The work used methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Among the methods of theoretical knowledge the following were used: problem statement, hypothesis formulation, analysis and synthesis. Among the methods of empirical knowledge were used survey, observation, measurement, survey, testing, comparison, description and modeling.

1. Observation is the deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct intervention, subordinated to the tasks of scientific research.

Basic requirements for scientific observation:

1) Unambiguity of purpose and intent
2) Objectivity
3) Systematicity in observation methods
4) Possibility of control either through repeated observation or through experiment.

The results of observation are experimental data, and possibly - taking into account the primary (automatic) processing of primary information - diagrams, graphs, diagrams. Structural components observations: the observer himself, the object of study, observation conditions, means of observation (installations, instruments, measuring instruments, as well as special terminology in addition to natural language).

Scientific observation consists of the following procedures:

1) Determining the purpose of observation (for what? for what purpose?)
2) Selection of an object, process, situation (what to observe?)
3) Choosing the method and frequency of observations (how to observe?)
4) Selection of methods for recording the observed object, phenomenon (how to record the information received?)
5) Processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?)

The activity of the researcher in the act of observation is associated with the theoretical conditioning of the content of the observation results. Observation involves not only the sensory, but also the rational ability in the form of theoretical guidelines and scientific standards. As they say, “a scientist looks with his eyes, but sees with his head.”

The activity of observation is also manifested in the selection and design of observation means.

There are two main types of observation: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative observation has been known to people and used by them since ancient times - long before the advent of science in its current understanding. The use of quantitative observations coincides with the very formation of science in modern times. Quantitative observations are naturally associated with advances in the development of measurement theory and measuring technology. The transition to measurements and the emergence of quantitative observations also meant preparation for the mathematization of science.

In observation, the subject of cognition receives extremely valuable information about the object, which usually cannot be obtained in any other way. Observation data is extremely informative, providing unique information about an object that is unique only to this object at this point in time and under these conditions. The results of observation form the basis of facts, and facts, as we know, are the air of science.

Characteristics of scientific observation: 1. Purposeful. Observation should initially be focused on recording the qualities and characteristics that are aimed at research. 2. Planfulness - plan, certain order on which observation is carried out. 3. Specification of scientific observation. 4. In scientific observation there is no influence on the object. 5. Surveillance check different conditions.

Observation:

1. Armed (using technical means) and unarmed.
2. Field and laboratory.
3. Direct and indirect.
4. Direct and indirect (research is based on a set of other people’s data).
2. Measurement is cognitive process, which consists in comparing a given value with a certain value taken as a comparison standard.

Measurement is the determination of the relationship of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard.

Unlike comparison, measurement is more powerful and versatile educational tool. With direct measurement, the result is obtained directly from the measurement process itself (for example, in sports competitions, measuring the length of a jump using a tape measure, measuring the length of carpeting in a store, etc.). At indirect measurement the desired quantity is determined mathematically on the basis of knowledge of other quantities obtained by direct measurement. For example, knowing the size and weight of a building brick, you can measure specific pressure(with appropriate calculations) that the brick must withstand during the construction of multi-story buildings. The value of measurements is evident from the fact that they provide accurate, quantitative information about the surrounding reality. As a result of measurements, such facts can be established, such empirical discoveries can be made that lead to a radical breakdown of established ideas in science. This concerns, first of all, unique, outstanding measurements, which represent very important milestones in the history of science. The most important indicator of the quality of a measurement and its scientific value is accuracy. Practice shows that the main ways to improve measurement accuracy are:

- improving the quality of measuring instruments operating on the basis of certain established principles;
- creation of devices operating on the basis of the latest scientific discoveries.

A specific measurement structure can be distinguished, including the following elements:

1) a cognizing subject who carries out measurements for certain cognitive purposes;
2) measuring instruments, which can include both devices and tools designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;
3) the object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;
4) a method or method of measurement that represents a set practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;
5) the result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using appropriate names or signs.
3. Comparison

This is one of the most common and universal research methods. Famous aphorism“everything is known by comparison” is the best proof of this. Comparison is the relationship between two integers a and b, meaning that the difference (a - b) of these numbers is divided by a given integer m, called module C. In research, comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of reality. As a result of comparison, the commonality that is inherent in two or more objects is established, and the identification of commonality that is repeated in phenomena, as is known, is a step on the path to knowledge of the law. For a comparison to be fruitful, it must satisfy two basic requirements. 1. Only such phenomena should be compared between which there can be a certain objective commonality. You can’t compare things that are obviously incomparable; it doesn’t give you anything. IN best case scenario here one can only make superficial and therefore fruitless analogies. 2. Comparison should be made based on the most important features. Comparison based on unimportant features can easily lead to confusion. Thus, formally comparing the work of enterprises producing the same type of product, one can find much in common in their activities. If at the same time a comparison according to such the most important parameters, such as production level, production cost, various conditions, in which the compared enterprises operate, it is easy to come to a methodological error leading to one-sided conclusions. If we take these parameters into account, it will become clear what the reason is and where the real sources of the methodological error lie. Such a comparison will already give a true idea of the phenomena under consideration, corresponding to the real state of affairs. Various objects of interest to the researcher can be compared directly or indirectly - through comparing them with some third object. In the first case you usually get quality results(more - less; lighter - darker; higher - lower, etc.). However, even with such a comparison one can obtain the simplest quantitative characteristics, expressing in numerical form quantitative differences between objects (2 times more, 3 times higher, etc.). When objects are compared with some third object, acting as a standard, quantitative characteristics acquire special value, since they describe objects without regard to each other, provide deeper and detailed knowledge about them.

