The First World War itself and its results, in short, were of great importance for the subsequent development of not only European states, but also the whole world. Firstly, it forever changed the world order that existed before it. And secondly, its outcome became one of the prerequisites for the emergence of a second world armed conflict.

Policy

Highest value the war had implications for further political interaction between the countries.
After the war, the political map of the world changed quite a lot. Four disappeared from her at once large empires who played a significant role in world politics. Instead of 22 European states, at the end of the military confrontation there were 30 countries on the continent. New state formations also appeared in the Middle East (instead of the Ottoman Empire, which had ended its days). At the same time, in many countries the form of government has changed and political structure. If before the start of the war there were 19 monarchical states and only three republican ones on the European map, then after its end the former became 14, but the number of the latter immediately increased to 16.
The new Versailles-Washington system, formed to a greater extent taking into account the interests of the victorious countries (Russia did not enter there, as it had left the war earlier), had a huge impact on further international relations. At the same time, interests are again formed states, as well as countries defeated were completely ignored in the war. And even, on the contrary, the young states had to become obedient puppets in the fight against the Russian Bolshevik system and the German thirst for revenge.
In a word, the new system was completely unfair, unbalanced, and, therefore, ineffective and could not lead to anything other than a new large-scale war.

Economy

Even after a brief examination it becomes clear, but not lower value The First World War also had consequences for the economies of all countries that took part in it.
As a result of the fighting large areas countries lay in ruins, settlements and infrastructure were destroyed. The arms race has led to a skew of the economy in many industrial countries towards the military industry, to the detriment of other areas.
At the same time, the changes affected not only the largest powers, which spent enormous sums on rearmament, but also their colonies, where production was transferred, and from where more and more resources were supplied.
As a result of the war, many countries abandoned the gold standard, which led to a crisis in the monetary system.
Almost the only country that received quite a large benefit from the First World War was the United States. Observing neutrality in the first years of the war, the states accepted and carried out orders from the warring parties, which led to their significant enrichment.
However, despite everything negative points in the development of the economy, it is worth noting that the war gave an impetus to the development of new technologies, and not only in the production of weapons.

Demography

The human cost of this protracted, bloody conflict numbered in the millions. Moreover, they did not end with the last shot. Many died due to their wounds and the outbreak of the Spanish flu pandemic in the post-war years. The countries of Europe were literally drained of blood.

Community development

In short, the First World War was of considerable importance for the development of society. While men fought on numerous fronts, women worked in workshops and industries, including those that were considered exclusively male. This largely affected the formation women's views and rethinking their place in society. Therefore, the post-war years were marked by mass emancipation.
The war also played a huge role in strengthening the revolutionary movement and, as a result, improving the situation of the working class. In some countries, workers sought to realize their rights through a change of government, in others the government and monopolists themselves made concessions.

New ideologies

Perhaps one of the most significant results of the First World War was that it made possible the emergence of new ideologies, such as fascism, and gave a chance to strengthen and rise to the top. new level the old ones, for example, socialism.
Subsequently, many researchers have repeatedly proven that it is precisely such large-scale and protracted conflicts that contribute to the establishment of totalitarian regimes.
Thus, we can say that the world after the end of the war was completely different from the one that entered it four years earlier.

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Introduction

1. Consequences of the First World War for Western European countries

2. Creation of new states in Europe after the First World War

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The First World War is one of the key events in world history. She determined world evolution all subsequent time. In four years there has been a genuine revolution in the economy, communications, national organization, social system peace.

The First World War gave a modern form to the national question. It brought into the arena of public life masses of people who had actually not previously participated in world history. It gave an unprecedented impetus to the technical revolution, while revealing unprecedented depths of humanitarian decline to which capable person contrary to all the achievements of civilization.

It virtually destroyed the optimistic culture of Europe, crushed all the achievements of a century of the post-Napoleonic world, and made violence a legitimate tool for resolving international disputes and an instrument of social change. It left behind unprecedented anger among peoples, which spilled over into the alienation of the 20s and 30s and the bloody drama of the Second World War.

