The famous Athenian commander Themistocles convinced his fellow citizens to create a navy for a successful fight against Persia, which played a decisive role.

1. Based on the text of the textbook, write down the characteristics of the concept “law”.

Law is the rules that:
1) establishes the state;
2) normative legal act which is adopted by the representative (legislative) body state power in a special order, regulates certain public relations and is ensured by the possibility of applying government coercive measures.
3) is the main source of law in the countries of the continental legal family.

2. In § 1 of the textbook, among the rules by which people live in society, customs are named. In the list of signs, circle the numbers of those that are characteristic of both laws and customs:

1) organize life
4) facilitate decision making
5) for non-compliance with them, punishment is possible

It is known that the first written laws of many ancient states were a record of customs. Using the highlighted characteristics, explain this fact.

Initially, the function of laws was performed by customs.

3. Mark correct judgments about the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

1) The Constitution of the Russian Federation names the rights, freedoms and duties of citizens.
4) The Constitution of the Russian Federation establishes the foundations social order.

4. Why is breaking laws considered dangerous? social behavior?

Breaking the laws leads to the destruction of the system state security, social guarantees citizens, increasing tension in society, moral decay in society. But from the point of view of philosophy, if there is no violation of laws, they will not improve and change with changes in society.

5. Analyze the facts.

a) On the stone slab where the laws of King Hammurabi are engraved (Babylon, 18th century BC), the god Shamash is depicted handing over a scroll to Hammurabi.
b) According to the Bible, the prophet Moses, having ascended Mount Sinai, listened to the commands of God and carved the Ten Commandments on two stone slabs by which people were to live.

1) Write what unites these facts.

In both cases, people receive laws from above, from God. By the way, this is inherent in all ancient civilizations. Since the laws are of divine origin, breaking them means going against God, and divine punishment is worse than human punishment. Often supreme power in the state it was also considered to be of divine origin, and the bearer of power was the viceroy of God on Earth.

2) Suggest why in ancient times there was such an explanation for the origin of laws.

People's instructions are easy to refute. God's commandments require no explanation or proof. They cannot be refuted.
The stone slab and tablets confirm the eternity (or long-term use) and inviolability of the commandments and law.

6. Read the text and complete the tasks.

The famous Athenian - commander Themistocles (around the 5th century BC) - convinced his fellow citizens to create a navy to successfully fight Persia, thanks to which Greece was able to win sea ​​battle at Salamis, but was accused of treason and expelled from the city. The Athenian Aristides (c. 5th century BC), despite his reputation as a fair and incorruptible person, was suspected of wanting to seize power and was also expelled from Athens.

What unites all these facts? Why exactly famous people sometimes found yourself under suspicion among your fellow citizens?

These facts are united same solution, issued by the court against two people allegedly suspected of wanting to seize power. Famous people sometimes found themselves under suspicion among their fellow citizens because, in their opinion, having broad powers, they, seeing their advantage, could do anything.

On the one hand, the Athenian court was not always fair to those who did so much good for their homeland, but, on the other hand, the facts indicate that Athenian legal proceedings were based on the principles of justice. Is there a contradiction in this? Explain your answer.

IN ancient law justice has always been seen as legality. Now there is special concept- expediency, then there was no such thing. Athens was a powerful city. Such cities were called policies. The interests of the city-state stood above the interests of the individual and man. Let's take the example of Plato, the philosopher. He was executed (given poison to drink) for allegedly promoting monotheism (God instead of numerous Greek gods: Zeus, Aphrodite, Mercury). The interests of Athens were protected. But is this fair from our point of view? I think not.
From the point of view of that time there is no contradiction.
From the point of view of modern legal proceedings, a contradiction can be found in the very principle of democracy, when opinions are not entirely competent people or those who were not entirely honest were accepted as a fair decision.

7. What restrictions on the rights and freedoms of citizens exist? For what purpose were they introduced?

According to Part 3 of Art. 55 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the rights and freedoms of man and citizen can be limited by federal law only to the extent necessary in order to protect the foundations of the constitutional system, morality, health, rights and legitimate interests of other persons, ensuring the defense of the country and the security of the state.

8. Formulate a few general rules which every law-abiding citizen must comply with.

Everyone must abide by the Constitution Russian Federation and laws, respect the rights and freedoms of others, bear other established by law responsibilities.

Deeds of Heroes ancient world still excite the imagination of descendants, and the names greatest commanders antiquity is still heard. The battles they won remain classics of military art, and modern military leaders learn from their examples.

Pharaoh Ramses II, who ruled Egypt for more than 60 years, was not without reason mentioned in ancient Egyptian texts with the title “Victor”. He won many victories, the most important of which was over Hittite kingdom, for a long time Egypt's former main enemy.

