Gdz in biology 9 general patterns.

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S. G. Mamontov, V. B. Zakharov, I. B. Agafonova, N. I. Sonin
Biology. General patterns. 9th grade

Introduction

Biology is the science of life. Its name arose from two Greek words: bios- life, logo- teaching. This science studies living organisms - bacteria, fungi, plants and animals.

In 6th grade you started getting acquainted with this most interesting science Using the textbook “Living Organism”, in the following classes we studied the diversity of living organisms on our planet and looked at how the human body works. The knowledge you have gained from previous courses will serve as a necessary support when studying general biology.

Course “Biology. General patterns" provides knowledge of the basic laws of life at all levels of its organization, introduces modern achievements in the field of biology, shows the place of man in the biosphere and his responsibility for the state of nature.

General biology plays a unifying role in the system of knowledge about living nature, since it systematizes previously studied facts from a historical perspective, the totality of which makes it possible to identify the basic patterns of the organic world. Based on their knowledge, the reasonable use, protection and reproduction of nature is carried out. By reading the textbook, you will become acquainted with the general theory of the development of the organic world - one of the foundations of the scientific worldview; learn to understand the dialectical nature of development processes: the inconsistency and interconnection of the phenomena of heredity and variability, biological progress and regression, processes of assimilation and dissimilation, etc. You will learn about the material nature of the phenomena of life and the entire organic world, receive strong evidence of the knowability of nature, despite everything its diversity and complexity.

The practical application of the achievements of modern biology already makes it possible to obtain industrially significant quantities of biologically necessary substances for humans. active substances: antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, etc.

Thanks to knowledge of the laws of heredity and variability, great successes have been achieved in agriculture in the creation of new breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants. Scientists have developed hundreds of varieties of grains, legumes, oilseeds and other crops that differ from their predecessors in higher productivity and other useful qualities. Selection of microorganisms producing antibiotics is carried out. Domestic scientists have obtained cultures of microorganisms that give a yield of medical drugs hundreds of times greater than the original forms. Microorganisms are widely used to enrich low-grade ores containing non-ferrous metals and radioactive elements.

Currently, it is difficult to find a branch of the economy that does not use biological knowledge. In the future, the practical importance of biology will increase even more. This is due to at a fast pace growth of the planet's population, including urban population not directly involved in agricultural production. In such a situation, it is possible to increase the amount of food resources only through the intensification of agriculture. An important role in this will be played by the development of new highly productive forms of microorganisms, plants and animals, as well as the scientifically based use natural resources, preservation and enhancement of soil fertility.

Knowledge of biology is very important for instilling a caring attitude towards nature - the source of our existence, and for the ability to rationally use natural resources. From this book you will learn about the importance of nature reserves and other protected areas in preserving the diversity of the living world, in the functioning of the biosphere as an integral system.

The textbook includes basic educational material and additional material. Paragraph numbers are marked in orange for additional study at the discretion of the teacher.

The textbook contains a variety of questions and tasks. At the end of each paragraph there are multi-level questions (section “Questions for review and assignments”). Questions of a search and creative level will help you plan ways to achieve goals, correlate your actions with planned results, evaluate the correctness of implementation learning task, create generalizations, establish analogies, classify, establish cause-and-effect relationships, build logical reasoning, draw conclusions, etc. Many tasks have a personal focus. They form the basis of moral behavior and teach communication skills in a team. To consolidate your knowledge, do not forget to complete practical tasks in “ Workbook" You can test your knowledge using the “Notebook for assessing the quality of knowledge.”

The section “Working with a Computer” recommends that you contact electronic application, specially created for this textbook. Thanks to him, even complex issues will become clearer and more accessible. Working with Internet resources forms and develops your competence in the field of information and communication technologies, teaches you how to use different sources biological information.

As you work through the textbook, constantly evaluate your progress. Are you satisfied with them? What new things do you learn when studying a new topic? How can this knowledge be useful to you in everyday life? If you find some material difficult, ask your teacher for help or use reference books and Internet resources. You will find a list of recommended Internet sites at the end of the textbook.

We wish you success in studying biology.

Chapter 1. Diversity of the living world. Levels of organization and basic properties of living organisms

Remember!

Chemical element Molecule Cell

Textile Organ Organism Population Biocenosis

Biogeocenosis Biosphere Metabolism

Reproduction Heredity and variability

Development Irritability

The world of living beings is represented by biological systems of various structural organizations and different levels complexity. Currently, there are several levels of organization of living matter.

1. Molecular. Any living system, no matter how complex it is organized, manifests itself at the level of functioning of biopolymers (complex organic compounds that differ large molecules), built from a large number of units - monomers (initial, repeating, more simply arranged compounds). At this level, the most important life processes of the body begin: metabolism and energy conversion, transmission of hereditary information, etc. There are three types of biological polymers: polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids. Their monomers are monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides, respectively. No less important organic compounds for the body are fats (lipids).

2. Cellular. The cell is a structural and functional unit, as well as a unit of development of living organisms. It is a self-regulating, self-reproducing living system. There are no free-living non-cellular life forms on Earth. Non-cellular forms - viruses - are incapable of independent existence. A cell can be a whole organism, or it can be part of a multicellular plant or animal. It can be structured simply, like the cells of bacteria and blue-green algae, or much more complex - cells green plants, mushrooms, animals. Bacteria, like protozoa, are integral single-celled organisms capable of performing all functions to ensure their life. But the cells that make up multicellular organism, are specialized, i.e. they can perform only one function and are not able to exist independently, outside the body. In a multicellular organism, the interaction of many cells leads to the emergence of a new quality that is not equivalent to their simple sum.

3. Fabric. Tissue is a collection of structurally similar cells and intercellular substance, united by a common function.

4. Organ. Organs are structural and functional associations of several types of tissues. For example, the human liver as an organ includes epithelium and connective tissue, which together perform a number of functions, including the synthesis of blood proteins, bile acids, the neutralization of toxic substances coming from the intestines, and the accumulation of animal starch - glycogen.

Rice. 1. Spectrum of levels of organization of living systems

5. Organismal(Fig. 1). A multicellular organism is a complete system of organs specialized to perform various functions. A single-celled organism is an integral living system capable of independent existence.

6. Population-species. A collection of organisms of the same species, united by a common habitat, is called a population. A population is a system at the supraorganism level. This is where the simplest evolutionary transformations take place.

7. Biogeocenotic (ecosystem). Biogeocenosis is a collection of organisms of different species and environmental factors, united by metabolism and energy into a single natural complex.

8. Biosphere. The biosphere is a system of a higher order. At this level, the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy occur, associated with the vital activity of all living organisms living on our planet (see Fig. 1).

Living matter at any level of organization has features that distinguish it from nonliving matter.

All living organisms are capable of metabolism with the environment. They absorb from it the substances they need for nutrition and excrete waste products. Metabolism ensures the constancy of the chemical composition and structure of all parts of the body and, as a consequence, the constancy and stability of their functioning in continuously changing conditions environment.

Other characteristic feature living matter - self-reproduction. The ability to reproduce, that is, to reproduce a new generation of individuals of the same species, is one of the main properties of living organisms. The offspring are basically always similar to their parents, therefore the ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind is closely related to the phenomenon of heredity.

Heredity is the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics, properties and developmental characteristics from generation to generation. However, descendants are not identical to their parents, and this is where variability is manifested - the ability of organisms to acquire new characteristics and properties. It is based on changes in the structure of genes or chromosomes.

Variability creates a variety of source material for natural selection, i.e., the selection of individuals most adapted to the conditions of existence in specific natural conditions, which, in turn, leads to the emergence of new forms of life, new species of organisms.

When organisms reproduce through germ cells, it is not the complex of characteristics and properties of the organism that is transmitted, but the genes that determine the possibility of their development. The very qualities of the organism appear in the process of development. The ability to develop is a universal property of matter. Under development understand the irreversible, directed, natural change in living and inanimate nature. The development of living matter is represented by the individual development of organisms, or ontogeny, and historical development, or phylogeny.

Phylogenesis, or evolution, is the irreversible and directed development of living nature, accompanied by the formation of new species and the progressive complication of life forms. The result of evolution is the entire diversity of living organisms on Earth.

There are other properties of living nature. Among them self-regulation and irritability, rhythmicity and some others familiar to you from the “Man” course.