Called the Great, the First World War left wounds that even time has difficulty healing. There is not a city or village in France, Germany and Britain that does not have a monument to those who did not return from the Great War.

In this war, two million Russian soldiers, two million French, two million Germans, a million Englishmen and countless hundreds of thousands of the most different countries and corners of the earth - from New Zealand to Ireland, from South Africa to Finland. And the survivors became part of what would later be called the “lost generation.”

Therefore, the relevance of this topic is beyond doubt.

The purpose of the work is to briefly reveal the consequences of the First World War for European countries.

The work consists of an introduction, main part, conclusion and list of references.

1. Consequences of the First World War for Western European countries

In August 1914, the world did not yet know how grandiose and catastrophic the war declared on the first day of the last summer month would become. No one yet knew what innumerable victims, disasters and shocks it would bring to humanity and what indelible mark it would leave on its history. And absolutely no one imagined that precisely those terrible four years of the First World War - as it was later called - were destined, regardless of calendars, to become the true beginning of the 20th century.

The First World War is one of the most large-scale armed conflicts in human history.

IN The war began in Europe between the Austro-German bloc and the coalition of England, France, and Russia. It lasted 4 years, 3 months and 10 days (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918), drawing 38 countries of the world into its orbit. Military operations took place in Europe, the Far and Middle East, Africa, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans.

The causes of the war were the uneven economic and political development of capitalist countries, which led at the beginning of the 20th century to a change in the balance of power on the world stage and competition between the largest Western countries for markets, sources of raw materials, and the redistribution of an already divided world.

First, the war involved 8 European countries: Germany and Austria-Hungary, on the one hand, Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro, on the other. Later, most countries of the world were involved in it. In total, 4 states took part in the war on the side of the Austro-German bloc, and 34 states on the side of the Entente (including 4 British dominions and the colony of India, which signed the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919).

By its nature, the war was aggressive and unfair on both sides; only in Belgium, Serbia, and Montenegro did it include elements of the national liberation war.

Goals of the Great Powers in World War I: France sought to regain the lost Alsace and Lorraine, the banks of the Rhine and preserve its colonies.

United Kingdom- crush the main rival in Europe and the colonies. Austria-Hungary - put an end to Serbia and the pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans, led by Russia. Germany- defeat France and eliminate it as a competitor in Europe, oust England from Europe and capture it colonial possessions, access raw materials Russia. Austria-Hungary- preserve the multinational empire, suppress the national liberation movement of the Slavic peoples, seize the territories of the Balkan Peninsula liberated by Turkey. Italy- seize part of the Turkish possessions in Africa, achieve an advantage in the Balkans, and strengthen their influence in the Mediterranean. After much hesitation, she entered the war on the side of the Entente. Russia- expel Turkey from the Balkans and consolidate its presence there, bring the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits under its control, support the national liberation struggle of the Slavic peoples.

This war raised the question of the further coexistence of different peoples and states in a new way. And in human terms, its price turned out to be unprecedentedly high - the great powers that were part of the opposing blocs and bore the brunt of the hostilities lost a significant part of their gene pool.

The historical consciousness of peoples turned out to be so poisoned that for a long time it cut off the path to reconciliation for those of them who acted as opponents on the battlefields. The world war “rewarded” those who went through its crucible and survived, albeit driven inside, but constantly reminding themselves of their bitterness. People's faith in the reliability and rationality of the existing world order was seriously undermined.

On November 11, 1918, a truce was concluded in Compiègne, ending The First World War was a conflict unprecedented in the history of mankind, which ended in the complete defeat of Germany and its allies.

End First World War it was withthe most significant event in the world in2- 1st decadeXXcentury. This event was awaited by many millions of peoples of war-torn states, and it was blamed high hopes ordinary people. After the horror of massive bombings, gas attacks, and so many dead that no other war had ever known, people wanted peace.

The First World War was one of the main reasons for the collapse of four empires - German, Russian, Ottoman Empires and Austria-Hungary, the latter two being divided. One can, of course, argue about whether this collapse was predetermined, as well as about who was right and who was wrong. But these debates themselves are now of interest only to scientific circles. A much more interesting question is what were the consequences of the First World War for humanity in general and for Europe in particular.