Its most famous episode was the Battle of Kadesh, which involved several thousand chariots on both sides.

The battle was fought with with varying success. At first, success was on the side of the Hittites, who took the Egyptians by surprise. But the reserves arrived in time and turned the tide of the battle. The Hittites found themselves pressed against the Orontes River and suffered a hasty crossing big losses. Thanks to this, Ramses was able to conclude a profitable peace with them.

In the wars of the Egyptians and the Hittites, one of the main strike forces there were chariots. Sometimes knives were attached to their wheels, literally mowing down the enemy’s ranks. But when running away or losing control of the horses, this terrible weapon sometimes it involuntarily turned against its own. The chariots of the Hittites were more powerful, and the warriors on them often fought with spears, while the more maneuverable chariots of the Egyptians had archers.

Cyrus the Great (530 BC)

When Cyrus II became the leader of the Persian tribes, the Persians were divided and in vassalage from Media. By the end of Cyrus's reign, the Persian Achaemenid power extended from Greece and Egypt to India.

Cyrus treated the vanquished humanely, left the conquered areas substantial self-government, respected their religions, and, thanks to this, avoided serious uprisings in the conquered territories, and some opponents preferred submission to war on such lenient terms.

In the battle with the legendary Lydian king Croesus, Cyrus used an original military stratagem. In front of his army, he placed camels taken from the convoy, on which archers were sitting, firing at the enemy. The enemy's horses were frightened by unfamiliar animals and caused confusion in the ranks of the enemy army.

The personality of Cyrus is covered in numerous legends, in which it is difficult to distinguish truth from fiction. So, according to legend, he knew by sight and by name all the soldiers of his large army. After 29 years of reign, Cyrus died during another campaign of conquest.

Miltiades (550 BC – 489 BC)

The Athenian commander Miltiades became famous, first of all, for his victory in the legendary battle with the Persians at Marathon. The positions of the Greeks were such that their army blocked the path to Athens. The Persian commanders decided not to engage in a land battle, but to board ships, bypass the Greeks by sea and land near Athens.

Miltiades seized the moment when most of the Persian cavalry was already on the ships, and attacked the Persian infantry.

When the Persians came to their senses and launched a counteroffensive, the Greek troops deliberately retreated in the center and then surrounded the enemies. Despite the Persian superiority in numbers, the Greeks were victorious. After the battle, the Greek army made a 42-kilometer forced march to Athens and prevented the remaining Persians from landing near the city.

Despite the merits of Miltiades, after another, unsuccessful military expedition against the island of Paros, where the commander himself was wounded, he was accused of “deceiving the people” and sentenced to a huge fine. Miltiades was unable to pay the fine, and was listed as an insolvent debtor, who was prohibited from dealing government activities, and soon died from his wounds.

Themistocles (524 BC – 459 BC)

Themistocles, the greatest Athenian naval commander, played a key role in the Greek victories over the Persians and the preservation of Greece's independence. When the Persian king Xerxes went to war against Greece, the city-states united in the face of a common enemy, and adopted Themistocles' plan for defense. The decisive naval battle took place off the island of Salamis. In its vicinity there are many narrow straits and, according to Themistocles, if it were possible to lure the Persian fleet into them, the enemy’s large numerical advantage would be neutralized. Frightened by the size of the Persian fleet, other Greek commanders were inclined to flee, but Themistocles, sending his messenger to the Persian camp, provoked them to immediately begin battle. The Greeks had no choice but to accept the battle. Themistocles' calculations were brilliantly justified: in the narrow straits, large and clumsy Persian ships turned out to be helpless in front of the more maneuverable Greek ones. The Persian fleet was defeated.

Themistocles' merits were soon forgotten. Political opponents expelled him from Athens, and then sentenced him to death in absentia. death penalty, accusing him of treason.

Themistocles was forced to flee to his former enemies, to Persia. King Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, defeated by Themistocles, not only spared his longtime enemy, but also gave him several cities to rule. According to legend, Artaxerxes wanted Themistocles to participate in the war against the Greeks, and the commander, unable to refuse, but not wanting to harm his ungrateful homeland, took poison.

Epaminondas (418 BC – 362 BC)

The great Theban commander Epaminondas most life fought against the Spartans, who dominated mainland Greece at that time. At the Battle of Leuctra, he first defeated the Spartan army, which until then had been considered invincible in land combat. Epaminondas' victories contributed to the rise of Thebes, but aroused the fears of others Greek city-states, united against them.

In his last battle at Mantinea, also against the Spartans, when victory was practically in the hands of the Thebans, Epaminondas received mortal wound, and the army, confused without a commander, retreated.