Using comparison, information about an object can be obtained by two in various ways. Firstly, it very often acts as a direct result of comparison. For example, establishing any relationships between objects, detecting differences or similarities between them is information obtained directly from comparison. This information can be called primary. Secondly, very often obtaining primary information does not act as main goal comparison, this goal is to obtain secondary or derivative information resulting from the processing of primary data. The most common and most in an important way Such processing is inference by analogy. In order to increase the likelihood of obtaining true knowledge about an object, you need to keep in mind the following: inference by analogy gives even more true meaning, the more similar features we find in the compared objects; the truth of a conclusion by analogy is directly dependent on the significance of similar features of objects, even large number similar, but not essential features, may lead to a false conclusion; the deeper the relationship between the features detected in an object, the higher the likelihood of a false conclusion; the general similarity of two objects is not a basis for inference by analogy if the one about which the conclusion is made has a feature that is incompatible with the transferred feature. In other words, to obtain a true conclusion, it is necessary to take into account not only the nature of the similarity, but also the nature of the differences between objects.

The comparison procedure includes, on the one hand, the way in which the comparison operation can be carried out, and on the other, the corresponding operating situation. Any statement we make about the identity or difference of any objects has a certain and exact meaning only when we can specify the appropriate comparison procedure within a particular cognitive position. Comparison not only increases the cognitive value of observation, but also performs a semantic function, that is, it helps to identify the meaning of our statements.

4. Modeling is a method of understanding the world around us, consisting in the creation and study of models.

Different sciences study objects and processes from different angles and build different types of models. In physics, the processes of interaction and change of objects are studied, in chemistry - their chemical composition, in biology - the structure and behavior of living organisms, etc.

A model is a new object that reflects the essential features of the object, phenomenon or process being studied. This method is based on the principle of similarity. Its essence lies in the fact that it is not the object itself that is directly studied, but its analogue, its substitute, its model, and then the results obtained from studying the model. special rules are transferred to the object itself.

Modeling is used in cases where the object itself is either difficult to access, or its direct study is not economically profitable, etc. There are a number of types of modeling:

1. Subject modeling, in which the model reproduces geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics object. For example, bridge model, dam model, wing model

airplane, etc.

2. Analog Modeling, in which the model and the original are described by a single mathematical relationship. An example is electrical models used to study mechanical, hydrodynamic and acoustic phenomena.
3. Sign modeling, in which diagrams, drawings, and formulas act as models. The role of iconic models has especially increased with the expansion of the use of computers in the construction of iconic models.
4. Mental modeling is closely related to the iconic, in which models acquire a mentally visual character. An example in this case is the model of the atom, proposed at one time by Bohr.
5. Finally, special kind modeling is the inclusion in the experiment not of the object itself, but of its model, due to which the latter acquires the character of a model experiment. This type of modeling indicates that there is no hard line between the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Idealization is organically connected with modeling - the mental construction of concepts, theories about objects that do not exist and cannot be realized in reality, but those for which there is a close prototype or analogue in the real world. Examples of ideal objects constructed by this method are geometric concepts points, lines, planes, etc. All sciences operate with this kind of ideal objects - ideal gas, absolutely black body, socio-economic formation, state, etc. .

How do we understand the world? The answer is very simple - by contemplation. Observation is the basis of knowledge of reality and the beginning of any purposeful process. It arouses interest, which, in turn, motivates actions that shape the result.

Observation is a method of getting to know the world

We use observation method in everyday life without even thinking about it. When we look out the window to see what the weather is like, wait for our minibus at a bus stop, visit a zoo or cinema, or even just take a walk, we observe. This ability is a huge gift, without which it is difficult to imagine a person’s everyday life.

Every profession requires this skill. The seller needs to learn to determine the preferences of customers, the doctor - the symptoms of the disease, the teacher - the level of knowledge of students. The chef's job requires constant monitoring behind the cooking process. As you can see, we all use the observation method every day without even thinking about it.

When do we learn to observe?

The way a child perceives the world is different from the perception of an adult. Seeing something new is a surprise for a child, causing a desire for further research. Observation in childhood develops the baby’s curiosity and thus shapes his perception of the surrounding reality.

Teaching a child to observe is an adult’s task. In kindergartens, specially for this purpose, classes are held where children learn to actively perceive nature. “Look” and “see” are several different concepts. A child should not just mindlessly contemplate, but learn to understand what he actually sees, compare, contrast. Such skills come gradually. Children's observations are the basis for the formation of correct ideas about the world around them. They are the basis logical thinking person.

General concept of the term "observation"

The concept under consideration is very multifaceted and versatile. We are accustomed to understanding observation as a purposeful, specially organized method of active perception of a process, used to collect data. What kind of information this will be depends on the object of observation, the conditions of conduct and the goals that must be achieved.

Everyday, non-targeted observations of everyday processes give us knowledge, experience and help us make decisions about taking certain actions. Intentionally organized observation is a source of accurate data that determines the characteristics of the subject of research. For this, certain conditions must be created - a laboratory environment or a natural one. social environment, necessary for analysis.

Scientific observation

Within the framework of a particular science, the observation method may acquire specific content, but the basic principles remain unchanged:

The first is the principle of non-interference in the subject or process being studied. To obtain objective results, you should not disrupt the natural course of the action being studied.
The second is the principle direct perception. Observing what happens in current moment time.