Thus, living organisms differ sharply from nonliving systems - objects studied by physics and chemistry - by their exceptional complexity and high structural and functional order.

What is life? One of the definitions was given by F. Engels more than 100 years ago: “Life is a way of existence of protein bodies, and this way of existence consists essentially in the constant self-renewal of chemical components these bodies." This definition included two important provisions: 1) life is closely connected with proteins and 2) an indispensable condition for life is constant metabolism, with the cessation of which life also ceases.

The achievements of biology today have made it possible to identify new features inherent in living organisms, and on this basis give more precise definition concept of "life". Modern domestic scientist M.V. Volkenshtein defines this concept as follows: “Living bodies that exist on Earth are open, self-regulating and self-reproducing systems built from biopolymers - proteins and nucleic acids.”

Having thus become familiar with the basic characteristics and properties of living organisms, we can now move on to the question of the reasons for the diversity of life on Earth.

1. Name the levels of organization of living matter. Suggest criteria for comparing different levels of organization of living nature, compose and fill out the table “Levels of Living Matter”.

2. How are they interconnected? different levels organization of living matter?

3. What is self-reproduction (reproduction) of living organisms?

4. What is development? What forms of development do you know? Compare them with each other.

5. What is irritability? What significance does it have for adaptation to living conditions?

6. Based on the knowledge acquired in the “Man” course, give examples of self-regulation of physiological processes in your body.

7. What is the importance of the rhythm of life processes? Give examples of the rhythm of processes in inanimate and living nature.

8. Try to formulate own definition life.

9. Give examples of processes and events occurring at different levels of the organization of living things, of which you were a participant today.

Working with a computer

Search on the Internet

Section 1. Structural organization of living organisms

Based on the structure of the cell, all organisms are divided into prenuclear (prokaryotes) and nuclear (eukaryotes). Unicellular organisms are cells that exist separately from each other. The body of all multicellular organisms - animals, plants and fungi - is built from a greater or lesser number of cells, which are a kind of blocks that make up a complex organism. Regardless of whether a cell is an integral system - a separate organism or constitutes only a part of it, it is endowed with a set of characteristics and properties common to all cells. Let's take a closer look at the chemical composition, structure and vital functions elementary unit structures of living organisms - cells.

Chapter 2. Chemical organization of the cell

The composition of the cell includes about 70 chemical elements that are also found in inanimate nature, and this is one of the proofs of the commonality of living and inanimate nature. However, the ratio of chemical elements in living and nonliving matter is different. Depending on their content in a living organism, chemical elements are divided into several groups.

About 98% of a cell's mass is made up of four elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. These are the main components of all organic compounds. Together with sulfur and phosphorus, which are necessary components of biological polymer molecules (from the Greek. policy– a lot, meros– part) – of proteins and nucleic acids, they are often called bioelements.

In smaller quantities, the cell composition, in addition to the mentioned phosphorus and sulfur, includes six elements: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and chlorine. Each of them performs an important function in the cell. For example, Na, K and O ensure the permeability of cell membranes for various substances and conduction of impulses along the nerve fiber. Ca and P are involved in the formation of bone tissue; bone strength depends on them. In addition, Ca is one of the factors on which normal blood clotting depends. Iron is part of hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that is involved in the transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Finally, Mg in plant cells is included in chlorophyll, a pigment involved in photosynthesis, and in animals it is part of biological catalysts - enzymes that accelerate biochemical transformations. All of the above elements are combined into a group macronutrients.

All other elements (zinc, copper, iodine, fluorine, cobalt, manganese, molybdenum, boron, etc.) are contained in the cell in very small quantities. Their total contribution to its mass is only 0.02%. That's why they are called microelements. However, they also have vital important. Microelements are part of enzymes, vitamins and hormones - substances with great biological activity. Thus, iodine is part of the thyroid hormone - thyroxine; zinc – in the composition of the pancreatic hormone – insulin; cobalt is an essential component of vitamin B12.

Remember!

Molecular polarity Hydrogen bonds

Covalent bonds Catalysts

Water. Most common inorganic compound in living organisms - water. Its content varies widely: in the cells of tooth enamel there is about 10% water, and in the cells of the developing embryo - more than 90%. On average, in a multicellular organism, water makes up about 80% of body weight.

The role of water in the cell is very important. For living organisms, it is not only a necessary component of the cells that make them up, but often also a habitat.

The functions of water are largely determined by its chemical and physical properties. These properties are associated mainly with the small size of water molecules and their polarity, as well as the ability to connect with each other through hydrogen bonds.

One part of a water molecule carries a small positive charge, and the other is negative. Such a molecule is called dipole. The positively charged parts of one water molecule attract the negatively charged parts of other molecules, and the water molecules seem to stick together (Fig. 2). These interactions, weaker than ionic bonds are called hydrogen bonds. Water is an excellent solvent for polar substances involved in metabolic processes.

As a solvent, water provides both the influx of substances into the cell and the removal of waste products from it, since most chemical compounds can penetrate the outer cell membrane only in dissolved form.

Rice. 2. Scheme of the formation of connections between individual water dipoles

No less important and pure chemical role water. Under the influence of certain catalysts - enzymes - it enters into reactions hydrolysis. As a result, new substances with new properties are formed.

Water has good thermal conductivity and high heat capacity, so the temperature inside the cell remains unchanged or its fluctuations are much less than in the environment surrounding the cell.

Mineral salts. Most of the inorganic substances of the cell are in the form of salts - either in the state of ions or in the form of a solid insoluble salt. Among the former, the cations K + , Na + , Ca 2+ are of great importance, which provide such most important property living organisms, like irritability.

Its buffering properties depend on the concentration of salts inside the cell. Buffer call the ability of a cell to maintain a slightly alkaline reaction of its contents at a constant level. Inside the cell, buffering is provided mainly by the anions H 2 PO 4 − and HPO 4 2 − . In the extracellular fluid and blood, the role of a buffer is played by H 2 CO 3 and HCO 3 −. Anions of weak acids and weak alkalis bind hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions (OH −), due to which the reaction inside the cell, i.e., the pH value, practically does not change.

The bulk of Ca and P is used to build bone tissue in the form of double carbon dioxide and phosphate salts with general formula CaCO 3 n Ca 3 (PO 4) 2. They are also included in the composition of mollusk shells, ensuring the strength of these formations.

Review questions and assignments

1. What chemical elements make up most of cell mass?

2. What are microelements? Give examples and describe their biological significance.

3. What are the features of the spatial organization of the water molecule that determine its biological significance?

4. What mineral salts are they found in living organisms?

5. What substances determine the buffer properties of the cell?

6. Do you agree with the statement that water is the cradle of all living things? Explain why life originated in the aquatic environment.

7. Propose your classification of chemical elements that make up living organisms.

8. Make and fill out the table “Chemical elements and their importance in living nature.”

Working with a computer

Refer to the electronic application. Study the lesson material and complete the assigned tasks.

Search on the Internet sites whose materials can serve as an additional source of information that reveals the content of the key concepts of the paragraph.

Get ready for the next lesson. Using additional sources information (books, articles, Internet resources, etc.), make a message on keywords and phrases in the next paragraph.

S. G. Mamontov, V. B. Zakharov, I. B. Agafonova, N. I. Sonin

Biology. General patterns. 9th grade

Introduction

Biology is the science of life. Its name arose from two Greek words: bios- life, logo- teaching. This science studies living organisms - bacteria, fungi, plants and animals.

In the 6th grade, you began to get acquainted with this interesting science using the textbook “Living Organism”; in the following classes you studied the diversity of living organisms on our planet and examined how the human body works. The knowledge you have gained from previous courses will serve as a necessary support when studying general biology.

Course “Biology. General patterns" provides knowledge of the basic laws of life at all levels of its organization, introduces modern achievements in the field of biology, shows the place of man in the biosphere and his responsibility for the state of nature.

General biology plays a unifying role in the system of knowledge about living nature, since it systematizes previously studied facts from a historical perspective, the totality of which makes it possible to identify the basic patterns of the organic world. Based on their knowledge, the reasonable use, protection and reproduction of nature is carried out. By reading the textbook, you will become acquainted with the general theory of the development of the organic world - one of the foundations of the scientific worldview; learn to understand the dialectical nature of development processes: the inconsistency and interconnection of the phenomena of heredity and variability, biological progress and regression, processes of assimilation and dissimilation, etc. You will learn about the material nature of the phenomena of life and the entire organic world, receive strong evidence of the knowability of nature, despite everything its diversity and complexity.

