What does etymology study in biology? Biology

Throughout his entire existence on Earth, man studies the diversity of flora and fauna. Biological sciences, the list of which is constantly growing, have great value for the formation of modern natural science picture peace. Methods and approaches are improved over time, allowing numerous natural secrets to be revealed.

Appearance of the term

The term is based on two greek words:bios – life, logos – science, teaching. Who coined this term? Concept biology means a set of sciences about living nature, reveals the essence of life. It was proposed by two prominent scientists G. Trevinarus and J.-B. Lemarque back in the early 19th century. Two centuries later, science continues to actively develop; scientists have already advanced quite far in their research.

Main scientific directions

Today there are numerous biological disciplines and industries aimed at studying living beings, ranging from amoebas with ciliates to human body. Life - main subject research. The variety of its manifestations, influence on surrounding processes and phenomena, organization at all levels and segments are among the objects.

Let's name the main ones biological disciplines and we will talk in detail about some of them:

general biology,
systemic,
virology,
micrology,
microbiology,
genetics,
anatomy,
ethology,
cytology,
developmental biology,
paleontology and others.

It is important to know what science studies the structure and functions, which is one of the main disciplines. Its name is cytology. The subject of study is all the processes that occur with a cell: birth, vital activity, reproduction, nutrition, aging and death.

Biological disciplines

Any manifestations of life become a subject of study for biologists . These include:

distribution across the territory,
structure,
origin,
functions,
species development,
connections with other living beings and objects.

Important! The task of biology is to reveal and study the essence of all biological patterns, for the purpose of their development and management.

Study methods:

observation to describe phenomena;
comparison – detection of general patterns;
experiment – artificial creation situations that reveal the properties of organisms;
historical method - understanding the world around us using available data;
modeling - creating models of various biological systems;
modern advanced methods based on the latest technologies and achievements.

Main industries, things you need to know and what you need to study:

zoology – animals;
entomology – insects;
botany – plants;
anatomy – structure of tissues and organs;
genetics – laws of variability and heredity;
physiology – the essence of all living things, life under pathologies and normality;
– the relationship of organisms with environment;
bionics – organization, structure, properties of living nature;
biochemistry – chemical composition organisms and cells, the basic processes that form the basis of life;
biophysics – physical aspects existence of living nature;
microbiology – bacteria and other microorganisms;
molecular biology - methods of storage and transmission genetic information;
cell engineering – production of hybrid cells;
bitechnology – the use of waste products of organisms for technological solutions;
selection - breeding new varieties that are resistant to pests and harsh climates, improving the qualities of cultivated plants.

Not all biological sciences are listed here; the list could be much longer.

Ecology is a branch of biology, the study of the relationships of organisms with each other and their environment. This section concerns not only environmental factors, her physical entity, chemical composition, but also its pollution, violation IVF cycle.

Ernest Haeckel invented in 1866 special name for this scientific direction. The branch of biology that studies the relationships of organisms, their interaction not only with each other, but also with the environment, is called applied ecology.

It belongs to the branch of biology and is an applied science that studies the mechanisms of human destruction of the biosphere and ways to prevent environmental disasters. It differs from other biological fields in that scientists do not have to learn or study something new, but use existing techniques and developments in practice.

It is by the application practical methods differ applied. Thus, we have answered the question, which of biological sciences is practical or applied.

To achieve real goals in practice, we need a customer and an investor. Often large projects and their implementation are financed by the state: conservation endangered species, rational waste disposal and minimizing environmental pollution. Applied ecology It is generally accepted because it is inextricably linked with all processes occurring with living beings.

Classification

Any extensive scientific field involves division into separate sectors. The classification of biological sciences is carried out on the basis of several characteristics. Depending on the subject or object of study, the following are distinguished:

zoology,
botany,
microbiology and others.

According to the level at which it is considered living matter:

cytology,
histology,
molecular biology and others.

According to generalized properties of organisms:

biochemistry,
genetics,
ecology and others.