Psychology is a science that could not exist without this method. Along with the experiment, observation provides the necessary data for any conclusion of psychologists. Sociology is another field that makes extensive use of this method. Every sociological study is based in whole or in part on observational results. It is worth noting that almost all economic research begin with statistical observations. In the exact sciences (chemistry, physics), along with empirical measurement methods that provide accurate information (weight, speed, temperature), the observation method is necessarily used. Philosophical research is also difficult to imagine without this method. But in this science the concept is given a more free definition. Philosophical observation is, first of all, conscious contemplation, as a result of which certain problems of existence can be solved.

Observation as a method of collecting statistical information

Statistical observation is an organized, systematic collection of necessary data characterizing socio-economic processes and phenomena. Any such research begins with the accumulation of information and represents targeted monitoring of objects and recording of facts of interest.

Statistical observation differs from simple observation in that the data obtained during its implementation must be recorded. In the future, they will influence the results of research. That is why so much attention is paid to organizing and conducting statistical observations.

Purpose and objects of statistical observation

From the definition of this concept, it becomes clear that its purpose is to collect information. What type of information this will be depends on the form of observation and its objects. So who or what do extras most often follow?

The object of observation is a certain set (set) of socio-economic phenomena or processes. The key here is that there should be a lot of them. Each unit is studied separately in order to then average the data obtained and draw certain conclusions.

How is statistical observation organized?

Each observation begins with defining goals and objectives. Next, they clearly limit the period of time for its implementation. Sometimes, instead of a time frame, a critical moment is determined - when the amount of information sufficient to conduct the study is collected. Its onset makes it possible to stop collecting data. Reconciliation points are recorded - moments when planned performance indicators are compared with actual ones.

An important stage of preparation is the identification of the object of observation (many interconnected units). Each unit has a list of signs that are subject to observation. It is necessary to identify only the most significant of them, which significantly characterize the phenomenon being studied.

Upon completion of preparation for observation, instructions are drawn up. All subsequent actions of the performers must strictly comply with it.

Classification of types of statistical observation

Depending on the conditions of the event, it is customary to distinguish different types statistical observation. The degree of coverage of units of the population under study makes it possible to distinguish two types:

Continuous (complete) observation - each unit of the studied set is subject to analysis.
Selective - studied only certain part totality.

Naturally, the full implementation of such a study requires a lot of time, labor and material resources, but its results will be more reliable.

Depending on the time of registration of facts statistical observation May be:

Continuous - recording events in the current time. Pauses in observation are not allowed. Example: registration of marriages, births, deaths by the registry office.
Intermittent - events are recorded periodically at certain moments. This could be a population census, an inventory of an enterprise.

Saving observation results

An important point when conducting observations is the correct recording of the results. In order for the information that is obtained to be effectively processed and used in further research, it must be properly stored.

For this purpose, registers, forms, and an observation diary are created. Often the procedure statistical research, if it involves a large number of units being studied, it also requires several observers. Each of them records the received data in forms (cards), which are later summarized, and the information is transferred to the general register.

In independently organized studies, the results are often saved in an observation diary - a specially designed journal or notebook. We all remember from school how we made graphs of weather changes and recorded the data in such a diary.

Is the observation method necessary in sociology?

Sociology is a science for which observation as a research method is as important as for statistics or psychology. The vast majority of sociological experiments are based on this method. Here, as in the case of statistics, observation is a source of data for further work.

The object of sociological observations is a group of individuals, each of whom becomes a unit under study for some time. Studying people's actions is more difficult than, for example, the flow natural processes. Their behavior can be influenced by the presence of other objects (if observation is carried out in a group), as well as the presence of the researcher himself. This is one of the disadvantages of this method. The second disadvantage of observation in sociology is subjectivity. The researcher may, without wanting to, interfere in the process being studied.

In sociology (as in psychology), this method provides descriptive information to characterize the characteristics of the unit or group being studied.

In order for sociological observation to be successful and effective, it is necessary to adhere to the plan:

Determine the goals and objectives of the upcoming research.
Identify the object and subject of observation.
Choose as much as possible effective way its implementation.
Select a method for registering the information received.
Ensure control at all stages of observation.
Organize high-quality processing and interpretation of the information received.

What are the types of observation in sociology?

Depending on the place and role of the observer in the group being studied, there are:

Depending on the powers, surveillance can be:

Controlled - it is possible to organize the process being studied.
Uncontrolled - any interference in observation is excluded, all facts are recorded in their natural manifestations.

Depending on the conditions of the organization:

Laboratory - observation for which certain conditions are artificially created.
Field - carried out directly at the place of manifestation of the social process and during its occurrence.

What is self-observation? This is a very interesting and specific type of research, when the object being studied must, as objectively as possible, trace the features of its own behavior necessary for the study and provide a report. This method has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that only the person himself has the opportunity to assess his own psychological processes and actions as deeply and reliably as possible. The downside is the present subjectivity of the method, which cannot be eliminated or at least minimized.

Using the child observation method in pedagogical research

When it comes to studying child psychology, observation is practically the only possible way. A child is a very specific object for research. Young children are not able to participate psychological experiments, they cannot verbally describe their emotions, actions, and actions.

Many pedagogical methods is based on data accumulated during the observation of infants and children of early preschool age:

Tables early development Arnold Gesell, compiled by direct observation of children's reactions to external factors.
E. L. Frucht compiled the methodology psychophysical development babies. It is based on monitoring a child up to ten months of age.
J. Lashley used this method for many studies. His most famous works are “Development Cards” and “Methods for Observing Difficult Behavior.”