The practical application of the achievements of modern biology already makes it possible to obtain industrially significant quantities of biologically active substances necessary for humans: antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, etc.

Thanks to knowledge of the laws of heredity and variability, great successes have been achieved in agriculture in the creation of new breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants. Scientists have developed hundreds of varieties of grains, legumes, oilseeds and other crops that differ from their predecessors in higher productivity and other useful qualities. Selection of microorganisms producing antibiotics is carried out. Domestic scientists have obtained cultures of microorganisms that give a yield of medical drugs hundreds of times greater than the original forms. Microorganisms are widely used to enrich low-grade ores containing non-ferrous metals and radioactive elements.

Currently, it is difficult to find a branch of the economy that does not use biological knowledge. In the future, the practical importance of biology will increase even more. This is due to the rapid growth of the planet’s population, including the urban population, which is not directly involved in agricultural production. In such a situation, it is possible to increase the amount of food resources only through the intensification of agriculture. An important role in this will be played by the breeding of new highly productive forms of microorganisms, plants and animals, as well as the scientifically based use of natural resources, the preservation and enhancement of soil fertility.

Knowledge of biology is very important for instilling a caring attitude towards nature - the source of our existence, and for the ability to rationally use natural resources. From this book you will learn about the importance of nature reserves and other protected areas in preserving the diversity of the living world, in the functioning of the biosphere as an integral system.

The textbook includes basic educational material and additional material. Paragraph numbers are marked in orange for additional study at the discretion of the teacher.

The textbook contains a variety of questions and tasks. At the end of each paragraph there are multi-level questions (section “Questions for review and assignments”). Questions at the search and creative level will help you plan ways to achieve goals, correlate your actions with planned results, evaluate the correctness of completing a learning task, create generalizations, establish analogies, classify, establish cause-and-effect relationships, build logical reasoning, draw conclusions, etc. Many tasks have a personal focus. They form the basis of moral behavior and teach communication skills in a team. To consolidate your knowledge, do not forget to complete the practical tasks in the Workbook. You can test your knowledge using the “Notebook for assessing the quality of knowledge.”

The section “Working with a Computer” recommends that you refer to the electronic supplement specially created for this textbook. Thanks to him, even complex issues will become clearer and more accessible. Working with Internet resources forms and develops your competence in the field of information and communication technologies, teaches you to use different sources of biological information.

As you work through the textbook, constantly evaluate your progress. Are you satisfied with them? What new things do you learn when studying a new topic? How can this knowledge be useful to you in everyday life? If you find some material difficult, ask your teacher for help or use reference books and Internet resources. You will find a list of recommended Internet sites at the end of the textbook.

We wish you success in studying biology.

Chapter 1. Diversity of the living world. Levels of organization and basic properties of living organisms

Remember!

Chemical element Molecule Cell

Textile Organ Organism Population Biocenosis

Biogeocenosis Biosphere Metabolism

Reproduction Heredity and variability

Development Irritability

The world of living beings is represented by biological systems of various structural organizations and different levels of complexity. Currently, there are several levels of organization of living matter.

1. Molecular. Any living system, no matter how complexly organized it may be, manifests itself at the level of functioning of biopolymers (complex organic compounds characterized by large molecules), built from a large number of units - monomers (initial, repeating, more simply arranged compounds). At this level, the most important life processes of the body begin: metabolism and energy conversion, transmission of hereditary information, etc. There are three types of biological polymers: polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids. Their monomers are monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides, respectively. No less important organic compounds for the body are fats (lipids).

2. Cellular. The cell is a structural and functional unit, as well as a unit of development of living organisms. It is a self-regulating, self-reproducing living system. There are no free-living non-cellular life forms on Earth. Non-cellular forms - viruses - are incapable of independent existence. A cell can be a whole organism, or it can be part of a multicellular plant or animal. It can be structured simply, like the cells of bacteria and blue-green algae, or much more complex - the cells of green plants, fungi, and animals. Bacteria, like protozoa, are integral single-celled organisms capable of performing all functions to ensure their life. But the cells that make up a multicellular organism are specialized, that is, they can perform only one function and are not able to exist independently, outside the body. In a multicellular organism, the interaction of many cells leads to the emergence of a new quality that is not equivalent to their simple sum.

EXPLANATORY NOTE

The biology work program is developed based on Federal Law on education, Model program in biology (S.G. Mamontov, N.I. Sonin, V.B. Zakharov), recommended by the Department of Educational Programs and Standards general education Ministry of Education Russian Federation, Federal component of the state standard of general education.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE RELEVANCE OF THE PROGRAM

The program is relevant for 9th grade students.

This program is relevant because when studying biology, the development of responsible behavior skills in students is currently of greatest importance. The objectives of biological education are to teach children to live in harmony with nature, to abandon consumer philosophy and to form an eccentric worldview. Improving the quality of biological education involves a transition from simple transmission of information contained in a textbook to the formation of active life position and the acquisition of skills and abilities necessary for life in the conditions of sustainable development of civilization.

The professional competence of a biology teacher presupposes the ability to select the volume of factual material in a textbook that is sufficient for the formation of general biological concepts and understanding of the patterns that exist in living nature. The modern approach to the organization of the educational process assumes the unity of its content and activity components. The main emphasis in teaching biology should be transferred from the reproduction of students individual facts, definitions, characteristics of living objects for their acquisition of the application of biological laws and theories to explain phenomena observed in nature. To this end, the teacher should not increase the volume of material being studied, but raise the level of its conditions - from simple reproduction to the conscious application of acquired knowledge in familiar and unfamiliar situations. Therefore, the role of practical work, classes on applying knowledge, solving biological problems.

The biology program is aimed atstudents of the 9th grade of the Novo-Gorkhon secondary school of the Zaigraevsky district of the Republic of Buryatia, are oriented to work according to the textbook for the 9th grade (authors S.G. Mamontov, N.I. Sonin, V.B. Zakharov).

Goals for teaching biology in 9th grade:

• students’ mastery of knowledge about living nature, general methods of studying it, and educational skills;
• formation based on knowledge and skills scientific picture peace as a component of universal human culture;
• hygienic education and formation healthy image life in order to preserve mental, physical and moral health of a person;
• establishment harmonious relations students with nature, with all living things as main value on Earth
• preparing schoolchildren for practical activities in the field of agriculture, medicine, and healthcare.

Studying biology in 9th gradeprovides for the solution of the following tasks:

training:

• mastering knowledge about biological systems; history of development modern ideas about living nature; outstanding discoveries in biological science; the role of biological science in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world; methods of scientific knowledge;
• mastery of skillsjustify the place and role of biological knowledge in the practical activities of people, development modern technologies; conduct observations of ecosystems in order to describe them and identify natural and anthropogenic changes; find and analyze information about living objects;

development:

• cognitive interests, intellectual and creativity in the process of studying outstanding achievements in the field of biology that have entered into universal human culture; complex and contradictory ways of development of modern scientific views, ideas, theories, concepts, various hypotheses while working with various sources of information;

Education:

• conviction in the possibility of knowledge of living nature, the need to respect natural environment, own health; culture of behavior in nature; respect for the opponent’s opinion when discussing biological problems;

valeological:

• Create comfortable conditions for students in accordance with sanitary epidemiological rules and standards (San PiN 2.4.2.No. 1178-02);
• adapt the personality to life in society.
• correctly alternate the number and types of teaching (verbal, visual, audiovisual, independent work etc.)
• include in the lesson plan healthy moments in the lesson: physical education minutes, dynamic pauses, minutes of relaxation, breathing exercises, gymnastics for the eyes.
• keep comfortable psychological climate in class.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ITEM

The biology program in the 9th grade reveals general theoretical issues included in the minimum content in biology, which constitute an important component of universal human culture: cell theory, the relationship of the structure and functions of the body, levels of organization of living nature, the doctrine of the evolution of the organic world, the diversity of classification of organisms, environmental patterns.

These theoretical provisions are concretized and deepened when considering biological diversity organisms of all kingdoms of living nature.