Classification of biological sciences does not mean that they belong entirely to a particular area; each is closely interconnected with the others. For example, it is impossible to study cells without knowledge of the biochemical processes occurring in them.

Interesting! Taxonomy of modern fungi (mushroom) is neither a plant nor living creature. The mushroom is classified as separate type living organisms, so completely different methods are used to study it. It falls under the jurisdiction of mycology, a branch of biology.

Unique method

Tissue culture – This is a method that allows tissues, as well as their cells, to be grown outside the body. In theory, it was proposed back in 1874 by A.E. Golubev, and in practice it was applied only in 1885 by I.P. Skvortsov. Then this method was improved and developed.

Growing tissue outside the body- An example of a cell culture method.

The essence of the technique is this: take a small piece required fabric specific organism and placed in a specially prepared nutrient medium . The process takes place under sterile conditions and at optimal temperatures. After some time, the tissue begins to transition from a calm state to a normal one, with division, nutrition and excretion of waste products. Being in such an environment, tissue can be generated at a tremendous speed, but the solution must be changed on time, because a polluted environment threatens to crush the cells and cause their death.

What biology studies using the method tissue culture. The technology is mainly used to prove theories not only in biology, but also in medicine. Thus, one of the complex processes – mitosis. Cell division was studied at the stage of embryonic development in birds and mammals. There are several diseases that can only be confirmed using this method, for example, an incorrect number of chromosomes in a person. The well-known vaccines against polio, smallpox or measles were developed using tissue culture. This is an amazing approach. It is also widely used in perfumery.

The creation of organs or their parts has not yet been found widespread in connection with ethical standards. In addition, this technology is expensive. Such advanced techniques are in demand in many fields of science.

Interesting! Plants such as gerbera, orchid, ginseng and potatoes are propagated by tissue culture.

Sections

Morphology in biology – one of the fields that studies the structure of organisms. It has two main sections: endonomy and anatomy. The first is engaged in the study of external signs of a living creature, and the second – internal. What morphology studies in the section of endonomy: the criteria by which organisms are divided into species. Classification is carried out according to appearance, shape, size, color and other characteristics.

For a long time they remained the only determining factors, and internal structure was not taken into account. Later it turned out that individuals of one biological species can be divided into males and females, a new concept has appeared - sexual dimorphism.

Anatomy studies the internal structure above the cellular level. Based on the data obtained, species are systematized into groups, which made it possible to distinguish two main groups of organs: analogous, that is, the same in all species, and homologous. The first include parts of the body that are similar in function, but have different origins, and the second have different origins, but same functions. Example homologous– forelimbs of mammals and wings of birds.

Biology - the science of living nature

Unified State Exam Biology 1.1. Biology as a science, methods of knowledge of living nature

Conclusion

The set of disciplines has great importance for the further development of almost all spheres of human activity. Knowledge of the laws of nature and the structure of organisms helps to improve the quality of our lives: improve treatment methods, produce new medicines, cosmetics, improve the quality of food, keep the environment clean and much more.

Specifically, the structure, functioning, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms on Earth. Classifies and describes living beings, the origin of their species, and their interactions with each other and with the environment.

How special science biology emerged from the natural sciences in the 19th century, when scientists discovered that all living organisms have certain general properties and signs that are not generally characteristic of inanimate nature. The term "biology" was coined independently by several authors: Friedrich Burdach in 1800, Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus in 1802, and Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1802.

Biological picture of the world

Currently, biology is a standard subject in secondary and higher education. educational institutions all over the world. More than a million articles and books on biology, medicine, biomedicine and bioengineering are published annually.