Epaminondas is considered one of the greatest innovators in the art of war. It was he who first began to distribute forces unevenly along the front, concentrating the main forces in the direction of the decisive blow. This principle, called “oblique order tactics” by contemporaries, is still one of the fundamental principles in military science. Epaminondas was one of the first to actively use cavalry. Much attention the commander devoted to education morale warriors: he encouraged the Theban youths to challenge young Spartans to sports competitions so that they would understand that these opponents could be defeated, not only in the palaestra, but also on the battlefield.

Phocion (398 BC – 318 BC)

Phocion was one of the most cautious and prudent Greek commanders and politicians, and in difficult times for Greece, these qualities turned out to be most in demand. He won a number of victories over the Macedonians, but subsequently, realizing that fragmented Greece was unable to resist the strong Macedonian army and believing that only Philip II could stop the Greek strife, he took a moderate position, which seemed famous speaker Demosthenes and his supporters are treacherous.

Thanks to the respect that Phocion enjoyed among the Macedonians, including Alexander the Great, he managed to achieve easy peace terms for the Athenians.

Phocion never sought power, but the Athenians elected him as a strategist 45 times, sometimes against his will. His last election ended tragically for him. After the Macedonians took the city of Piraeus, eighty-year-old Phocion was accused of treason and executed.

Philip of Macedon (382 BC – 336 BC)

Philip II, the Macedonian king, is best known as the father of Alexander the Great, but it was he who laid the foundation for his son’s future victories. Philip created a well-trained army with iron discipline, and with it he managed to conquer all of Greece. The decisive battle was the Battle of Chaeronea, as a result of which the united Greek troops were defeated, and Philip united Greece under his command.

Philip's main military innovation was the famous Macedonian phalanx, which his great son later used so skillfully.

The phalanx was a close formation of warriors armed with long spears, and the spears of subsequent rows were longer than those of the first. The bristling phalanx could successfully resist cavalry attacks. He often used various siege machines. However, being a cunning politician, he whenever possible preferred bribery to battle and said that “a donkey loaded with gold is capable of taking any fortress.” Many contemporaries considered this method of waging war, avoiding open battles, unworthy.

During his wars, Philip of Macedon lost an eye and received several severe wounds, as a result of one of which he remained lame. But he died as a result of an assassination attempt by one of the courtiers, outraged by the injustice court decision king. At the same time, many historians believe that the killer’s hand was directed by his political enemies.

Alexander the Great (356 BC – 323 BC)

Alexander the Great is probably the most legendary commander in history. Having ascended the throne at the age of twenty, in less than thirteen years he managed to conquer most of the lands known at that time and create a huge empire.

Since childhood, Alexander the Great prepared himself for hardships military service, leading a harsh life, not at all typical for a royal son. His main feature was the desire for fame. Because of this, he was even upset about his father’s victories, fearing that he would conquer everything himself, and there would be nothing left for his share.

According to legend, when his teacher, the great Aristotle, told the young man that there could be other habitable worlds, Alexander exclaimed bitterly: “And I don’t even own one yet!”

Having completed the conquest of Greece begun by his father, Alexander went to eastern campaign. In it he defeated what seemed for a long time invincible Persian Empire, conquered Egypt, reached India and was going to capture it too, but the exhausted army refused to continue the campaign, and Alexander was forced to return. In Babylon he became seriously ill (most likely from malaria) and died. After the death of Alexander, the empire fell apart, and a long-term war began between his generals, the diadochi, for the possession of its parts.

The most famous battle Alexandra - battle with the Persians at Gaugamela. The army of the Persian king Darius was an order of magnitude larger, but Alexander managed to break its front line with graceful maneuvers and delivered a decisive blow. Darius fled. This battle marked the end of the Achaemenid Empire.

Pyrrhus (318 BC – 272 BC)

Pyrrhus, king small state Epirus in the Balkans, a distant relative of Alexander the Great, is considered one of the greatest generals in history, and Hannibal even ranked him first, above himself.

Even in his youth, Pyrrhus received combat training, participating in the wars of the Diadochi for the division of the inheritance of Alexander the Great. Initially, he supported one of the diadochi, but soon began to play his own game and, despite the relatively small forces of his army, almost became the king of Macedonia. But the main battles that made him famous were fought against Rome by Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus fought with both Carthage and Sparta.

Having defeated the Romans during the two-day battle of Ausculum and realizing that the losses were too great, Pyrrhus exclaimed: “Another such victory, and I will be left without an army!”

This is where the expression “ Pyrrhic victory”, meaning success that came at too great a cost.

The great commander was killed by a woman. During Pyrrhus's assault on the city of Argos, street fighting broke out. The women helped their defenders as best they could. A piece of tile thrown from the roof of one of them hit Pyrrhus in an unprotected place. He fell unconscious and was finished off or crushed by the crowd on the ground.

