, destroying Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle in the central direction, the Russian cavalry made a daring raid behind enemy lines, which sowed panic in the ranks of the attackers.
Napoleon did not dare to bring into action his main reserve - the old guard - in order to turn the tide of the battle. The Battle of Borodino ended late in the evening, and the troops retreated to previously occupied positions. Thus, the battle was a political and moral victory for the Russian army.
September 1 (13) in Fili, at a meeting command staff, Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow in order to preserve the army. Napoleon's troops entered Moscow and stayed there until October 1812. Meanwhile, Kutuzov carried out his plan called the “Tarutino Maneuver”, thanks to which Napoleon lost the ability to track the locations of the Russians. In the village of Tarutino, Kutuzov’s army was replenished by 120 thousand people and significantly strengthened its artillery and cavalry. Besides this, she actually closed French troops the route to Tula, where the main weapons arsenals and food warehouses were located.
During your stay in Moscow french army was demoralized by hunger, looting, and fires that engulfed the city. In the hope of replenishing his arsenals and food supplies, Napoleon was forced to withdraw his army from Moscow. On the way to Maloyaroslavets on October 12 (24), Napoleon's army suffered a serious defeat and began a retreat from Russia along the Smolensk road, already ruined by the French themselves.
At the final stage of the war, the tactics of the Russian army consisted of parallel pursuit of the enemy. Russian troops, no
entering the battle with Napoleon, they destroyed his retreating army piece by piece. The French suffered seriously from winter frosts, for which they were not ready, since Napoleon hoped to end the war before the cold weather. The culmination of the war of 1812 was the battle of the Berezina River, which ended in the defeat of Napoleonic army.
On December 25, 1812, in St. Petersburg, Emperor Alexander I published a manifesto, which stated that the Patriotic War of the Russian people against the French invaders ended in complete victory and the expulsion of the enemy.
The Russian army took part in foreign campaigns of 1813-1814, during which, together with the Prussian, Swedish, English and Austrian armies finished off the enemy in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig. After the capture of Paris allied forces in the spring of 1814 Napoleon I abdicated the throne.

Decembrist movement

The first quarter of the 19th century in the history of Russia became a period of formation revolutionary movement and his ideology. After the foreign campaigns of the Russian army, advanced ideas began to penetrate into the Russian Empire. The first secrets appeared revolutionary organizations nobles Most of them were military officers - guard officers.
The first secret political society was founded in 1816 in St. Petersburg under the name "Union of Salvation", renamed next year in the "Society of True and Faithful Sons of the Fatherland." Its members were the future Decembrists A.I. Muravyov, M.I. Muravyov-Apostol, P.I. Pestel, S.P. Trubetskoy and others. The goal they set for themselves was a constitution, representation, the liquidation of serfdom rights. However, this society was still small in number and could not realize the tasks that it set for itself.
In 1818, on the basis of this self-liquidated society, a new one was created - the “Union of Welfare”. It was already a larger secret organization, numbering more than 200 people. Its organizers were F.N. Glinka, F.P. Tolstoy, M.I. Muravyov-Apostol. The organization had a ramified character: its cells were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Tambov, in the south of the country. The goals of society remained the same - the introduction of representative government, the elimination of autocracy and serfdom. Members of the Union saw ways to achieve their goal in promoting their views and proposals sent to the government. However, they never heard a response.
All this prompted radical members of society to create two new secret organizations, established in March 1825. One was founded in St. Petersburg and was called “ Northern Society" Its creators were N.M. Muravyov and N.I. Turgenev. Another one arose in Ukraine. This “Southern Society” was led by P.I. Pestel. Both societies were interconnected and were actually single organization. Each society had its own program document, the Northern one - the “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov, and the Southern one - “Russian Truth”, written by P.I. Pestel.
These documents expressed a single goal - the destruction of autocracy and serfdom. However, the “Constitution” expressed the liberal nature of the reforms - with a constitutional monarchy, restrictions voting rights and the preservation of landownership, and “Russkaya Pravda” is radical, republican. It proclaimed a presidential republic, the confiscation of landowners' lands and a combination of private and social forms property.
The conspirators planned to carry out their coup in the summer of 1826 during army exercises. But unexpectedly, on November 19, 1825, Alexander I died, and this event pushed the conspirators to take active action ahead of schedule.
After the death of Alexander I, his brother Konstantin Pavlovich was supposed to become the Russian emperor, but during the life of Alexander I he abdicated the throne in favor of younger brother Nicholas. This was not officially announced, so initially state apparatus, and the army swore allegiance to Constantine. But soon Constantine’s renunciation of the throne was made public and a re-oath was ordered. That's why
members of the “Northern Society” decided to speak out on December 14, 1825 with the demands laid down in their program, for which they planned to hold a demonstration military force at the Senate building. An important task was to prevent the oath of senators to Nikolai Pavlovich. Prince S.P. Trubetskoy was proclaimed the leader of the uprising.
December 14, 1825 on Senate Square The Moscow regiment, led by members of the “Northern Society” brothers Bestuzhev and Shchepin-Rostovsky, came first. However, the regiment stood alone for a long time, the conspirators were inactive. The murder of the Governor-General of St. Petersburg, M.A. Miloradovich, who went to join the rebels, became fatal - the uprising could no longer end peacefully. By mid-day, the rebels were still joined by a guards naval crew and a company of the Life Grenadier Regiment.
Leaders were still slow to start active actions. In addition, it turned out that the senators had already sworn allegiance to Nicholas I and left the Senate. Therefore, there was no one to present the “Manifesto” to, and Prince Trubetskoy never appeared on the square. Meanwhile, troops loyal to the government began shelling the rebels. The uprising was suppressed and arrests began. Members " Southern Society"tried to carry out an uprising in early January 1826 (uprising Chernigov Regiment), but it was also brutally suppressed by the authorities. Five leaders of the uprising - P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and P.G. Kakhovsky - were executed, the rest of its participants were exiled to hard labor in Siberia.
The Decembrist uprising was the first open protest in Russia, which aimed at radically reorganizing society.