Cell theory is the doctrine of everything that concerns cells. All living organisms consist of at least one cell - the basic structural and functional unit of organisms. Basic mechanisms and the chemistry of all cells in all terrestrial organisms similar; cells come only from pre-existing cells that reproduce by cell division. Cell theory describes the structure of cells, their division, interaction with external environment, compound internal environment And cell membrane, mechanism of action individual parts cells and their interactions with each other.
Evolution. Through natural selection and genetic drift, the hereditary characteristics of a population change from generation to generation.
Gene theory. The characteristics of living organisms are passed on from generation to generation along with genes that are encoded in DNA. Information about the structure of living things, or genotype, is used by cells to create a phenotype, the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism. Although the phenotype expressed through gene expression may prepare an organism for life in its environment, information about the environment is not passed back to the genes. Genes can change in response to environmental influences only through the evolutionary process.
Homeostasis. Physiological processes, allowing the body to maintain the constancy of its internal environment regardless of changes in the external environment.
Energy. An attribute of any living organism that is essential to its condition.

Cell theory

Evolution

A central organizing concept in biology is that life changes and develops over time through evolution, and that all known life forms on Earth have common origin. This led to the similarity of the basic units and life processes mentioned above. The concept of evolution was introduced into the scientific lexicon by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1809. Charles Darwin discovered fifty years later that it driving force is natural selection, just as artificial selection is deliberately used by man to create new breeds of animals and varieties of plants. Later in the synthetic theory of evolution an additional mechanism evolutionary changes genetic drift has been postulated.

Gene theory

The form and functions of biological objects are reproduced from generation to generation by genes, which are the elementary units of heredity. Physiological adaptation to the environment cannot be encoded in genes and be inherited in offspring (see Lamarckism). It is noteworthy that everything existing forms Earthly life, including bacteria, plants, animals and fungi, have the same basic mechanisms for DNA copying and protein synthesis. For example, bacteria into which human DNA is introduced are capable of synthesizing human proteins.

The set of genes of an organism or cell is called genotype. Genes are stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome is a long strand of DNA that can contain many genes. If a gene is active, its DNA sequence is copied into RNA sequences through transcription. The ribosome can then use the RNA to synthesize a protein sequence corresponding to the RNA code, in a process called translation. Proteins can perform catalytic (enzymatic) functions, transport, receptor, protective, structural, and motor functions.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis - ability open systems regulate their internal environment so as to maintain its constancy through a variety of corrective influences directed regulatory mechanisms. All living things, both multicellular and unicellular, are capable of maintaining homeostasis. On cellular level, for example, constant acidity of the internal environment is maintained (). At the body level in warm-blooded animals it is maintained constant temperature bodies. In association with the term ecosystem, homeostasis refers, in particular, to the maintenance by plants and algae of a constant concentration of atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide on Earth.

Energy

The survival of any organism depends on a constant supply of energy. Energy is drawn from substances that serve as food and through special chemical reactions used to build and maintain cell structure and function. In this process, food molecules are used both to extract energy and to synthesize the body's own biological molecules.

The primary source of energy for the vast majority of terrestrial creatures is light energy, mainly solar energy, however some bacteria and archaea obtain energy through chemosynthesis. Light energy is converted by plants into chemical energy (organic molecules) through photosynthesis in the presence of water and some minerals. Part of the energy received is spent on increasing biomass and maintaining life, the other part is lost in the form of heat and waste products. General mechanisms The conversion of chemical energy into useful energy to support life is called respiration and metabolism.

Levels of life organization

Living organisms are highly organized structures, therefore in biology there are a number of levels of organization. IN various sources some levels are omitted or combined with each other. Below are the main levels of organization of living nature separately from each other.

Molecular - the level of interaction between the molecules that make up the cell and determine all its processes.
Cellular - the level at which cells are considered as elementary units living structures.
Tissue - the level of collections of cells similar in structure and function that form tissues.
Organ - the level of individual organs that have their own structure (combination of tissue types) and location in the body.
Organismal - the level of an individual organism.
Population-species level - the level of a population made up of a set of individuals of the same species.
Biogeocenotic - the level of interaction of species among themselves and with various factors environment.
The biosphere level is the totality of all biogeocenoses, including and determining all phenomena of life on Earth.