Fabius Maximus (203 BC)

Quintus Fabius Maximus was not at all a warlike man. In my youth for my gentle character he even received the nickname Ovikula (lamb). Nevertheless, he went down in history as a great commander, the winner of Hannibal. After crushing defeats from the Carthaginians, when the fate of Rome hung in the balance, it was Fabius Maximus that the Romans elected dictator for the sake of saving the fatherland.

For his actions at the head of the Roman army, Fabius Maximus received the nickname Cunctator (procrastinator). Avoiding, as far as possible, direct clashes with Hannibal's army, Fabius Maximus exhausted the enemy army and cut off its supply routes.

Many reproached Fabius Maxim for slowness and even treason, but he continued to stick to his line. As a result, Hannibal was forced to retreat. After this, Fabius Maximus resigned from command, and the war with Carthage ended enemy territory other commanders were already engaged.

In 1812, Kutuzov used the tactics of Fabius Maximus in the war with Napoleon. George Washington acted similarly during American war for independence.

Hannibal (247 BC – 183 BC)

Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, is considered by many to be the greatest general of all time and is sometimes called the "father of strategy." When Hannibal was nine years old, he swore eternal hatred of Rome (hence the expression “Hannibal’s oath”), and followed this in practice all his life.

At the age of 26, Hannibal led the Carthaginian troops in Spain, for which the Carthaginians were in a fierce struggle with Rome. After a series of military successes, he and his army made a difficult transition through the Pyrenees and, unexpectedly for the Romans, invaded Italy. His army included African fighting elephants, and this is one of the few cases when these animals were tamed and used in warfare.

Rapidly moving inland, Hannibal inflicted three severe defeats on the Romans: on the Trebbia River, at Lake Trasimene and at Cannae. The latter, in which the Roman troops were surrounded and destroyed, became a classic of military art.

Rome was on the verge of complete defeat, but Hannibal, who did not receive reinforcements in time, was forced to retreat and then completely leave Italy with his exhausted army. The commander said with bitterness that he was defeated not by Rome, but by the envious Carthaginian Senate. Already in Africa, Hannibal was defeated by Scipio. After defeat in the war with Rome, Hannibal was involved in politics for some time, but was soon forced to go into exile. In the East, he helped the enemies of Rome with military advice, and when the Romans demanded his extradition, Hannibal, in order not to fall into their hands, took poison.

Scipio Africanus (235 BC – 181 BC)

Publius Cornelius Scipio was only 24 years old when he led the Roman troops in Spain during the war with Carthage. Things were going so badly for the Romans there that there were no others willing to take the position. Taking advantage of the disunity of the Carthaginian troops, he inflicted sensitive blows on them in parts, and, in the end, Spain came under the control of Rome. During one of the battles, Scipio used a curious tactic. Before the battle, for several days in a row he withdrew the army, built in the same order, but did not start the battle. When the opponents got used to this, Scipio changed the location of his troops on the day of the battle, brought them out earlier than usual and launched a rapid attack. The enemy was defeated, and this battle became a turning point in the war, which could now be transferred to enemy territory.

Already in Africa, on the territory of Carthage, Scipio used military stratagem in one of the battles.

Having learned that the allies of the Carthaginians, the Numidians, were living in reed huts, he sent part of the army to set fire to these huts, and when the Carthaginians, attracted by the spectacle of the fire, lost their vigilance, another part of the army attacked them and inflicted a heavy defeat.

IN decisive battle At Zama, Scipio met Hannibal on the battlefield and won. The war is over.

Scipio was different humane treatment to the vanquished, and his generosity became a favorite theme for future artists.

Marius (158 BC – 86 BC)

Gaius Marius came from a humble Roman family; he achieved eminence thanks to his military talents. He acted very successfully in the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, but he earned real glory in the battles with the Germanic tribes. During this period they became so strong that for Rome, weakened by numerous wars in different ends empire, their invasion became real threat. There were significantly more Germans than Maria's legionnaires, but the Romans had order, better weapons and experience on their side. Thanks to the skillful actions of Maria, the strong tribes of the Teutons and Cimbri were practically destroyed. The commander was proclaimed “the savior of the fatherland” and “the third founder of Rome.”

The fame and influence of Marius were so great that Roman politicians, fearing his excessive rise, gradually pushed the commander out of business.

At the same time, the career of Sulla, a former subordinate of Marius who became his enemy, was going uphill. Both sides did not disdain any means, from slander to political assassinations. Their enmity ultimately led to civil war. Expelled from Rome by Sulla, Mari wandered around the provinces for a long time and almost died, but managed to gather an army and take the city, where he remained until the end, pursuing Sulla’s supporters. After the death of Marius, his supporters did not last long in Rome. Returning Sulla destroyed the grave of his enemy and threw his remains into the river.