As a result, the political map of the world changed significantly, and the so-called Versailles-Washington system of international relations was approved. It was based on the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 and other agreements and treaties concluded at the Washington Conference (1921-1922). These documents consolidated the redivision of the world in favor of the victorious powers. Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, is reduced territorially and weakened economically. According to the Treaty of Versailles The territory of Germany decreased by 70 thousand square meters. km, it lost all its few colonies; military articles obliged Germany not to introduce conscription, to dissolve all military organizations, not to have modern species weapons, pay reparations. The map of Europe was completely redrawn.

The composition of the main characters in world politics: the revolution in Russia excluded the country from among the influential countries of the world. The countries of the Fourth Bloc were defeated and dropped out of the list of countries that determined world politics. The positions of England and France weakened due to the growing influence of the USA and Japan.

New states emerged in Europe: Polish Republic, Czechoslovak Republic, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 - Yugoslavia), Austria, Hungary, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, which radically changed the balance of power in Eastern Europe. The violation of the ethnic principle during the establishment of the borders of new states and the ambitions of their leaders turned this region into a constant source of tension.

The borders of modern Europe were 70% formed as a result of the First World War. According to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany:

Returned Alsace-Lorraine to France (within the borders of 1870).

Transferred to Belgium - the districts of Malmedy and Eupen.

Transferred to Poland - Poznan, parts of Pomerania and other territories of East Prussia; southern Upper Silesia (1981); (at the same time: ancestral Polish lands on the right bank of the Oder, Lower Silesia, most Upper Silesia - remained with Germany).

The city of Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city.

The city of Memel (Klaipeda) was transferred to the jurisdiction of the victorious powers (in 1923 - annexed to Lithuania).

Transferred to Denmark - northern part Schleswig (in 1920).

Transferred to Czechoslovakia a small section of Upper Silesia.

The Saar region came under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years.

The German part of the left bank of the Rhine and a strip of the right bank 50 km wide were subject to demilitarization.

Military actions led to the destruction of the economies of many countries. Indeed, in all the warring countries, democracy was curtailed, the sphere of market relations was narrowed, giving way to strict state regulation of the sphere of production and distribution in its extreme statist form, i.e. State intervention in production and its regulation increased significantly.

The First World War led to a significant deterioration in people's lives. The civilian population, suffering from incredible hardships with which they put up with in the first years of the war, in the conditions of protracted hostilities, began to fight not only for their rights, but also against the forces that unleashed this war. They wanted big changes: more justice, more equality, more democracy. A new stage in the national liberation struggle of peoples who were under colonial dependence began. The process of politicization of this struggle has intensified. As a result, revolutions broke out in some countries (Russia, Germany, Hungary, Austria, Finland, Slovakia), while reforms were carried out in others (England, France, USA). A fascist dictatorship was established in Italy. War and revolution led to the collapse of monarchies: out of 41 ruling dynasty in Europe after the end of the war only 17 remained.

The results of the First World War were the February and October revolutions in Russia and the November revolution in Germany. Following the October Revolution in Russia, revolutions of a socialist nature took place in Finland, Germany, and Hungary; in other countries there was an unprecedented rise in the revolutionary movement, and in the colonies - in the anti-colonial movement.

The creation of democratic republics with a more just social order was main goal revolutionary forces. But there were also those who were influenced October Revolution in Russia he sought to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of Soviet power. But nowhere in Europe except Russia has this goal been achieved. The greatest significance was the German Revolution of 1918-1919, the establishment of the Weimar Republic in the country.

Tensions in international relations continued. In the 1920s, the great powers tried to strengthen this system. Germany's position was eased. It was accepted into the League of Nations, and the burden of reparations was reduced. Western countries recognized Soviet Russia.

The consequences of the war were catastrophic for national economy most countries. They resulted in widespread, long-term economic crises, which were based on gigantic economic imbalances that arose during the war years. In 20-30 years. In the 20th century, the world was shaken by two powerful crises - the post-war crisis of 1920-21, and the most severe in the history of world capitalism - the crisis of 1929-33.