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Biological Sciences

Most biological sciences are disciplines with a narrower specialization. Traditionally, they are grouped according to the types of organisms studied:

botany studies plants, algae, fungi and fungi-like organisms,
zoology - animals and protists,
microbiology - microorganisms and viruses.

biochemistry studies the chemical basis of life,
biophysics studies the physical basis of life,
molecular biology - complex interactions between biological molecules,
cell biology and cytology are the basic building blocks multicellular organisms, cells,
histology and anatomy - the structure of tissues and the body from individual organs and tissues,
physiology - physical and chemical functions organs and tissues,
ethology - behavior of living beings,
ecology - interdependence various organisms and their environment,
genetics - patterns of heredity and variability,
developmental biology - the development of an organism in ontogenesis,
paleobiology and evolutionary biology - origin and historical development wildlife.

On the borders with related sciences arise: biomedicine, biophysics (study of living objects by physical methods), biometrics, etc. In connection with the practical needs of man, such areas as space biology, sociobiology, labor physiology, and bionics arise.

Biological disciplines

History of biology

Although the concept of biology as a distinct natural science arose in the 19th century, biological disciplines had their origins earlier in medicine and natural history. Usually their tradition comes from such ancient scientists as Aristotle and Galen through the Arab physicians al-Jahiz, ibn-Sina, ibn-Zukhr and ibn-al-Nafiz. During the Renaissance, biological thought in Europe was revolutionized by the invention of printing and the spread of printed works, interest in experimental research and the discovery of many new species of animals and plants during the Age of Discovery. At this time, the outstanding minds Andrei Vesalius and William Harvey worked, who laid the foundations of modern anatomy and physiology. Somewhat later, Linnaeus and Buffon did a great job of classifying the forms of living and fossil creatures. Microscopy opened up the previously unknown world of microorganisms to observation, laying the foundation for the development of cell theory. The development of natural science, due in part to the emergence of mechanistic philosophy, contributed to the development natural history.

By the early 19th century, some modern biological disciplines, such as botany and zoology, had reached professional level. Lavoisier and other chemists and physicists began to bring together ideas about living and inanimate nature. Naturalists such as Alexander Humboldt explored the interaction of organisms with their environment and its dependence on geography, laying the foundations of biogeography, ecology, and ethology. In the 19th century, the development of the doctrine of evolution gradually led to an understanding of the role of extinction and variability of species, and cell theory showed in a new light the basic structure of living matter. Combined with data from embryology and paleontology, these advances allowed Charles Darwin to create holistic theory evolution, which is based on natural selection. TO end of the 19th century centuries, the ideas of spontaneous generation finally gave way to the theory of an infectious agent as a causative agent of diseases. But the mechanism of inheritance of parental characteristics still remained a mystery.

Popularization of biology

First Founders

Significant factual material about living organisms was collected by the great physician of Greece - Hippocrates (460-377 BC). He collected information about the structure of animals and humans, and gave a description of bones, muscles, tendons, the brain and spinal cord.

The first great work zoology belongs to the Greek naturalist Aristotle (384-322 BC). He described more than 500 species of animals. Aristotle was interested in the structure and lifestyle of animals; he laid the foundations of zoology.

The first work on systematizing knowledge about plants ( botany) was made by Theophrastus (372-287 BC).

Expanding knowledge about the structure of the human body (anatomy) ancient science owes to the doctor Galen (130-200 BC), who performed autopsies on monkeys and pigs. His works influenced natural science and medicine for several centuries.

During the Middle Ages, under the yoke of the church, science developed very slowly. An important milestone in the development of science was the Renaissance, which began in the 15th century. Already in the 18th century. developed as independent sciences botany, zoology, human anatomy, physiology.

Major milestones in the study of the organic world

Gradually, information accumulated about the diversity of species, the structure of the body of animals and humans, individual development, functions of organs of plants and animals. Throughout the centuries-old history of biology, the largest milestones in the study organic world can be called:

Introduction of the principles of systematics proposed by K. Linnaeus;
invention of the microscope;
creation of cell theory by T. Schwann;
statement evolutionary doctrine Ch. Darwin;
discovery by G. Mendel of the basic laws of heredity;
application electron microscope for biological research;
transcript genetic code;
creation of the doctrine of the biosphere.