Sulla (138 BC – 78 BC)

The Roman commander Lucius Cornelius Sulla received the nickname Felix (happy). Indeed, luck accompanied this man all his life, both in military and political affairs.

Sulla began his military service during the Numidian War in North Africa under the command of Gaius Marius, his future implacable enemy. He conducted affairs so energetically and was so successful in battles and diplomacy that popular rumor attributed to him much of the credit for victory in the Numidian War. This made Maria jealous.

After successful military campaigns in Asia, Sulla was appointed commander in the war against the Pontic king Mithridates. However, after his departure, Marius ensured that Sulla was recalled and he was appointed commander.

Sulla, having secured the support of the army, returned, captured Rome and expelled Marius, starting a civil war. While Sulla was at war with Mithridates, Marius recaptured Rome. Sulla returned there after the death of his enemy and was elected permanent dictator. Having brutally dealt with the supporters of Marius, Sulla some time later resigned his dictatorial powers and remained a private citizen until the end of his life.

Crassus (115 BC – 51 BC)

Marcus Licinius Crassus was one of the richest Romans. However, he made most of his fortune during the dictatorship of Sulla, appropriating the confiscated property of his opponents. Yours high position under Sulla he achieved thanks to the fact that he distinguished himself in the civil war, fighting on his side.

After the death of Sulla, Crassus was appointed commander in the war against the rebel slaves of Spartacus.

Acting very energetically, unlike his predecessors, Crassus forced Spartacus to take a decisive battle and defeated him.

He treated the vanquished extremely cruelly: several thousand captive slaves were crucified along the Appian Way, and their bodies remained hanging there for many years.

Together with Julius Caesar and Pompey, Crassus became a member of the first triumvirate. These generals actually divided the Roman provinces among themselves. Crassus got Syria. He planned to expand his possessions and led war of conquest against the Parthian kingdom, but unsuccessfully. Crassus lost the battle of Carrhae, was treacherously captured during negotiations and brutally executed, having molten gold poured down his throat.

Spartacus (110 BC – 71 BC)

Spartacus, a Roman gladiator originally from Thrace, was the leader biggest uprising slaves Despite the lack of command experience and relevant education, he became one of the greatest commanders in history.

When Spartacus and his comrades fled from the gladiator school, his detachment consisted of several dozen poorly armed people who took refuge on Vesuvius. The Romans blocked all the roads, but the rebels performed a legendary maneuver: they descended from a steep slope using ropes woven from grape vines and struck the enemies from the rear.

The Romans initially treated the runaway slaves with contempt, believing that their legions would easily defeat the rebels, and they paid dearly for their arrogance.

The relatively small forces sent against Spartak were one by one defeated, and his army, meanwhile, was strengthened: slaves from all over Italy flocked to it.

Unfortunately, there was no unity among the rebels and general plan further actions: some wanted to stay in Italy and continue the war, while others wanted to leave before the main Roman forces entered the war. Part of the army broke away from Spartak and was defeated. An attempt to leave Italy by sea ended in failure due to the betrayal of the pirates hired by Spartacus. The commander for a long time avoided a decisive battle with the legions of Crassus superior to his army, but in the end he was forced to accept a battle in which the slaves were defeated and he himself died. According to legend, Spartak continued to fight, already being seriously wounded. His body was literally littered with the corpses of the Roman legionnaires he had killed in the last battle.

Pompey (106 BC – 48 BC)

Gnaeus Pompey is known primarily as an opponent of Julius Caesar. But he received his nickname Magnus (Great) for completely different battles.

During the Civil War he was one of the best commanders Sulla. Then Pompey successfully fought in Spain, the Middle East, and the Caucasus and significantly expanded Roman possessions.

One more important matter Pompeii became a purge Mediterranean Sea from pirates who became so insolent that Rome experienced serious difficulties in transporting food by sea.

When Julius Caesar refused to submit to the Senate and thereby started a civil war, Pompey was entrusted with command of the troops of the republic. The struggle between the two great commanders went on for a long time with varying success. But in decisive battle at greek city Pharsal Pompey was defeated and forced to flee. He tried to collect new army to continue the fight, but was treacherously killed in Egypt. Pompey's head was presented to Julius Caesar, but he, contrary to expectations, did not reward, but executed the murderers of his great enemy.

Julius Caesar (100 BC – 44 BC)

Gaius Julius Caesar truly became famous as a commander when he conquered Gaul (now mostly French territory). He himself compiled a detailed account of these events, writing Notes on the Gallic War, which is still considered an example of military memoirs. Julius Caesar's aphoristic style was also evident in his reports to the Senate. For example, “I have arrived.” Saw. “Won” went down in history.