Observation and observation. How is this personality quality useful?

Observation is psychological property capability-based sensory perception, individual for each person. In simple words- this is the ability to observe. The important thing here is whether a person is able to notice details in the process of contemplation. As it turned out, not everyone has developed this skill at a sufficient level.

Observation is a quality that is useful both in everyday life and in professional activity. There are many psychological studies that focus on the development of mindfulness. Practice shows that learning to observe is easy; all you need is your desire and a little effort, but the result is worth it. For observant people, the world is always more interesting and colorful.

Comparison and measurement

BASIC METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

According to two interconnected levels scientific knowledge(empirical and theoretical) distinguish between empirical methods scientific research(observation, description, comparison, measurement, experiment, induction, etc.), with the help of which the accumulation, recording, generalization and systematization of experimental data, their statistical processing, and theoretical (analysis and synthesis, analogy and modeling, idealization, deduction and etc.); with their help, the laws of science and theory are formed.

In the process of scientific research, it is advisable to use a variety of methods rather than limit yourself to just one.

Observation

Observation– this is a purposeful systematic perception of an object, delivering primary material for scientific research. Observation is a method of cognition in which an object is studied without interfering with it. Focus – most important characteristic observations. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of an object many times and under different conditions, systematicity, eliminating gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select the necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.

Direct observations in the history of science were gradually replaced by observations using increasingly advanced instruments - telescopes, microscopes, cameras, etc. Then an even more indirect method of observation appeared. It made it possible not only to zoom in, enlarge or capture the object being studied, but also to transform information inaccessible to our senses into a form accessible to them. In this case, the intermediary device plays the role of not only a “messenger”, but also a “translator”. For example, radars transform captured radio rays into light pulses that our eyes can see.

As a method of scientific research, observation provides initial information about an object necessary for its further research.

Comparison and measurement

Important role Comparison and measurement play a role in scientific research. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. Comparison – it is an operation of thinking through which the content of reality is classified, ordered and evaluated. When comparing, a pairwise comparison of objects is made in order to identify their relationships, similar or distinctive features. Comparison makes sense only in relation to the totality homogeneous objects, forming a class.

Measurement – This is the determination of a physical quantity experimentally using special technical means.

Purpose of measurement is to obtain information about the object under study.

Measurement can be carried out in the following cases:

– in purely cognitive tasks in which a comprehensive study of an object is carried out, without clearly formulated ideas for applying the results obtained in applied activities;

– in applied tasks related to identifying certain properties of an object that are essential for a very specific application.

The theory and practice of measurement deals with metrology - the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and methods of achieving the required accuracy.

The exact sciences are characterized by an organic connection between observations and experiments with finding the numerical values of the characteristics of the objects under study. In the figurative expression of D.I. Mendeleev, “science begins as soon as they begin to measure.

Any measurement can be carried out if the following elements are present: measurement object, the property or state of which characterizes measured quantity; unit of measurement; measurement method; technical means measurements, graduated in selected units; observer or recording device, perceiving the result.

There are direct and indirect measurements. In the first of them, the result is obtained directly from the measurement (for example, measuring length with a ruler, mass with weights). Indirect measurements are based on the use of a known relationship between the desired value of a quantity and the values of directly measured quantities.

Measuring instruments include measuring instruments, measuring instruments and installations. Measuring instruments divided into exemplary and technical.

Exemplary products are standards. They are intended for testing to check technical, i.e. working means.

The transfer of unit sizes from standards or standard measuring instruments to working instruments is carried out by state and departmental metrological bodies that make up the domestic metrological service; their activities ensure the uniformity of measurements and the uniformity of measuring instruments in the country. The founder of the metrological service and metrology as a science in Russia was the great Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev, who created it in 1893. Main Chamber weights and measures, which, in particular, has carried out a lot of work to introduce metric system in the country (1918 – 1927).

One of the most important tasks when carrying out measurements is to establish their accuracy, that is, to determine errors (errors). Inaccuracy or measurement error call the deviation of the measurement result of a physical quantity from its true value.

If the error is small, then it can be neglected. However, two questions inevitably arise: firstly, what is meant by a small error, and secondly, how to estimate the magnitude of the error.

The measurement error is usually unknown, just as the true value of the measured quantity is unknown (exceptions are measurements of known quantities carried out with special purpose study of measurement errors, for example to determine the accuracy of measuring instruments). Therefore, one of the main tasks of mathematical processing of experimental results is precisely the assessment of the true value of the measured quantity based on the results obtained.

Let's consider the classification of measurement errors.

There are systematic and random measurement errors.

Systematic error remains constant (or changes naturally) with repeated measurements of the same quantity. K constantly valid reasons This error includes the following: poor-quality materials, components used for the manufacture of devices; unsatisfactory operation, inaccurate calibration of the sensor, the use of measuring instruments of a low accuracy class, deviation of the thermal regime of the installation from the calculated one (usually stationary), violation of assumptions under which the design equations are valid, etc. Such errors are easily eliminated when debugging the measuring equipment or introducing special corrections to the value of the measured quantity.

Random error changes randomly with repeated measurements and is caused by the chaotic action of many weak, and therefore difficult to identify, causes. An example of one of these reasons is reading a dial gauge - the result depends unpredictably on the operator's angle of view. The random measurement error can only be assessed using the methods of probability theory and mathematical statistics. If the error in an experiment significantly exceeds the expected one, then it is called a gross error (miss), and the measurement result in this case is discarded. Gross errors arise as a result of violation of the basic measurement conditions or as a result of an oversight by the experimenter (for example, in poor lighting, instead of 3, 8 is recorded). If a gross error is detected, the measurement result should be immediately discarded and the measurement itself should be repeated (if possible). An external sign of a result containing a gross error is its sharp difference in magnitude from the results of other measurements.