To date, science knows about 1,500,000 species of animals and about 500,000 species of plants. The study of the diversity of plants and animals, the features of their structure and life activity is of great importance. Biological sciences are the basis for the development of crop production, animal husbandry, medicine, bionics, and biotechnology.

One of the oldest biological sciences is human anatomy and physiology, which form the theoretical foundation of medicine. Every person should have an understanding of the structure and functions of their body so that, if necessary, they can provide first aid, consciously take care of their health and follow hygiene rules.

Over the centuries, botany, zoology, anatomy, physiology have been developed by scientists as independent, isolated sciences. Only in the 19th century. patterns were discovered that are common to all living beings. This is how the sciences that study general patterns life. These include:

Cytology is the science of cells;
genetics - the science of variability and heredity;
ecology - the science of the relationship of an organism with the environment and in communities of organisms;
Darwinism - the science of the evolution of the organic world and others.

IN training course they form the subject of general biology.

Biology is a term used to describe an entire system of sciences. She generally studies living beings, as well as their interaction with the outside world. Biology studies absolutely all aspects of life of any living organism, including evolution, forms of behavior, its origin, reproduction and growth.

When did the term "biology" appear? As a separate science, it began to emerge only in early XIX century. Who coined the term "biology"? You will learn about this further.

Antiquity and the emergence of the first biological disciplines

Before we find out when the term “biology” appeared, we should talk a little about the origins of this discipline as such. It is believed that it was the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle who first laid the foundations of biological disciplines - the foundation of such sciences as zoology and botany. Archaeologists have found a mass of material artifacts that record Aristotle's writings on animals. He was the first to draw connections between certain types animals. It was Aristotle who noticed that all artiodactyl animals chew the cud.

Dioscorides is considered an equally important scientific figure in the field of biology, who throughout his life compiled big list medicinal plants and described their action (about six hundred plants in total).

Another ancient philosopher, Theophrastus, wrote a huge work called “Research on Plants.” In it he developed the thoughts of Aristotle, but exclusively about plants and their properties.

Middle Ages

Who coined the term "biology" and when did it happen? It is too early to talk about this, since after the decline of the Western Roman Empire, much knowledge, including about medicine and biology, was lost. Arabs during the period early Middle Ages capture a vast territory and the works of Aristotle fall into their hands - after which they will be translated into Arabic.

In the 8th century, Arab researchers achieved great success in the field of botany and anatomy. In zoology great success achieved by the Arab writer Al Jahis, who was the first to put forward the theory of evolution, and he also proposed the theory of food chains.

Al-Danawari became the founder of botany in the Arab world. Like Aristotle, Al Danawari described approximately six hundred species of plants, as well as their development and the growth phases of each.

An incredibly great contribution to the development of biology and especially medicine was made by the Arab physician Aviatsenna. It was written by him famous book“The Canon of Medical Science”, which remained in service with European doctors until the 18th century inclusive. It was Aviatsenna who gave pharmacology to humanity and described the first clinical trials, which subsequently seriously influenced the study of human anatomy and methods of combating diseases.

Ibn Zuhr studied the nature of a disease such as scabies and performed surgical operations, as well as the first clinical experiments on animals. IN medieval Europe medicine and the study of sciences such as botany and zoology were not widespread, primarily due to the influence of the Catholic Church.

Renaissance and interest in medicine, biology

During the Renaissance, the meaning of the term "biology" was not yet known. But the position of the church weakened significantly, and scientists, mostly in Italy, began to show interest in botany, zoology, anatomy and medicine - they began to study the works scientists Antiquity.

Already in the 16th century, the Dutch scientist Vesalius laid the foundations modern anatomy. To write his works, he personally opened human bodies and studied the structure of internal organs.

The researchers returned to the dense study of plants, that is, to botany, as they realized that many herbs have quite strong medicinal properties and help in curing diseases.

In the 16th century, the description of animals and their way of life turned into a whole scientific direction for the study of the entire known animal world.

No less important contributions to the development of biology were made by Leonardo da Vinci and Paracelsus, who continued to study anatomy and pharmacology.