Having come into conflict with the Senate, Julius Caesar refused to surrender command and invaded Italy. At the border, he and his troops crossed the Rubicon River, and since then the expression “Cross the Rubicon” (meaning to complete decisive action, cutting off the path to retreat) became winged.

In the ensuing civil war, he defeated the troops of Gnaeus Pompey at Pharsalus, despite the enemy's numerical superiority, and after campaigns in Africa and Spain he returned to Rome as a dictator. A few years later he was assassinated by conspirators in the Senate. According to legend, the bloody body of Julius Caesar fell at the foot of the statue of his enemy Pompey.

Arminius (16 BC – 21 AD)

Arminius, the leader of the German Cherusci tribe, is known, first of all, for the fact that with his victory over the Romans in the battle in the Teutoburg Forest, he dispelled the myth of their invincibility, which inspired other peoples to fight the conquerors.

In his youth, Arminius served in the Roman army and studied the future enemy well from the inside. After an uprising of Germanic tribes broke out in his homeland, Arminius led it. According to some sources, he was even his ideological inspirer. When three Roman legions sent against the rebels entered the Teutoburg Forest, where they could not line up in the usual order, the Germans, led by Arminius, attacked them. After three days During the battle, Roman troops were almost completely destroyed, and the head of the unlucky Roman commander Quintilius Varus, the son-in-law of Emperor Octavian Augustus himself, was shown around German villages.

Knowing that the Romans would certainly try to take revenge, Arminius tried to unite Germanic tribes to repel them, but did not succeed in this. He died not at the hands of the Romans, but as a result of internal strife, killed by someone close to him. However, his cause was not lost: following the wars with the Romans, the Germanic tribes defended their independence.

navy that played decisive role in the Greek victory in the naval battle of Salamis, but was accused of treason and expelled from the city. The Athenian Aristides (circa 5th century BC), despite his reputation for fairness and incorruptibility, was suspected of wanting to seize power and was also expelled from Athens. What do you think these facts have in common? Why did famous people sometimes find themselves under suspicion among their fellow citizens?

to escape the fire, they were shot from machine guns. 149 people, 76 of them children, remained forever in this hellish grave. Terrible to consider Khatyn residents, like many other residents European countries, especially the Slavs and Jews, was determined long before their actual death. The fascists believed that there were full-fledged and inferior peoples: some were created in order to rule the world, others - in order to be slaves. At the same time, they arrogated to themselves the right to decide the destinies of millions of people? decide whether to leave a person free or send him to concentration camp; save his life or take it away. Nazi executioners poisoned hundreds of people every day in gas chambers. Day and night, crematoria smoked in the death camps, burning the corpses of the tortured. Think about the following figures: out of 240 thousand prisoners (from 33 countries) who passed through the Buchenwald concentration camp, 56 thousand died or were killed. Over 4 million people were exterminated in the Auschwitz camp. And there were several dozen such camps throughout Europe. In 1945 - 1946 took place Nuremberg trial over war criminals of World War II. They were accused of killing millions of innocent people, exterminating prisoners of war and civilian population, the creation of concentration camps and other crimes. Almost all the defendants were found guilty and sentenced to various types punishments. States have decided to join forces in order to prevent even the very possibility of a recurrence of crimes against humanity. They began to agree on those rules and principles of life that would help protect human life. The first step on this path was taken on December 10, 1948, when the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which defined and proclaimed a range of fundamental human rights and freedoms that are subject to universal observance. What lessons can be learned from these events?

Date of: 1999-09-26

Question 16: At the 1992 World Exhibition in Seville, delegates from Chile presented an exhibit that weighed 60 tons at the time of display and was transported to Seville by sea. However, after numerous demands from local “green” groups, the exhibit was returned to its place. True, by that time he had lost up to 2/3 of his weight. What kind of exhibit was this?

Question 17: This american film, the name of which can be found as the title of the BES article on page 1220, according to the author of the question, was created on the basis of one single phrase: “Look under the speedometer, there might be a bomb there.” What kind of movie is this?

Question 18: According to the legend of one nationality living in Russia, the 2nd was the son of the 1st. It has long been named after the first natural object, related to the area of ​​residence of this people. A natural object related to the territory of residence of this people is also named after the 2nd. However, thanks to the activities of another second, who was a close relative of one third, who, however, was himself the grandson of a certain twelfth, the name of the second was consigned to oblivion, so that there would no longer be those who helped someone who was not the grandson of that twelfth, but claimed that he's third. Many representatives of this nationality still call this natural object after the second one. Name the second father.