Another classification of errors is their division into methodological and instrumental errors. Methodological errors are caused by theoretical errors of the chosen measurement method: deviation of the thermal regime of the installation from the calculated (stationary) one, violation of the conditions under which the design equations are valid, etc. Instrumental errors caused by inaccurate calibration of sensors, errors in measuring instruments, etc. If methodological errors in a carefully conducted experiment can be reduced to zero or taken into account by introducing corrections, then instrumental errors cannot be eliminated in principle - replacing one device with another of the same type changes the measurement result.

Thus, the most difficult errors to eliminate in experiments are random and systematic instrumental errors.

If measurements are carried out repeatedly under the same conditions, then the results of individual measurements are equally reliable. Such a set of measurements x 1, x 2 ...x n is called equal-precision measurements.

With multiple (equal-precision) measurements of the same quantity x, random errors lead to a scatter of the obtained values x i, which are grouped near the true value of the measured quantity. If we analyze a sufficiently large series of equal-precision measurements and the corresponding random measurement errors, then four properties of random errors can be distinguished:

1) the number of positive errors is almost equal to the number of negative ones;

2) small errors are more common than large ones;

3) the magnitude of the largest errors does not exceed a certain limit, depending on the accuracy of the measurement;

4) the quotient of dividing the algebraic sum of all random errors by their total quantity close to zero, i.e.

Based on the listed properties, taking into account certain assumptions, the law of distribution of random errors, described by next function:

The law of distribution of random errors is fundamental in the mathematical theory of errors. Otherwise, it is called the normal distribution law of the measured data (Gaussian distribution). This law is shown in graph form in Fig. 2

Rice. 2. Characteristics normal law distribution

р(x) – probability density of receiving individual values x i (the probability itself is represented by the area under the curve);

m – mathematical expectation, the most probable value of the measured value x (corresponding to the maximum of the graph), tending to infinity large number measurements to the unknown true value x; , where n is the number of measurements. Thus, the mathematical expectation m is defined as the arithmetic mean of all values x i,

s – average standard deviation measured value x from the value m; (x i - m) – absolute deviation of x i from m,

The area under the curve of the graph in any range of values x represents the probability of obtaining random result measurements in this interval. For a normal distribution, 0.62 of all measurements taken fall within the ±s interval (relative to m); the wider ±2s interval already contains 0.95 of all measurements , and almost all measurement results (except for gross errors) fit within the ±3s interval.

The standard deviation s characterizes the width of the normal distribution. If you increase the measurement accuracy, the scatter of results will sharply decrease due to a decrease in s (distribution 2 in Fig. 4.3 b is narrower and sharper than curve 1).

The ultimate goal experiment is to determine the true value x, which, in the presence of random errors, can only be approached by calculating the mathematical expectation m for all more experiments.

The spread of the values of the mathematical expectation m calculated for various numbers dimensions n is characterized by the value s m ; When compared with the formula for s, it is clear that the spread of the value of m, as an arithmetic mean, in Ön is less than the spread of individual measurements x i. The given expressions for s m and s reflect the law of increasing accuracy with increasing number of measurements. It follows from it that to increase the accuracy of measurements by 2 times, it is necessary to make four measurements instead of one; to increase the accuracy by 3 times, you need to increase the number of measurements by 9 times, etc.

For a limited number of measurements, the value of m still differs from the true value of x, therefore, along with the calculation of m, it is necessary to indicate a confidence interval , in which the true value of x is found with a given probability. For technical measurements, a probability of 0.95 is considered sufficient, so the confidence interval for a normal distribution is ±2s m. The normal distribution is valid for the number of measurements n ³ 30.

In real conditions, a technical experiment is rarely carried out more than 5 - 7 times, so the disadvantage statistical information must be compensated by expansion confidence interval. In this case, for (n< 30) доверительный интервал определяется как ± k s s m , где k s – коэффициент Стьюдента, определяемый по справочным таблицам

As the number of measurements n decreases, the coefficient k s increases, which expands the confidence interval, and as n increases, the value of k s tends to 2, which corresponds to the confidence interval of the normal distribution ± 2s m.

End result multiple measurements constant value Always reduced to the form: m ± k s s m .

Thus, to estimate random errors, it is necessary to perform the following operations:

1). Write down the results x 1 , x 2 ...x n of repeated measurements of n constant value;

2). Calculate the average value from n measurements - mathematical expectation;

3). Determine the errors of individual measurements x i -m;

4). Calculate the squared errors of individual measurements (x i -m) 2;

If several measurements differ sharply in their values from other measurements, then you should check whether they are a miss (gross error). When excluding one or more measurements of p.p. 1...4 repeat;

5). The value s m is determined - the spread of the values of the mathematical expectation m;

6). For the selected probability (usually 0.95) and the number of measurements taken n, the Student coefficient k s is determined from the lookup table;

Values of the Student coefficient k s depending on the number of measurements n for confidence probability 0,95

7). The boundaries of the confidence interval ± k s s m are determined

8). The final result m ± k s s m is recorded.

Instrumental errors cannot be eliminated in principle. All measurement tools are based on a certain method measurements whose accuracy is finite.