And Princess Maria Feodorovna, born on December 23, 1777. Serious influence The personality of Alexander 1 was influenced by Catherine 2. In an effort to raise a good sovereign, she insisted that the boy live with her. However, the future Emperor Alexander 1, after the death of Catherine and the accession to the throne of Paul, entered into a conspiracy against his own father, because he was not happy with the new rule. Paul was killed on March 11, 1801. As they say, despite the son’s protests. It was originally planned that domestic politics Alexander 1 and foreign policy will develop in accordance with the course outlined by Catherine 2. In the summer of June 24, 1801, a secret committee was created under Alexander 1. It included associates of the young emperor. In fact, the council was the highest (unofficial) advisory body of Russia.

The beginning of the reign of the new emperor was marked liberal reforms Alexandra 1. The young ruler tried to give the country a constitution, change political system countries. However, he had many opponents. This led to the creation of the Permanent Committee on April 5, 1803, whose members had the right to challenge the royal decrees. But, nevertheless, some of the peasants were freed. The decree “On free cultivators” was issued on February 20, 1803.

Serious importance was also attached to training. The educational reform of Alexander 1 actually led to the creation state system education. It was headed by the Ministry of Public Education. He was also educated state council under Alexander 1, which was opened with great solemnity on January 1, 1810.

Further, during the public administration reform of Alexander 1, the collegiums that actually ceased to function (established in the era of Peter 1) were replaced by ministries. A total of 8 ministries were established: internal affairs, finance, military and ground forces, naval forces, commerce, public education, foreign affairs, justice. The ministers who governed them were subordinate to the Senate. The ministerial reform of Alexander 1 was completed by the summer of 1811.

Speransky M.M. had a serious influence on the course of further reforms. He was entrusted with the development government reform. According to the project of this outstanding figure a constitutional monarchy was to be created in the country. The power of the sovereign was planned to be limited by parliament (or a body of a similar type), consisting of 2 chambers. However, due to the fact that foreign policy Alexander 1's development was quite complicated, and tensions in relations with France were constantly increasing; the reform plan proposed by Speransky was perceived as anti-state. Speransky himself received his resignation in March 1812.

1812 became the most difficult year for Russia. But the victory over Bonaparte significantly increased the authority of the emperor. It is worth noting that under Alexander 1 they slowly, but still tried to resolve the peasant issue. It was planned to gradually eliminate serfdom in the country. By the end of 1820, the draft “State Charter of the Russian Empire” had been prepared. The Emperor approved it. But the implementation of the project was impossible due to many factors.

In domestic politics, it is worth noting such features as military settlements under Alexander 1. They are better known under the name “Arakcheevsky”. Arakcheev’s settlements caused discontent among almost the entire population of the country. Also, a ban was introduced on any secret societies. It began operating in 1822. The liberal rule that Alexander 1 dreamed of, whose brief biography simply cannot contain all the facts, turned into harsh police measures of the post-war period.

The death of Alexander 1 occurred on December 1, 1825. Its cause was typhoid fever. Emperor Alexander 1 left his descendants a rich and controversial legacy. This is the beginning of resolving the issue of serfdom, and Arakcheevism, and the greatest victory over Napoleon. These are the results of the reign of Alexander 1.