The basis of studying the biology course is ecological-evolutionary and functional approaches, according to which the emphasis in the study of the diversity of organisms is transferred from consideration of the structural features of individual representatives to the disclosure of the processes of their life activity and complexity during evolution, adaptability to the environment, and role in ecosystems.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

To Each lesson contributed to the development of students’ cognitive interests and the acquisition of skills for independent knowledge acquisition; didactic principles were observed:

• principle of scientific teaching
• principle of educational teaching
• principle of visualization of learning
• principle of systematic learning
• principle of connection between theory and practice
• the principle of consciousness and activity of students in learning
• principle of accessibility of training
• principle of developmental education
• unity and optimal combination of collective and individual forms of training.

ACCOUNTING AGE CHARACTERISTICS

The material in the program is arranged taking into account age characteristics and student capabilities. The leading activity at the age of 14-15 years is communication with peers. For a teenager, it begins to become increasingly important theoretical thinking, ability to install maximum quantity semantic connections in the surrounding world. From the age of 14-15, formal thinking is developed. A teenager can already reason, not associate himself with a specific situation, and can concentrate well in activities that are meaningful to him. When tired and overworked, attention decreases or disappears altogether. cognitive processes. From the age of 14, there is a faster growth of memory. In adolescence, memory is restructured, moving from the dominance of mechanical memorization to semantic one. Semantic memory acquires a logical character. Memorizing abstract material becomes more accessible. A teenager can build his own imaginary world special relationship with people, a world in which he plays out the same stories and experiences the same feelings until he overcomes his internal problems.

In school education, academic subjects begin to emerge as a special area for teenagers theoretical knowledge. They get acquainted with a lot of facts, are readytalk about them or even give a speech short messages in class. However, teenagers begin to be interested not in the facts themselves, but in their essence, the reasons for their occurrence, but the penetration into the essence is not always distinguished by depth. Images and ideas continue to occupy great place in the mental activity of a teenager. Often the details small facts, the details make it difficult to highlight the main, essential and make the necessary generalization. The students talk in some detail. Adolescents tend to focus on memorizing material rather than thinking and understanding deeply. At the same time, the teenager strives for independence in mental activity and is inclined to perform independent tasks and practical work in class. They readily take on the task of making visual aids and quickly respond to the proposal to make a simple device.

Even students with low academic performance and discipline actively express themselves in such a situation.

To implement the program everything is created at schoolnecessary conditions:conditions for teaching students in accordance with sanitary and epidemiological rules and regulations (San PiN 2.4.2. No. 1178-02), biology classroom, temperature and light conditions in accordance with San PiN standards, material and technical support of the program, person-centered approach to students.

To implement the program, we use different types lessons, forms and types of work, various teaching aids.

PEDAGOGICAL TECHNOLOGIES AND TRAINING METHODS

1. Educational technologies based on personal orientation of the pedagogical process

2. Pedagogical technologies based on the activation and intensification of students’ activities (Game technologies, problem-based learning, level differentiation technologies,group technologies, computer (new information) teaching technologies.)

3. Developmental learning technologies ( general basics technologies of developmental education, personality-oriented developmental education.

4. Traditional technology.

The methodology for teaching biology uses the following methods : general didactic (lecture, story, conversation, working with a book, screen aids) and specific to natural science disciplines (experiment, observation, practical work). When using each method, students’ cognitive activity can be both reproductive and creative character. In biology methods, methods such as lecture, story, conversation are used in reproductive, search or problem plans.

When teaching biology, observations and experiments, practical work that allows one to successfully combine theoretical knowledge with empirical knowledge are of great importance. practical actions with intellectuals.

Student learning biological system knowledge, development of skills, education and development are carried out in various forms of training.

A lesson is the main form of organizing learning. Based on didactic goals, the following types of lessons can be distinguished: introductory, learning new material, generalizing, accounting and testing. Types of lessons, taking into account the nature of the activities of the teacher and students: lesson-lecture, explanatory lesson, problem lesson, use of technical means (television lesson, film lesson).

When teaching general biology they use laboratory lessons; excursions (to a training and experimental site, to nature, to production, to a museum).

The program was compiled for the 2012-2013 academic year for 9th grade students at the Novo-Gorkhon secondary school and is designed for 2 hours per week (a total of 68 hours per academic year).

CONNECTION OF THE PROGRAM WITH RELATED DISCIPLINES

• Inorganic chemistry. O, H, C, N, S, P and other elements of PSHE D.I. Mendeleev, their basic properties. PSHE. Properties of solutions. Theory of electrolytic dissociation. Structure of substances. Redox reactions. Protection of nature from the effects of chemical waste.
• Organic chemistry. Main groups of organic compounds, principles of their organic functions.
• Physical geography. History of the continents. Climate of the Earth, climatic zonation.
• Economic geography. World population. Geography of the world population.
• Physics. The concept of radiation dose and biological protection. Properties of liquids, thermal phenomena. Laws of thermodynamics. Electromagnetic field. Fundamentals of molecular kinetic theory. X-ray radiation.
• Astronomy. Organization of planetary systems. solar system, its structure. Place of planet Earth.

MAIN CONTENT

SECTION 1

Evolution of the living world on Earth(25 hours)

Introduction (1 hour)

The place of the course “General Biology” in the system of natural science disciplines, as well as in biological sciences. Goals and objectives of the course. The significance of the subject for understanding the unity of all living things and the interdependence of all parts of the Earth’s biosphere.

Topic 1.1. (2 hours)

Development of biology in the pre-Darwinian period. The dominance in science of ideas about the “primordial expediency” and immutability of living nature. Works of K. Linnaeus on the taxonomy of plants and animals. Evolutionary theory J.B. Lamarck.

Demonstration of biographies of scientists who contributed to the development evolutionary ideas. Life andactivity of J.B. Lamarck.

Topic 1.2. Charles Darwin's theory of the origin of species through natural selection(4 hours)

Prerequisites for the emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin: achievements in the field of natural sciences, expedition material of Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin's doctrine of artificial selection.

Charles Darwin's doctrine of natural selection. A species is an elementary evolutionary unit. General individual variability and excess number of offspring. The struggle for existence and natural selection.

Demonstration. Biography of Charles Darwin. The route and specific finds of Charles Darwin during his voyage on the Beagle ship.

Topic 1.3. Adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions as a result of natural selection(3 hours)

Adaptive features of the structure, body color and behavior of animals. Caring for offspring. Physiological adaptations.

Topic 1.4. Microevolution (3 hours)

Species as genetically isolated system; reproductive isolation and its mechanisms. Population structure of the species; ecological and genetic characteristics of populations. A population is an elementary evolutionary unit. Pathways and rates of speciation; geographic and ecological speciation.

Demonstration of diagrams illustrating the process of geographic speciation; living plants and animals, herbariums and collections showing individual variability and diversity of varieties of cultivated plants and breeds of domestic animals, as well as the results of the adaptation of organisms to their environment and the results of speciation.

Topic 1.5. Biological consequences of adaptation. Macroevolution(2 hours)

The main directions of the evolutionary process. Biological progress and biological regression (A. N. Severtsov). Ways to achieve biological progress. Basic laws of evolution: divergence, convergence, parallelism, rules of evolution of groups of organisms.

The results of evolution: diversity of species, organic expediency, gradual complication of organization.

Demonstration of examples of homologous and similar organs, their structure and origin in ontogenesis; diagrams of the relationship between the paths of progressive biological evolution; materials characterizing representatives of animals and plants included in the Red Book and under state protection.

Topic 1.6. The emergence of life on Earth(2 hours)

Organic world as a result of evolution. The emergence and development of life on Earth. Chemical, prebiological (theory of Academician A.I. Oparin), biological and social stages development of living matter. Phylogenetic connections in living nature; natural classification of living organisms.

Demonstration of schemes for the emergence of unicellular eukaryotes, multicellular organisms, and the development of the plant and animal kingdoms.

Topic 1.7. Development of life on Earth(6 hours)

The development of life on Earth in the Archean and Proterozoic eras. The first traces of life on Earth. Everyone's appearance modern types invertebrate animals. The first chordates. Development of aquatic plants.

The development of life on Earth in the Paleozoic era. The appearance and evolution of land plants. Ferns, seed ferns, gymnosperms. The emergence of vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles.

The development of life on Earth in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The appearance and distribution of angiosperms. The emergence of birds and mammals. The emergence and development of primates.