Question 19: Sans Souci, Florentine, Regent. Continue this list with those whose name was borrowed from a world-famous Czech company, and whose basis differs from what is being asked only in the structure of the crystal lattice?

Question 20: His original title sounded like "armrustung", and consisted of two words - "hand" and "weapon". Then the name was transformed, and, according to the Wendalen Encyclopedia of Weapons, it first appeared in its familiar name on the tombstone of Heinrich von Feldeke in the 12th century. So by what name do we know this weapon?

Question 21: According to eyewitnesses, P. Domingo managed to repeat the achievement of the great soprano Elisabeth Schwarzkopf while performing the role of Hoffmann in the opera “The Tales of Hoffmann,” which, according to tradition, was performed in the Zoological Garden in Cincinnati. What did he manage to do?

Question 22: There are too many pigeons in Lille as they multiply quickly. The city authorities are carrying out actions to shoot them. Active animal defender B. Bardo spoke out against the shootings. She offered a solution to the problem in a human way. What did she advise to use?

Question 23: In one sports magazine, on page 92 there is a very interesting article. When the author of this question first looked at this page, he saw a photograph of a quite handsome European. The photo was not signed, but either by the clock in the photo or by the title of the article: “The Accidental Champion,” but the author of the question easily guessed who was in front of him. So who was in the photo?

Question 24: How to translate Chinese word Almost everyone knows “Shan”; just remember the geography. The word "Shao" is translated into Russian somewhat differently, and you can get what it means by taking the first two and the 16th one. So how is the word “Shan-shao” translated into Russian? If creating this is more about paints, brushes, rags and smooth boards?

Question 25: One of the October issues of Soviet Sport had an interesting design on the first page. The famous phrase was taken as a basis - the slogan of Russian anti-Semites. Next came the names of three Russian football players and certain appeals directed at them. For example, the appeal to Filimonov sounded like this: “don’t let Filimonov pass.” If you guessed what the first call sounded like and what event the page was dedicated to, then answer, which football player’s name came first?

Question 26: The teaching of catechism has been introduced in Polish schools. This is taught, of course, by priests. Along with their appearance, special shields appeared at their desks, designed to cover the knees of female students and nicknamed “anti-temptation.” In addition to the cross, several more signs are depicted on them. What are these signs and what do they symbolize?

Question 27: In the mid-50s, this anthem sounded like this: “Behind us, behind us, we are the Busby children!” After 1958, this anthem began to look like a cruel joke, because it clearly called for suicide. Therefore, it was soon replaced, and now opening with the words: "Glory, glory!", it ends - "Reds" forward, forward, forward!!!" Answer with two non-Russian words, to whom is glory proclaimed in this anthem?

Question 28: This first appeared not in Brazil, but thanks to requests from American soldiers. In Brazil it appeared in the 60s, but still the world capital of it is the city of Londrina in the state of Parana. Many of us are indirectly familiar with this thanks to the man who almost broke Arthur Friedenreich’s record, as well as one transnational concern. What is it about?

Question 29: Dedicated to all connoisseurs of Russian classical prose. In the novel by Mikhail Uspensky "Whom to Send for Death", main character- Zhikhar. On the way to the fair, he met someone who called himself the grandson of Adam and Eve. According to him, for long years During his travels, he crossed the seas, visited the belly of a whale, met a tiger, an elephant, a raccoon dog, the Lernaean Hydra, the serpent Apep, Behemoth and Leviathan. Of course you guessed who it was. Answer, what name, by analogy with the ancient Russian princely names, having as the root the name of a modern military unit, did Zhikhar prepare for him?

Question 30: Among the coaches of Russian hockey clubs there have never been such stylish, or maybe simply Americanized, representatives. Even the nickname given to him - Bill - fully corresponds to his appearance, and not only. You may have already guessed who we're talking about. However, let us tell you that at one time this defender of the USSR national team became world champion 6 times, European champion 8 times, and won Olympic gold in Sarajevo. However, the question is different, answer as accurately as possible, which club is he currently coaching?

Question 31: Various companies supply specialists in this profession in the United States. For example, "Western Temporary Services". The instructions for this profession say that you must be good-natured, know how to use an elevator, do not make promises, be neat, do not mention religion and do not smoke. Who does this company supply?

Question 32: In 1890, the Japanese philosopher and sage Fukuruma visited Russia. Oddly enough, he brought his entire family with him. Even stranger was the fact that there was no one in his family who was taller or at least the same height as him, although he himself was very short. We are not asking you what mark he left on the history of cultural relations between Russia and Japan, we are asking you to answer why there was no one taller than him in his family, and there couldn’t have been?

Question 33: He was born in Egypt, and became famous throughout the world as one of the 3 children of Aphrodite. Having given his original interpretation of the end of the world and his understanding of the animal number 666, he continued his work alone. Now his name appears mostly in conjunction with all sorts of imported weight loss products. Name it.