In the 17th century, scientist Kaspar Baugin described all the plants known at that time in Europe - more than six thousand species. William Harvey, performing autopsies on animals, made a number of important discoveries that relate to blood circulation.

In the 17th century, a new biological discipline was born, associated with the invention of the microscope. Thanks to his discovery, people learned about the existence of microscopic single-celled organisms, which caused a resonance in society. At the same time, human spermatozoa were studied for the first time.

Which scientist used the term "biology"?

At the beginning of the 19th century, biological disciplines developed into full-fledged science, which was recognized by the scientific society.

So which scientist suggested using the term "biology"? When did this happen?

The term "biology" was proposed by the German anatomist and physiologist Friedrich Burdach, who specialized in the study of the human brain. Happened this event in 1800.

Also, it is worth saying that biology is a term that was proposed by two other scientists who were not aware of Burdach's proposal. In 1802, Gottfried Treviranus and Jean Baptiste Lamarck simultaneously announced this. The definition of the term “biology” has become known to all scientists working in this direction.

Biology in the 19th century

Now that we know who proposed the term "biology", it is worth talking about it further development. One of the key works XIX century was the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. At the same time, scientists discovered fundamental differences between the inanimate and living worlds. Doctors and scientists continued to experiment on animals, which gave a huge impetus to understanding the work of internal organs.

Biology in the 20th century

Pharmacy and other disciplines were radically changed by Mendeleev's discovery - he created the so-called periodic table Mendeleev. After Mendeleev's discovery, scientists discovered chromosomes as carriers of genetic information.

Genetics originated already in the 1920s. Around the same period, the study of vitamins and their use began. In the late 1960s, the DNA code was deciphered, which led to the emergence of such a biological discipline as She at the moment is actively studying human and animal genes, and is also looking for ways to change them through individual mutations.

Development of biology in the 21st century

In the 21st century, many problems remain unresolved. One of the most important is the problem of the origin of life on Earth. Also, researchers have not come to a consensus on the question of how the triplet code arose.

Biologists and geneticists are working very actively on the issue of aging. Scientists are trying to understand why organisms age and what causes the aging process. This problem is called one of greatest mysteries humanity, the solution of which will change the world forever.

Researchers, and especially botanists, are no less actively working on the problem of the origin of life on other planets. Such research will play a big role in the exploration of space and other planets.

Principles of biology

IN total, there are only five fundamental principles. They unite absolutely all biological disciplines into one single science about living organisms, the name of which is biology. The term includes the following principles:

Evolution is a natural process of development of any living organism, during which a change in the genetic code of the organism occurs.
Energy is an irreplaceable attribute of any living organism. In short, an influx of energy, and only a constant one, ensures the survival of the organism.
Cell theory (a cell is the basic unit of a living being). All cells of the body originate from one single egg. Their reproduction occurs due to the division of one cell into two.
Gene theory (a small part of the DNA molecule that is responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information from one generation to another).
Homeostasis is the process of self-regulation of the body and its restoration to normal balance.

Biological disciplines

At the moment, biology is a term that includes several dozen disciplines, each of which has a narrow specialization, but the above principles of this science are applicable to all of them.

Among the most popular disciplines are:

Anatomy is a discipline that studies the structure of multicellular organisms, the structure, and functions of internal organs.
Botany is a discipline that deals with the study of purely plants, both multicellular and unicellular.
Virology is an important branch of microbiology, which deals with the study and fight against viruses dangerous to humans and animals. At the moment, virology is a weapon for fighting viruses, and therefore saving millions of people.
Genetics and genetic engineering- sciences that study the patterns of heredity and variability of organisms. The latter deals with gene manipulation, which makes it possible to modify organisms and even create new ones.
Zoology is a science that studies the animal world or, more simply, fauna.
Ecology is a science that studies the interaction of any living organism with other organisms, as well as their interaction with the surrounding world.

Now you know which scientist proposed the term “biology” and what path of development this science has taken. We hope the information was useful.