Origin of man. The place of man in living nature. Systematic position species Homo sapiens in the animal world. Signs and properties of a person that allow him to be classified into various systematic groups of the animal kingdom. Stages of human evolution: early man, ancient man, first modern people.

Properties of man as a biological species. Population structure of the species Homo sapiens; human races; racialization; unity of origin of races. The anti-scientific essence of racism.

Demonstration of reproductions of paintings by 3. Burian, reflecting the fauna and flora of various eras and periods; schemes for the development of the kingdoms of living nature; fossilized awns, plant imprints in ancient rocks.

Models of human and vertebrate skeletons.

Basic concepts. Biology. Life. The main differences between living organisms and inanimate objects. Levels of organization of living matter. Objects and methods of study in biology. Diversity of the living world.

SECTION 2

(13 hours)

Topic 2.1. Chemical organization of the cell(4 hours)

Elemental composition of the cell. The prevalence of elements, their contribution to the formation of living matter and inanimate objects. Macroelements, microelements; their contribution to the formation of inorganic andorganic molecules of living matter.

Inorganic molecules of living matter: water; chemical properties And biological role. Salts inorganic acids, their contribution to supporting life processes andmaintaining homeostasis. The role of cations and anions in supporting vital processes. Osmosis and osmotic pressure; osmotic entry of molecules into the cell.

Organic molecules. Biological polymers - proteins; structural organization. Functions of protein molecules. Carbohydrates. Structure and biological role. Fats - main structural component cell membranes and source of energy. DNA is the molecules of heredity. DNA reduplication, transmission of hereditary information from generation to generation. Transfer of hereditary information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm; transcription. RNA, structure and functions. Messenger, transport, ribosomal RNAs.

Demonstration of three-dimensional models of the structural organization of biological polymers: proteins and nucleic acids; their comparison with models of artificial polymers (polyvinyl chloride).

Topic 2.2. Metabolism and energy conversion in a cage (2 hours)

Metabolism and energy conversion in the cell. Transport of substances across the cell membrane. Pino- and phagocytosis. Intracellular digestion and energy storage; breakdown of glucose. Biosynthesis of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the cell.

Topic 2.3. Cell structure and function(7 hours)

Prokaryotic cells; shape and size. The structure of the cytoplasm of a bacterial cell; organization of metabolism in prokaryotes. Genetic apparatus of bacteria. Sporulation. Reproduction. The place and role of prokaryotes in biocenoses.

Eukaryotic cell. Cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. Organelles of the cytoplasm, their structure and functions. Cytoskeleton. Inclusions, significance and role in cell metabolism. Cell nucleus - center

control of cell activity. Structures of the cell nucleus: nuclear envelope, chromatin (heterochromatin), nucleolus. Features of the structure of a plant cell.

Cell division. Cells in a multicellular organism. The concept of differentiation of cells of a multicellular organism. Mitotic cycle: interphase, DNA reduplication", mitosis, phases of mitotic division and chromosome transformation; biological meaning and significance of mitosis (asexual reproduction, growth, replenishment of cellular losses in physiological and pathological conditions).

Cellular theory of the structure of organisms.

Demonstration. Schematic diagrams light and electron microscope. Schemes illustrating methods of preparative biochemistry and immunology. Cell models. Schemes of the structure of organelles of plant and animal cells. Micropreparations of plant, animal and unicellular fungal cells. Figures of mitotic division in onion root cells under a microscope and on a diagram. Materials telling about the biographies of scientists who contributed to the development of cell theory.

SECTION 3

Reproduction and individual development of organisms (5 hours)

Topic 3.1. Reproduction of organisms(2 hours)

The essence and forms of reproduction of organisms. Asexual reproduction of plants and animals. Sexual reproduction of animals and plants; formation of germ cells, insemination and fertilization. Biological significance sexual reproduction.Ga-metogenesis. Periods of formation of germ cells: reproduction, growth, maturation (meiosis) and formation of germ cells. Features of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Fertilization.

Demonstration of posters illustrating methods of vegetative propagation of fruit trees and vegetable crops; oocyte microslides; photographs reflecting the diversity of offspring from one pair of parents.

Topic 3.2. Individual development of organisms (ontogenesis)(3 hours)

Embryonic period of development.Basic laws of crushing; formation of a single-layer embryo- blastulas. Gastrulation; patterns of formation of a two-layer embryo- gastrula. Primary organogenesis and further differentiation of tissues, organs and systems.Postembryonic period of development. Forms of the postembryonic period of development. Indirect development; complete and incomplete metamorphosis. Biological meaning of development with metamorphosis. Direct development. Aging.

General patterns of development. Biogenetic law.

Similarity of embryos and embryonic divergence of characters (K. Baer's law). Biogenetic law (E. Haeckel and K. Muller). Works of A. N. Severtsov on embryonic variability.

Demonstration of tables illustrating the process of metamorphosis in arthropods, vertebrates (Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, amphibians); tables reflecting the similarity of the embryos of vertebrate animals, as well as schemes for the transformation of organs and tissues in phylogeny.

SECTION 4

Heredity and variability of organisms(13 hours)

Topic 4.1. Patterns of inheritance of traits(8 hours)

G. Mendel's discovery of patterns of inheritance of traits. Hybridological method of studying heredity.

Genetic sex determination.

Genotype as complete system. Interaction of allelic and non-allelic genes in determining traits.

Demonstration. Maps of human chromosomes. Genealogies of outstanding representatives of culture. Chromosomal abnormalities humans and their phenotypic manifestations.

Topic 4.2. Patterns of variability(3 hours)

Basic forms of variability. Genotypic variability. Mutations. The importance of mutations for agricultural practices and biotechnology. Combinative variability. Evolutionary significance of combinative variability.

Phenotypic, or modification, variability. The role of environmental conditions in the development and manifestation of signs and properties.

Demonstration. Examples of modification variability.

Topic 4.3. Selection of plants, animalsand microorganisms(2 hours)

Centers of origin and diversity of cultivated plants.Variety, breed, strain. Methods of plant and animal breeding. Achievements and main directions of modern selection. The importance of selection for the development of agricultural production, medical, microbiological and other industries.

Demonstration. Comparative analysis breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants and their wild ancestors. Collections and preparations of cultivated plant varieties characterized by the greatest fertility.

SECTION 5

Relationships between the organism and the environment. Basics of ecology ( 12 hours)

Topic 5.1. Biosphere, its structure and functions(8 hours)

The biosphere is the living shell of the planet. Structure of the biosphere.Components of the biosphere: living matter, species composition, diversity and contribution to biomass; bioinert and inert matter of the biosphere (V.I. Vernadsky).The cycle of substances in nature.

Natural communities of living organisms. Biogeocenoses. Components of biogeocenoses: producers, consumers, decomposers. Biocenoses: species diversity, population density, biomass.

Abiotic environmental factors. The role of temperature, light, humidity and other factors in the life of communities. The intensity of the environmental factor; limiting factor. Interaction of environmental factors, endurance limits. Biotic factors environment. Circuits and power networks.Ecological pyramids: numbers, biomass, energy.Change of biocenoses. Reasons for changing biocenoses; formation of new communities.

Demonstration:

A) diagrams illustrating the structure of the biosphere and characterizing its individual components, tables species composition and diversity of living organisms of the biosphere; schemes of the cycle of substances in nature;

B) maps reflecting the geological history of the continents; prevalence of major land biomes;

C) filmstrips and the film “Biosphere”;

D) examples of symbiosis of representatives of various kingdoms of living nature.

Topic 5.2. Biosphere and man(4 hours)

Natural resources and their use.

Anthropogenic factors affecting biocenoses (the role of humans in nature); consequences economic activity person. Problems of rational environmental management, nature conservation: protection from pollution, preservation of standards and natural monuments, ensuring natural resources population of the planet.

Demonstration of maps of protected areas of our country.

FORMS OF CURRENT AND FINAL CONTROL

When working with this program, the following are provided:forms current control: test, test, test work includes tasks with a choice of answer (contain one correct answer out of 4 proposed), tasks with a free answer (require a short answer on the essence of the question), tasks for testing practical skills (involve identifying the ability of schoolchildren to apply theoretical knowledge acquired in class).

Forms of final control:test, test, creative work, essay defense, interviews, exam new form GIA.