Instrumental errors cannot be eliminated in principle. All measuring instruments are based on a specific measurement method, the accuracy of which is finite. The instrument error is determined by the accuracy of the instrument scale division. So, for example, if the scale of a ruler is marked every 1 mm, then the accuracy of the reading (half the value of the 0.5 mm division) cannot be changed if you use a magnifying glass to examine the scale.

There are absolute and relative measurement errors.

Absolute error D of the measured quantity x is equal to the difference between the measured and true values:

D = x - x source

Relative error e is measured in fractions of the found value x:

For the simplest measuring instruments - measuring instruments, the absolute measurement error D is equal to half the division value. The relative error is determined by the formula.

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Sochi state university tourism and resort business

Faculty of Tourism Business

Department of Economics and Organization of Social and Cultural Activities

TEST

In the discipline "Scientific Research Methods"

on the topic: “Methods of scientific knowledge. Observation, comparison, measurement, experiment"

Introduction

1. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1 Surveillance

2.2 Comparison

2.3 Measurement

2.4 Experiment

Conclusion

Introduction

Centuries of experience have allowed people to come to the conclusion that nature can be studied using scientific methods.

The concept of method (from the Greek “methodos” - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality.

The doctrine of method began to develop in modern science. Thus, a prominent philosopher and scientist of the 17th century. F. Bacon compared the method of cognition to a lantern illuminating the way for a traveler walking in the dark.

There is a whole field of knowledge that specifically deals with the study of methods and which is usually called methodology (“the study of methods”). The most important task methodology is the study of the origin, essence, effectiveness and other characteristics of methods of cognition.

1.Methods of scientific knowledge

Each science uses different methods, which depend on the nature of the problems it solves. However, the uniqueness of scientific methods lies in the fact that they are relatively independent of the type of problem, but are dependent on the level and depth of scientific research, which is manifested primarily in their role in scientific research processes.

In other words, in each research process the combination of methods and their structure changes.

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually divided according to the breadth of applicability in the process of scientific research.

There are general, general scientific and specific scientific methods.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. Metaphysical method from the middle of the 19th century. began to be increasingly replaced by the dialectical.

General scientific methods are used in the most various areas science (has an interdisciplinary range of applications).

Classification general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Some general scientific methods are used only at the empirical level (observation, comparison, experiment, measurement); others - only on the theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - on both the empirical and theoretical.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the direct study of really existing, sensory objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects under study (through measurements, experiments) is carried out; here the primary systematization of the acquired knowledge takes place (in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs).

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) stage of cognition. At this level, the deepest, most significant aspects, connections, and patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are identified. The result of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

However, empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical.

The third group of methods of scientific knowledge includes methods used only within the framework of research into a specific science or a specific phenomenon.

Such methods are called private scientific methods. Each special science (biology, chemistry, geology) has its own specific methods research.

However, specific scientific methods contain features of both general scientific methods and universal ones. For example, private scientific methods may involve observations and measurements. Or, for example, the universal dialectical principle of development manifests itself in biology in the form of the natural historical law of the evolution of animal and plant species discovered by Charles Darwin.

2. Methods of empirical research

Methods of empirical research are observation, comparison, measurement, experiment.

At this level, the researcher accumulates facts and information about the objects under study.

2.1 Surveillance

Observation is simplest form scientific knowledge based on sensory data. Observation involves minimal influence on the object's activity and maximum reliance on the subject's natural senses. At the very least, intermediaries in the surveillance process, e.g. various kinds devices should only quantitatively enhance the distinctive ability of the senses. Can be highlighted various types observations, for example, armed (using instruments, for example, a microscope, telescope) and unarmed (devices are not used), field (observation in the natural environment of an object) and laboratory (in an artificial environment).

To carry out the observation method, it is necessary, firstly, to ensure a long-term, time-lasting, high-quality perception of the object (for example, you need to have good vision, hearing, etc., or good devices that enhance natural human abilities perception).

If possible, it is necessary to carry out this perception in such a way that it does not influence too much the natural activity of the object, otherwise we will observe not so much the object itself as its interaction with the subject of observation (a small influence of observation on the object, which can be neglected, is called neutrality of observation).

For example, if a zoologist observes the behavior of animals, then it is better for him to hide so that the animals do not see him, and observe them from behind the shelter.

It is useful to perceive an object in more diverse conditions - in different times, in different places, etc., in order to obtain more complete sensory information about the object. It is necessary to intensify attention in order to try to notice the slightest changes in an object that elude ordinary superficial perception. It would be good, without relying on your own memory, to somehow specifically record the results of your observation, for example, to keep an observation log, where you record the time and conditions of observation, and describe the results of the perception of the object obtained at that time (such records are also called observation protocols).

Finally, care must be taken to conduct an observation under conditions where another person could, in principle, conduct a similar observation and obtain approximately the same results (the possibility of an observation being repeated by any person is called intersubjectivity of observation). In a good observation, there is no need to rush to somehow explain the manifestations of the object, or put forward certain hypotheses. To some extent, it is useful to remain impartial, recording everything that happens with equanimity and impartiality (this independence of observation from rational forms of cognition is called theoretical unloaded observation).

Thus, scientific observation is, in principle, the same observation as in everyday life, in everyday life, but in every possible way strengthened by various additional resources: time, increased attention, neutrality, diversity, logging, intersubjectivity, lightness.

This is especially pedantic sensory perception, the quantitative enhancement of which can finally provide a qualitative difference compared to ordinary perception and lay the foundation for scientific knowledge.