Question 34: These two symbols have been known since ancient times in Mycenae, Egypt, and Iran. They were depicted separately or together, symbolizing darkness and light, the confrontation of these principles. In 339 BC. the inhabitants of the city of Byzantium chose these symbols as the emblem of the city, uniting them. According to legends: at the moment of the attack on the city by the troops of Philip the Great, “the moon goddess Hecate lit her torch in the clouds and the inhabitants of the city were raised to their feet by the barking of dogs.” This symbol is also known in a modified form, popular 10 years ago. True, in this case, to the first two symbols, one of which was somewhat modified, a third was added, associated with the Scandinavian deity. Answer, what is this third item?

Question 35: April 23. Late night. Outskirts of Vilnius. The endless beating of drums can be heard. Since the evening of April 20, the police have been intensively patrolling the streets, even a regiment has been called in for help. internal troops. Rockets fly into the air, people tirelessly wave flags. This is an excerpt from a non-local newspaper. Answer, what happened on this day in Munich?

Question 36: At the entrance to the Turkish city of Sivrihisar there is a monument: a man in a wide-brimmed hat sits on a donkey, stabbing a long stick into the ground. There is an inscription on the pedestal indicating that he was born in 1208. The date of his death is deliberately indicated backwards, 386 instead of 683, which corresponds to 1008, i.e. It turns out that he died before he was born. True, such inconsistencies do not bother anyone, especially since not only the Turks, but also many of their neighbors in the Middle East, the Caucasus and Central Asia consider him one of their own. On the monument itself there is an inscription, the basis for which was one of the stories that happened to this man. What kind of inscription is this?

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Date of: 1999-11-21

Question 1: According to Wechsler, the average norm is 100. But in most developed countries, the majority have more than 100. From 90 to 70 is a borderline area, and below 70 is a bad indicator. Summarize the above in two letters.

Question 8: At the dacha, the author of the question has a huge, wall-sized map of the world hanging on his wall. Every time he goes to bed, Norway appears before his eyes, at face level. How do you explain this fact, considering that the author of the question sleeps on the floor? The answer “the card hangs upside down” will be taken as an insult mental abilities author and be fined by deducting two points.

Question 9: In 1562, the book “The Masses and Their Construction” was published, at the beginning of the book the authors wrote: “The damned Satan armed himself with all his tricks to sneak nonsense into the text and thereby discourage readers from picking up the book.” And what do WE call “these devilish tricks”?

Question 10: 09.1946 in Zanzibar, a boy was born into a Persian family of the Zoroastrian religion. Although his colleagues predicted a career for him as a “rich kid” and a “gorgeous dancer,” he was destined for a “royal” future. He survived a “massive heart attack,” but died for completely different reasons, after many years of “work” and “play.” And what “poison” caused his tragic death?

Question 11: Codominance is a type of interaction between different alleles of the same gene, when none of the alleles dominates the other, and both alternative traits are manifested in the phenotype. An example of codominance: a person simultaneously produces proteins - alpha agglutinogens A and B. A person will have a trait that is designated as AB, or using Roman numerals. Which ones?

Question 12: Who actually was the father of Ivan Vasilyevich is not known for sure, but perhaps it could not have happened without a certain Golitsin, who has a very unclear relationship to famous family Russian princes. This is how Ivan Vasilyevich would have lived his life, not becoming famous for anything, if not for the trouble that happened to Lieutenant Meleshko in the village of Krasnoe. And give the name of Ivan Vasilyevich.

Question 13: In the book, unlike its film adaptation, he does not appear in the two stories that chapters 1 and 2 are devoted to; he appears in chapter 3 and goes hunting. At 7 he takes a bath, at 10 he is completely surrounded by water. And only at 18 does he accomplish a great feat. And what inscription adorned his family heirloom?

Question 14: When in short times"Thaw" A. Tvardovsky tried (successfully) to publish a certain work in "New World", the author, oddly enough, among other things, was recommended to mention Stalin somewhere; which was exactly what was done: Stalin is mentioned exactly once in the work. Name the author and his work.

Question 15: On August 14, 1999, the Sport Express newspaper announced Steffi Graf's retirement from tennis. Over 17 years in tennis, she won 107 titles, for 377 weeks she held the title of first racket of the world. And in 1988, Graf managed to get the Grand Slam and become a champion olympic games in Seoul. The article in Saturday's paper was headlined: "The Count Quit Tennis..."?

Question 16: Name the names of those who combined in one line the Shakespearean commander, the hero of the novel English writer Rider Haggard and the biblical king who read the prophecy on the wall.

Answer: I. Ilf and E. Petrov