EXPECTED RESULTS

Based on the main goals of general education, the structural representation of social and personal experience, as well as the main types of activities, the student must master the following key educational competencies, allowing him to master social experience, gain life skills and practical activities in modern society:

1. Value and semantic competencies.

2. General cultural competencies.

3. Educational and cognitive competencies.

4. Information competencies.

5. Social and labor competencies.

6. Competencies of personal self-improvement.

Use acquired knowledge and skills in practical activities and everyday life:for caring for plants, pets, taking care of your own health, providing first aid to yourself and others; assessing the consequences of one’s activities in relation to the natural environment, one’s own body, and the health of other people; to comply with the rules of behavior in the environment, healthy lifestyle standards, prevention of diseases, injuries and stress, bad habits, HIV infection.

PERFORMANCE

Basic requirements for the knowledge and skills of 9th grade students.

Students should know:

• features of life as a form of existence of matter;
• the role of physical and chemical processes in living systems of various hierarchical levels of organization;
• fundamental concepts of biology;
• the essence of metabolic processes, ontogenesis, heredity and variability;
• basic theories of biology: cellular, chromosomal theory of heredity, evolutionary, anthropogenesis;
• the relationship between the social and the biological in human evolution;
• the main areas of application of biological knowledge in agricultural practice, in a number of industries, in protecting the environment and human health;

Students should be able to:

• use knowledge of general biological laws to explain from a materialistic perspective questions of the origin and development of life on Earth, as well as various groups of plants, animals, including humans;
• give a reasoned assessment of new information on biological issues;
• work with a microscope and make simple preparations for microscopic studies;
• solve genetic problems, compile pedigrees, construct variation curves on plant and animal material;
• work with educational and popular scientific literature, draw up a plan, outline, abstract;

REQUIREMENTS FOR ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS' KNOWLEDGE, ABILITIES AND SKILLS

IN BIOLOGY

1. ASSESSMENT OF ORAL ANSWER:

“5” - the answer is complete and correct, based on the studied theory, stated

logically, consistently, in literary language;

“4” - the answer is complete and correct based on the theories studied, set out in

a certain logical sequence, while 2-3 are allowed

minor errors corrected by the student at the request of the teacher;

“3” - the answer is complete, but significant errors were made, or the answer

incomplete, lacks logical sequence;

“2” - when answering, the student’s misunderstanding of the main content was detected

educational material, or significant errors were made that the student

cannot correct when the teacher asks leading questions.

2. ASSESSMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS

“5” - the work was completed completely and correctly, correct observations were made and

conclusions, the experiment was carried out according to plan, taking into account safety precautions and

rules for working with substances and equipment, organizational and

work skills (maintaining cleanliness of the workplace and order on the table,

reagents are used sparingly);

“4” - the work was done correctly, the correct observations and conclusions were made, but

In this case, the experiment was not carried out completely or insignificant

errors in working with substances and equipment;

“3” - at least 50% of the work was completed correctly or significant

an error during the experiment, in the explanation, in the design of the work, in observing safety rules when working with substances and equipment, which is corrected at the request of the teacher;

“2” - 2 or more significant errors were made during the experiment, in the explanation

and execution of work, in compliance with safety regulations when

working with substances and equipment that the student cannot correct

at the request of the teacher.

LITERATURE FOR STUDENTS

Basic literature

Further reading

1. Zakharov V.B., Sonin N.I.Biology. Diversity of living organisms: Textbook for 7th grade of secondary school. M.: Bustard, 2005.
2. Iordansky N. N.Evolution of life. M.: Academy, 2001.
3. Mamontov S. G.Biology: A guide for applicants to universities. M.: Bustard, 2003.
4. Mamontov S. G., Zakharov V. B. General biology:Manual for secondary specialized educational institutions. 4th ed. M.: Higher School, 2003.
5. Mamontov S. G., Zakharov V. B., Kozlova T. A.Fundamentals of biology: A book for self-education. M.: Education, 1992.
6. Mednikov B. M.Biology: Forms and levels of life. M.: Education, 1994.
7. Sonin N. I.Biology. Living organism: Textbook for 6th grade of secondary school. M.: Bustard, 2005.
8. Tchaikovsky Yu. V. Evolution. M.:Center for Systems Research, 2003.

Popular science literature

1. Akimushkin I.Animal world (invertebrates and fossil animals). M.: Mysl, 1999.
2. Akimushkin I.Animal world (mammals, or animals). M.: Mysl, 1999.
3. Akimushkin I.Animal world (insects, spiders, pets). M.: Mysl, 1999.
4. Akimushkin I.Invisible threads of nature. M.: Mysl, 1985.
5. Auerbach S.Genetics. M.: Atomizdat, 1966.
6. Grzimek B.Wild animal and man. M.: Mysl, 1982.

7. Evsyukov V.V.Myths about the Universe. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1988.
8. Neifakh A. A., Rozovskaya E. R.Genes and development of the organism. M.: Nauka, 1984.
9. Winfrey A.T.Time according to biological clock. M.: Mir, 1990.

10. Shpinar 3. V.History of life on Earth / Artist 3. Burian. Prague: Atria, 1977.
11. EtpgenboroD.Life on Earth. M.: Mir, 1984.
12. AttenboroughD.Living planet. M.: Mir, 1988.
13. Yakovleva I., Yakovlev V.In the footsteps of the past. M.: Children's literature, 1983.

LITERATURE FOR TEACHERS

1. Mamontov S. G., Zakharov V. B., Sonin N. I.Biology. General patterns: Textbook for 9th grade of secondary school. M.: Bustard, any edition.
2. Programs for educational institutions: Biology. 5-11 grades/condition Myagkova T.G. - M.: Bustard, 2005.
3. Handbook for biology teachers / Author's compilation. G.S. Kalinova, B.S. Kuchmenko. - M: LLC Publishing House AST. 2003.
4. Educational publications in the “Topics” series school course» auto. T.A. Kozlova, V.I. Sivoglazova, E.T. Brovkina and others. M.: Bustard;
5. Biology. 9th grade: Lesson plans based on the textbookMamontov S. G., Zakharov V. B., Sonin N. I./ Author-comp. M.M. Gumenyuk - Volgograd: Teacher, 2008.
6. Biology tests. 5-11 grades : Educational and methodological manual. - M: Bustard, 2000.

Application

Test No. 1 Test “Evolution of the animal world”

Question 1.In which of the following areas of biology is the microscopic method the main one?

1. Biochemistry
2. Cytology
3. Animal breeding
4. Human physiology

Question 2.The assumption that in the light plants form organic substances from inorganic ones is:

1. Scientific fact
2. Hypothesis
3. Experiment
4. Theory

Question 3.At what level of life organization does the cycle of substances occur in nature?

1. On the organismal
2. On the cellular
3. On a population-species basis
4. On the biosphere

Question 4.Destroying all bacteria on Earth will lead to:

1. The flourishing of life
2. Deteriorating public health
3. Oppression and disappearance of life
4. Disappearance of organic matter

Question 5.According to the nature of their nutrition, mushrooms include:

Question 6.Scientists consider the largest systematic category to be:

1. Empire
2. Kingdom
3. Class
4. Department

Question 7.The organic world was divided into plant and animal thanks to the appearance of different:

1. Ways to eat
2. Conditions of existence
3. Reproduction methods
4. Ways of cell division

Question 8.The first seed plants on Earth were:

1. Gymnosperms conifers
2. Seed ferns
3. Angiosperms
4. Psilophytes

Question 9.A common feature of all cells existing organisms on Earth is:

1. Presence of chloroplasts
2. Same number of chromosomes
3. Metabolism
4. Same structure

Question 10.The first three-layered animals were:

1. Annelids
2. Roundworms
3. Flatworms
4. Coelenterates

Question 11.The first evolutionists believe:

1. J.B. Lamarck
2. K. Linnaeus
3. C. Darwin
4. A. Wallace

Question 12.There is a certain connection between the first and second concepts. The same connection exists between the third and fourth concepts. Please indicate the correct answer:

Divergence in traits among individuals: divergence = random occurrence of a trait:__________________________

1. Modification
2. Mutation
3. Selection
4. Insulation

Question 13.Humans differ from great apes:

1. Ability to learn
2. Availability of a second alarm system
3. Caring for the offspring
4. Lack of unconditioned reflexes

Question 14.In the social evolution of man, the most important role was played by:

1. Structure of the larynx
2. Hair reduction
3. Writing
4. Communicating with gestures

Question 15.The most correct from the position of Darwinism is the following statement:

1. Species is a category that does not exist in nature, but is adopted by scientists to identify differences between organisms
2. A species is a real category of changing organisms that exists in nature
3. Species is a real category designating a group of unchangeable organisms
4. A species is a collection of individuals that arose as a result of an act of creation by God

Question 16.Charles Darwin believed that the diversity of species is based on:

1. Hereditary variability and natural selection
2. Struggle for existence
3. Capacity for unlimited growth
4. One-time act of creation

Question 17.An example of aromorphosis can be considered:

1. Bird feathers
2. Beautiful tail of a peacock
3. The woodpecker has a strong beak
4. Long legs of a heron

Question 18.The winners of intraspecific competition ultimately turn out to be:

1. Certain genotypes and phenotypes
2. Individuals
3. species
4. biogeocenoses

Question 19.The person's closest relative is:

5. Green monkey
6. Baboon Hamadryas
7. South American howler monkey
8. Gorilla

TestTest « Structural organization of living organisms»

A1. Who is one of the founders of cell theory?