Observation is a purposeful perception of an object, determined by the task of the activity. The main condition for scientific observation is objectivity, i.e. the possibility of control through either repeated observation or the use of other research methods (for example, experiment).

2.2 Comparison

This is one of the most common and universal research methods. The well-known aphorism “everything is learned by comparison” is the best proof of this. Comparison is a relationship between two integers a and b, meaning that the difference (a - b) of these numbers is divided by a given integer m, called modulus C; written a b (mod, m). In research, comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of reality. As a result of comparison, the commonality that is inherent in two or more objects is established, and the identification of commonality that is repeated in phenomena, as is known, is a step on the path to knowledge of the law. For a comparison to be fruitful, it must satisfy two basic requirements.

Only such phenomena should be compared between which there can be a certain objective commonality. You can’t compare obviously incomparable things - it won’t give you anything. At best, one can only come to superficial and therefore fruitless analogies. Comparison should be made based on the most important characteristics. Comparison based on unimportant characteristics can easily lead to confusion.

Thus, formally comparing the work of enterprises producing the same type of product, one can find much in common in their activities. If at the same time a comparison is missed on such important parameters as the level of production, the cost of production, the various conditions in which the compared enterprises operate, then it is easy to come to a methodological error leading to one-sided conclusions. If we take these parameters into account, it will become clear what the reason is and where the real sources of the methodological error lie. Such a comparison will already give a true idea of the phenomena under consideration, corresponding to the real state of affairs.

Various objects of interest to the researcher can be compared directly or indirectly - through comparing them with some third object. In the first case, high-quality results are usually obtained. However, even with such a comparison it is possible to obtain the simplest quantitative characteristics that express in numerical form the quantitative differences between objects. When objects are compared with some third object that acts as a standard, quantitative characteristics acquire special value, since they describe objects without regard to each other and provide deeper and more detailed knowledge about them. This comparison is called measurement. It will be discussed in detail below. Using comparison, information about an object can be obtained in two different ways. Firstly, it very often acts as a direct result of comparison. For example, establishing any relationships between objects, detecting differences or similarities between them is information obtained directly from comparison. This information can be called primary. Secondly, very often obtaining primary information does not act as the main goal of comparison; this goal is to obtain secondary or derivative information that is the result of processing primary data. The most common and most important method of such processing is inference by analogy. This conclusion was discovered and studied (under the name “paradeigma”) by Aristotle. Its essence boils down to the following: if two identical features are found as a result of comparison, but one of them has an additional feature, then it is assumed that this feature must also be inherent in the other object. Briefly, the course of inference by analogy can be represented as follows:

A has attributes X1, X2, X3..., X n, X n+1.

B has attributes X1, X2, X3..., X n.

Conclusion: “Probably B has attribute X n+1.”

A conclusion based on analogy is probabilistic in nature; it can lead not only to truth, but also to error. In order to increase the likelihood of obtaining true knowledge about an object, you need to keep the following in mind:

inference by analogy gives the more true the meaning, the more similar features we find in the objects being compared;

the truth of a conclusion by analogy is directly dependent on the significance of similar features of objects; even a large number of similar but not significant features can lead to a false conclusion;

The deeper the relationship between the features detected in an object, the higher the likelihood of a false conclusion.

The general similarity of two objects is not a basis for inference by analogy if the one about which the conclusion is made has a feature that is incompatible with the transferred feature.

In other words, to obtain a true conclusion, it is necessary to take into account not only the nature of the similarity, but also the nature and differences of the objects.

2.3 Measurement

Measurement has historically developed from the operation of comparison, which is its basis. However, unlike comparison, measurement is a more powerful and universal cognitive tool.

Measurement is a set of actions performed using measuring instruments in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in accepted units of measurement.

There are direct measurements (for example, measuring length with a graduated ruler) and indirect measurements based on the known relationship between the desired quantity and the directly measured quantities.

The measurement assumes the presence of the following basic elements:

· measurement object;

· units of measurement, i.e. reference object;

· measuring instrument(s);

· measurement method;

· observer (researcher).

In direct measurement, the result is obtained directly from the measurement process itself. With indirect measurement, the desired quantity is determined mathematically based on knowledge of other quantities obtained by direct measurement. The value of measurements is evident from the fact that they provide accurate, quantitative information about the surrounding reality.

As a result of measurements, such facts can be established, such empirical discoveries can be made that lead to a radical breakdown of established ideas in science. This concerns, first of all, unique, outstanding measurements, which represent very important moments in the development and history of science. The most important indicator of the quality of a measurement and its scientific value is accuracy. Practice shows that the main ways to improve measurement accuracy are:

· improving the quality of measuring instruments operating on the basis of certain established principles;

· creation of devices operating on the basis of the latest scientific discoveries.

Among empirical research methods, measurement occupies approximately the same place as observation and comparison. It represents comparatively elementary method, one of components experiment is the most complex and significant method of empirical research.

2.4 Experiment

An experiment is the study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the flow of the process in the right direction. This is the most difficult and effective method empirical research. It involves the use of the simplest empirical methods - observation, comparison and measurement. However, its essence is not in particular complexity, “syntheticity,” but in the purposeful, deliberate transformation of the phenomena under study, in the intervention of the experimenter in accordance with his goals during natural processes.

It should be noted that the approval of the experimental method in science is long process, which took place in the acute struggle of advanced scientists of the New Age against ancient speculation and medieval scholasticism. Founder experimental science Galileo Galilei, who considered experience to be the basis of knowledge, is rightfully considered. Some of his research is the basis of modern mechanics. In 1657 after his death, the Florentine Academy of Experience arose, which worked according to his plans and aimed primarily at conducting experimental research.