1) R. Virchow 2) A. van Leeuwenhoek 3) R. Hooke 4)T. Schwann

A2. Which statement is not true of modern cell theory?

1) New cells are formed by dividing previously existing ones.

2) Cells are capable of transmitting hereditary information.

3) Cells are capable of distorting hereditary information.

4) Cells are a microscopic living system.

AZ. Which of the following groups of tissues is not animal?

1) epithelial 2) meristematic 3) nervous 4) muscular

A4. Which cells are characterized by the process of respiration?

1) for cells of multicellular organisms

2) for cells single-celled organisms

3) for all cells

4) for eukaryotic cells

A5. Which element plays the most important role in the formation of organic compounds in a living cell?

1) oxygen 2) carbon 3) nitrogen 4) hydrogen

A6. What structure determines the chemical composition of a protein and its biological properties?

I) primary 2) secondary 3) tertiary 4) quaternary

A7. How many polynucleotide chains does a DNA molecule consist of?

1) from one 2) from two 3) from three 4) from four

A8. Label the type of RNA that does not exist.

1) transport 2) ribosomal 3) protective 4) informational

A9. What gel-like substance fills the nucleus of a living cell?

1) nucleoli 2) nuclear membrane 3) cytoplasm 4) karyoplasm

A10. Which cell's DNA molecules have a linear structure?

1) eukaryotic cells 2) prokaryotic cells

3) cells of unicellular organisms 4) cells of multicellular organisms

A11. Which organelle is characteristic only of plant cells?

I) mitochondria 2) endoplasmic reticulum 3) plastid 4) ribosome

A12. What process in a living cell releases energy?

1) during metabolism 2) during catabolism 3) during anabolism 4) during photosynthesis

A13. Where does copying take place? genetic information DNA?

1) in the cytoplasm 2) outside the cell 3) in the nucleus 4) in the membrane

A14. What is the process of reading genetic information from mRNA called?

1) transcription 2) translation 3) synthesis 4) copying

A15. What energy is used in the light reactions of photosynthesis?

1) internal energy cells 2) energy released by the cell during catabolism

3) air energy 4) sunlight energy

A16. What is the name of the membrane space inside the chloroplast, filled with a gelatinous substance?

1) polysome 2) stroma 3) fana 4) thylakoid

A17. What is oxygen-free biological oxidation called?

1) aerobic 2) anaerobic 3) incomplete 4) complete

A18. Glycolysis is the breakdown of:

I) water 2) lactic acid 3) glucose 4) ATP

A19. Where does the final stage of cellular respiration occur?

1) in the cytoplasm of the cell 2) in the cell nucleus 3) in ribosomes 4) in mitochondria

A20. During aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid is converted into:

1) carbon dioxide and lactic acid (or ethyl alcohol)

2) carbon dioxide and water

3) lactic acid and water

4) carbon dioxide and citric acid

A21. Which organisms are characterized by cell division?

1) eukaryotes 2) prokaryotes 3) all organisms 4) multicellular organisms

A22. The process of cell division in a living organism ends:

1) along with its growth 2) after its reproduction

3) after puberty 4) with his death

A2Z. Indicate the answer option where the stages of mitosis are given in the correct sequence.

1) prophase - metaphase - anaphase - telophase

2) metaphase - prophase - telophase - anaphase

3) telophase - anaphase - metaphase - prophase

4) anaphase - metaphase - prophase - telophase

A24. What happens in telophase?

1) spindle formation 2) formation of new nuclei and cytokinesis

3) separation of chromosomes 4) movement of chromosomes to the center of the cell

B1. What organisms are characterized by the presence of tissues?

B2. What is the ability of nucleotides to selectively combine in pairs called?

B3. Which cell organelles contain their own DNA?

Q4. Finish the sentence.

At the first stage of biological oxidation, proteins break down into molecules...

B5. Which stage of the cell cycle is the longest in the life of a cell?

B6. What is the name of the constriction that connects the chromatids?

C1. Why are newly formed cells as a result of mitotic division genetically homogeneous?

C2. What are the features of a living cell?

C3. What happens during catabolism?

Test Test« Heredity and variability of organisms"

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The breeding of new varieties of plants and animal breeds is carried out by:

A – genetics;
B – selection;
B – agrobiology;
G – botany.

2. Heredity is a property of organisms:

A – interact with the environment;
B – respond to environmental changes;
B – transmit one’s characteristics and developmental features to offspring;
D – acquire new characteristics in the process of individual development.

3. To study the nature of inheritance of several traits by several generations of plants and animals, crossings are carried out:

A – monohybrid;
B – analyzing;
B – polyhybrid;
G – closely related.

4. “Splitting for each pair of characteristics occurs independently of other pairs of characteristics” - this is the formulation:

A – Mendel’s first law;
B – Morgan's law;
G – Mendel’s second law;
D - Mendel's third law.

5. The appearance of individuals with the same genotype in the first hybrid generation is a manifestation of:

A – the law of splitting;
B – law of independent inheritance;
B – rules of uniformity;
G – law of linked inheritance.

6. In Fig. depicts the parental forms in which the red color of the tulip petals dominates over the white. What will be the genotype of the offspring for this trait if the parent organism with dominant traits is homozygous?

A – AA;
B – aa;
B – Aaa;
G – Aa.

7. According to Fig. Determine the genotype of the offspring (F1) of guinea pigs if it is known that the parent with black and short hair is heterozygous for both traits:

A – AaBv;
B – aavv;
B – aaBv;
G – Aavv.

8. The genotype is the totality of:

A - external signs body;
B – internal signs of the body;
B – genes received by offspring from parents;
D – body reactions to environmental influences.

9. The intermediate nature of the inheritance of traits appears when:

A – there is a change in environmental conditions;
B – seasonal changes occur in nature;
B – heterozygous individuals do not differ in appearance from homozygous ones;
D – heterozygous individuals differ in appearance from homozygous ones.

10. Genes located on the same chromosome:

A – inherited independently;
B – enter different germ cells during the process of meiosis;
B – inherited together;
D – give cleavage in the offspring in a ratio of 3:1.

11. What letter indicates the phenotype of the organism shown in Fig.

B – AaBbCc;
B – AbC;
G -

12. Crossing of individuals that differ in two pairs of characteristics is called:

A – polyhybrid;
B – analyzing;
B – dihybrid;
G – monohybrid.

13. From a genetic point of view, hereditary diseases in humans are:

A – modification changes;
B – change in phenotype not associated with a change in genotype;
B – mutations;
G – response to changes in the environment, independent of the genotype.

14. The basis of the cytogenetic method of studying human heredity is the study of:

A – family pedigree;
B – distribution of the trait in a large population of people;
B – chromosome set, individual chromosomes;
D – development of symptoms in twins.

15. A change in the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule is called:

A – gene mutations;
B – chromosomal mutations;
B – somatic mutations;
G – combinative variability.

16. The boundaries within which modifications of a particular characteristic are possible are called:

A – adaptability;
B – reaction norm;
B – variability;
G – irritability.

17. Under the influence of the genotype and environmental conditions, the following is formed:

A – reaction norm;
B – heredity;
B – phenotype;
G – fitness.

18. The selection from the source material of a whole group of individuals with the characteristics necessary for the breeder is called:

A – natural selection;
B – mass selection;
IN - individual form artificial selection;
G – spontaneous selection.

Free-response questions

19. How do genes interact in a genotype?

20. Why is the ratio of character splitting in generations often disrupted in individuals with few offspring?

21. What is the random nature of the association of genes in the genotype of the offspring?

22. What are the causes of combinational variability?

23. In what cases is the law of chained inheritance violated?

24. What genetic knowledge underlies the prevention of hereditary human diseases?

Practical work No.1 "Solving genetic problems"

1. Red hair color and Blue eyes are inherited as autosomal recessive traits. Determine the genotypes of the parents, the genotypes of the offspring and the probability of having a red-haired, blue-eyed child in the marriage of a red-haired, blue-eyed man with a brown-eyed, dark-haired woman whose father was red-haired and blue-eyed (assuming independent inheritance of traits).
2. In pumpkin, the white color of the fruit (A) dominates over the yellow one (a), and the discoid shape of the fruit (B) dominates over the spherical shape (c). When a pumpkin that has white disc-shaped fruits is crossed with a pumpkin that has the same characteristics, individuals that form yellow spherical fruits are found in the offspring. Determine the genotypes of the parents, the phenotypes of the offspring, and the probability of the appearance of pumpkins with white disc-shaped fruits (provided independent distribution signs).
3. In pumpkin, the white color of the fruit (A) dominates over the yellow one (a), and the discoid shape of the fruit (B) dominates over the spherical shape (c). When a pumpkin that has white spherical fruits is crossed with a pumpkin that has yellow disc-shaped fruits, some of the offspring have yellow spherical fruits. Determine the genotypes of the parents, the genotypes of the offspring, and the probability of the appearance of pumpkins with white spherical fruits (assuming independent distribution of traits).
4. Healthy parents have four children, one of the children, a son, has hemophilia, the other son and two daughters are healthy. Determine the genotypes of the parents, the genotype of the sick son and the genotype of healthy children, if it is known that the gene that determines the development of hemophilia is recessive and linked to the X chromosome
5. Determine the genotypes of parents, offspring and the likelihood of Rh conflict in the marriage of an Rh negative woman and a Rh positive man whose mother was Rh negative.
6. The absence of sweat glands in humans is inherited as a recessive trait (a) linked to the X chromosome. In the family, the father and mother are healthy, but the wife's father was deprived of sweat glands. Draw up a scheme for solving the problem, determine the genotypes of the parents, possible offspring, gender and the likelihood of having children with this trait.
7. Chickens have a sex-linked lethal gene (XA), causing the death of embryos, heterozygotes for this gene are viable. When a male heterozygous for this trait was crossed with a female, offspring appeared (in birds, the heterogametic sex is female). Draw up a crossing scheme and determine the genotypes of the parents, possible offspring and the sex ratio of surviving chickens.
8. In chickens, a sex-linked lethal gene (a) is found that causes the death of embryos; heterozygotes for this gene are viable. A normal chicken was crossed with a rooster heterozygous for this gene (in birds, the heterogametic sex is female). Draw up a scheme for solving the problem, determine the genotypes of the parents, the sex and genotype of the possible offspring and the probability of death of the embryos.
9. It is known that Duchenne myopathy, accompanied by muscle dystrophy, is inherited as a recessive trait (a) linked to the X chromosome. The parents are healthy, but the mother's father was sick with this disease. Draw up a solution diagram. Determine the genotypes of the parents, expected offspring, gender and the likelihood of offspring that will lack the gene that causes the development of myopathy.
10. In humans, the gene that determines brown eye color is dominant (A), the gene that determines blue color is recessive (a), these genes are located in autosomes. The gene that determines color blindness is recessive (B) and is located on the X chromosome, the allelic gene that ensures normal color perception is dominant (B). In the family the father is blue-eyed normal vision, and the mother is brown-eyed and suffers from color blindness (all of the mother’s ancestors are brown-eyed homozygotes). Make a diagram for solving the problem. Determine the genotypes of parents, offspring, the probability of birth and gender of brown-eyed children suffering from color blindness.
11. In the Drosophila fly, the dominant genes for gray color (A) and normal wing length (B) are linked to each other and are located on the same chromosome, the recessive genes for black color (a) and reduced wings (c) are homologous to it. When crossing individuals of gray color and normal wing length with individuals possessing recessive traits, offspring were obtained, the majority of individuals were similar to the two parents, but there were (in approximately the same number) black individuals with normal wing length and gray individuals with reduced wings. Make a diagram for solving the problem. Determine the genotypes of parents and offspring, and give a rationale for the appearance of two groups of individuals with characteristics different from their parents.
12. A woman with normal tooth enamel color (gene linked to the X chromosome) married a man with a dark tooth enamel shade. They gave birth to 4 girls with a dark shade of tooth enamel and 3 boys with a normal color of teeth enamel. Make a diagram for solving the problem. Determine which trait is dominant, the genotypes of the parents and offspring.
13. In canaries, the gene that determines the color of plumage is inherited in a sex-linked manner and is located on the X chromosome (B - green color, b - brown). The gene that determines the presence or absence of a crest is located on the autosome (C - presence of a crest). A green female without a crest was crossed with a brown male without a crest (in birds, the heterogametic sex is female). Make a diagram for solving the problem. Determine the genotypes of the parents, as well as the genotypes, sex and phenotypes of the offspring.
14. When crossing barb fish with a simple and golden color. All descendants had a simple coloration. Determine the dominant and recessive traits, the genotypes of the parents and the first generation hybrids. What characteristics will the second generation descendants have, obtained by crossing first generation hybrids?
15. In rabbits, black coloring and long hair are dominant traits, while white coloring and short hair are recessive. The genes for these traits are located on different chromosomes. What will the offspring be like when crossing a homozygous black dominant rabbit with a homozygous white short-haired rabbit? What will be the genotypes of the parents and offspring in the F1 and F2 generations.
16. In cats, black color dominates over white, and short hair dominates over long hair. What is the proportion of black shorthaired cats in the offspring of individuals diheterozygous for both traits?
17. The gene for black color in cattle is dominant over the gene for red color. What F1 offspring will result from crossing a purebred black bull with red cows? What F2 offspring will result from crossing hybrids with each other?
18. Red-fruited gooseberry plants, when crossed with each other, produce offspring with red berries, and white-fruited gooseberry plants produce white ones. As a result of crossing both varieties with each other, pink fruits are obtained. 1. What kind of offspring will be produced by crossing heterozygous gooseberry plants with pink fruits? 2. What kind of offspring will be produced if a red-fruited gooseberry is pollinated with pollen from a hybrid gooseberry with pink fruits.
19. A person's ability to use his right hand dominates his ability to use his left hand. A right-handed man whose mother was left-handed married a right-handed woman who had three siblings, two of whom were left-handed. Determine the possible genotypes of the woman and the likelihood that children born from this marriage will be left-handed.
20. When crossing heterozygous red-fruited tomatoes with yellow-fruited ones, 352 plants with red fruits were obtained. The remaining plants had yellow fruits. Determine how many plants were yellow in color?
21. In a family where the parents heard well and one had smooth hair and the other had curly hair, a deaf child with smooth hair was born. Their second child heard well and had curly hair. What are the possible genotypes of parents and children if it is known that the curly hair allele is dominant over the smooth hair allele; and deafness is a recessive trait, and both genes are on different chromosomes?
22. The husband and wife have curly (A) and dark (B) hair. They had a child with curly (A) and blond (B) hair. What are the possible genotypes of parents and their children, if it is known that the genes responsible for hair color and structure are located on different chromosomes?
23. What characteristics will hybrid tomatoes have, obtained as a result of pollination of red-fruited plants of normal growth with pollen of yellow-fruited dwarf tomatoes? What will be the result of further crossing of such hybrids? It is known that the red color of fruits is a dominant trait, while dwarfism is recessive, all original plants are homozygous, the genes for both traits are located on different chromosomes.
24. Coarse hair in a person and the presence of freckles are dominant characteristics, soft hair and the absence of freckles are recessive. A heterozygous woman with soft hair and freckles marries a man with coarse hair and no freckles. What kind of children can be expected from this marriage?