Compared to observation, experiment has several advantages:

· during the experiment it becomes possible to study a particular phenomenon in its “pure” form. This means that various factors, obscuring the main process, can be eliminated, and the researcher receives accurate knowledge about the phenomenon of interest to us.

· experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects of reality under extreme conditions:

A. at ultra-low and ultra-high temperatures;

b. at the highest pressures;

V. at enormous electric and magnetic field strengths, etc.

Working under these conditions can lead to the discovery of the most unexpected and surprising properties in ordinary things and thus allows one to penetrate much deeper into their essence.

An example of this kind of “strange” phenomena discovered under extreme conditions related to the control field is superconductivity.

The most important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability. During the experiment, the necessary observations, comparisons and measurements can be carried out, as a rule, as many times as necessary to obtain reliable data. This feature of the experimental method makes it very valuable in research.

There are situations that require experimental research. For example:

a situation when it is necessary to discover previously unknown properties of an object. The result of such an experiment is statements that do not follow from existing knowledge about the object.

a situation when it is necessary to verify the correctness of certain statements or theoretical constructions.

There are also methods of empirical and theoretical research. Such as: abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling and use of instruments, historical and logical methods of scientific knowledge.

scientific technical progress study

Conclusion

Based on the test work, we can conclude that research as a process of developing new knowledge in the work of a manager is also necessary, like other types of activities. The study is characterized by objectivity, reproducibility, evidence, accuracy, i.e. what the manager needs in practical activities. From the manager involved independent research, you can expect:

A. ability to choose and pose questions;

b. the ability to use the means available to science (if he does not find his own, new ones);

V. ability to understand the results obtained, i.e. understand what the study yielded and whether it yielded anything at all.

Empirical research methods are not the only opportunity to analyze an object. Along with them, there are methods of empirical and theoretical research, as well as methods of theoretical research. Methods of empirical research in comparison with others are the most elementary, but at the same time the most universal and widespread. The most complex and significant method empirical research - experiment. Scientific and technological progress requires an ever wider use of experiment. As for modern science, then without experiment its development is simply unthinkable. Currently, experimental research has become so important that it is considered one of the main forms of practical activity of researchers.

Literature

Barchukov I. S. Methods of scientific research in tourism 2008

Heisenberg V. Physics and Philosophy. Part and whole. - M., 1989. P. 85.

Kravets A. S. Methodology of science. - Voronezh. 1991

Lukashevich V.K. Fundamentals of scientific research methodology 2001

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Observation

general scientific method of empirical research. In sociology it is used primarily for collecting and simple generalization of primary information. The latter are recorded acts of verbal or real behavior units of observation. Unlike natural sciences Where N. is considered the simplest type of research, in sociology scientific N. is one of the most complex and time-consuming methods. Its complexity is due to the specificity of the relationship between the subject and the object of observation, in which a person acts as both subject and object. This relationship is actually a subject-subject social relationship, which predetermines the inevitability of their mutual influence in the research process, and therefore the possibility of obtaining artifacts, “deformed” information. Therefore, the use of this method is usually associated with the development of complex technical techniques that ensure the reliability of the initial data. N.'s reliability is ensured primarily by the adequacy of its conditions to the type of interaction between subject and object, the degree of formalization of the procedure, and the representativeness of the information. For any sociological research, depending on whether those observed know about it or not, the following types of interaction are characteristic: 1. Involved (participatory) research, when the observed know about the presence of the researcher in the group. The subject, by virtue of the very fact of inclusion, feels the influence of the object, and to a certain extent becomes the object itself. The object reacts to the presence of the subject. In this case, it is necessary;) complex correction of the data N, which receives deformation due to the “disturbing” mutual influence of the subject and the object. 2. Included N., when the observed do not know about it. The subject also feels the influence of the object, but the object does not react to the presence of the subject. In this case, the reliability of information increases, but problems arise in the ethics of research, registration and completeness of information. 3. Unincluded N., when the observed ones know about it. The object does not significantly influence the subject, but itself reacts to its presence. This reaction (change in behavior) is the main reason for the deformation of the primary data and must be taken into account by the subject. 4. Unincluded N., when the observed do not know about it. In the interaction of subject and object, there is actually no “disturbing” influence. However, the possibility of deformation and loss of information increases due to a more limited field of observation. In this case, as in the previous one (3), there is a high probability of organizational and technical errors. In the named types of interaction between the subject and the object of N., the problem of eliminating “disturbing” factors is solved as a problem of taking into account specific conditions, scientific organization and conduct of research, as well as sufficient control of data for validity, stability and accuracy. To ensure this, the object of N. must first of all be defined in a specific empirical situation. Depending on whether it is natural or artificially created, the type of interaction is determined. The empirical situation must then be codified in terms of hypothesis and research program. Accordingly, they are developing headings for indicators I. A unified system for indicating empirical situations makes it possible to unify data, carry out their comparability and quantitative processing on a computer or manually. As a result, sociological N., contrary to widespread skepticism, make it possible, with good training of observers, to obtain data whose correlation reaches 0.75-0.95. The main advantage of N. is that this method allows you to directly study interactions, connections and relationships between people and make reasonable empirical generalizations. At the same time, on the basis of such generalizations, it is more difficult to establish patterns of phenomena, identify their determinants, and distinguish between chance and necessity in social processes. Therefore, sociological research must be used in combination with other research methods to provide a comprehensive examination of the object.

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