Being a "war of economies", the First World War led to a crisis to one degree or another for all countries at war. The situation was especially difficult in the defeated countries (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). Living standards fell so low that discontent grew into revolutionary movements. In 1924 - 25 There was a “partial stabilization of capitalism. A short period of stability and prosperity gave way in 1929 to a severe global crisis of overproduction, which hit the rapidly developing countries (USA, Germany) the hardest.

An ordinary economic crisis is a discrepancy between the flow of manufactured products and the purchasing power of the population (i.e., overproduction of goods). Countries emerged from such crises through a natural reduction in production (bankruptcy or forced closure of enterprises), lowering prices by reducing production costs (for example, increasing working hours and reducing wages) and cessation of investment. As a result, production is gradually compared with consumption (supply with demand) and a new rise begins.

At the end of the 20s. industry experienced a change in its technical and technological base, which led to an excessively large increase in production, which was impossible to reduce using old methods without receiving a powerful social outburst of indignation. That is why the new crisis has become so protracted and painful.

There have been economic crises before. This one turned out to be unique in terms of the depth of the decline in production, the scale of the global economy, and its duration. The reason for this is the disruption of the world economy after the First World War. Western governments were unprepared to deal with such a scourge. They could not even achieve coordinated action to combat the crisis, although everyone was its victims. The crisis also caused severe social consequences. Unemployment became widespread and long-lasting.

The reduction in demand for food has worsened the situation of farmers. A similar fate befell small traders and artisans. He was also under threat of ruin. middle class: employees, doctors, teachers. Under such conditions, people's moods began to change. There was disappointment in the existing order. The political influence of those parties and movements that advocated its scrapping began to grow. Among them were both communists and fascists. Political stability is also a thing of the past. The search for ways out of the crisis began. In some countries, fascism eventually came to power, in others democratic reforms were carried out.

The socio-political and socio-economic consequences of the First World War for the main participating countries are briefly presented in the appendix.

The crisis also affected international relations. Western countries, having failed to find ways to jointly combat the crisis, tried to shift its burden onto each other. This weakened their ability to jointly maintain world order.

Thus, the First World War, without resolving any of the previous contradictions, gave rise to new serious contradictions, which served as the cause of subsequent military conflicts and then a new world war.

2. Creation of new states in Europe after the First World War

The countries of Western Europe have always played a prominent role in world politics and economics. First of all, this applies to England, Germany, France, and Russia. In 1900, the balance of forces in world industrial production was as follows: England accounted for 18.5%, France - 6.8%, Germany - 13.2%, and the USA - 23.6%. Europe as a whole accounted for 62.0% of the total industrial production peace.

After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Czechs and Slovaks united and created independent state - Czechoslovakia. When it became known in Prague that Austria-Hungary had sued for peace, on October 28, 1918, the Prague National Committee assumed power in the Czech and Slovak lands and created a Provisional National Assembly of representatives different parties. The meeting elected the first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomas Masaryk. The boundaries of the new republic were determined at the Paris Peace Conference. It included the Czech lands of Austria, Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine, which were previously part of Hungary, and later part of Silesia, which was part of Germany. As a result, about a third of the country's population were Germans, Hungarians and Ukrainians. Major reforms were carried out in Czechoslovakia. The nobility was deprived of all privileges. An 8-hour working day was established and social insurance was introduced. Land reform eliminated German and Hungarian large land holding. The Constitution of 1920 consolidated the democratic system that had developed in Czechoslovakia. Being one of the most developed industrial countries in Europe, Czechoslovakia was distinguished by a relatively high standard of living and political stability.

On October 31, 1918, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary and at the same time the King of Hungary, Charles IV, instructed the Hungarian Count M. Karolyi to form a government of democratic parties. This government was guided by the Entente and tried to keep Hungary within its pre-war borders. November 16, 1918 Hungary was proclaimed a republic. But democracy failed to strengthen in Hungary. Hungarian communists called for revolution and began to create Soviets throughout the country on the Russian model. The Entente “helped” them to come to power, in the form of an ultimatum demanding the release of territories that were now to be transferred to Hungary’s neighbors. The ultimatum was perceived in the country as a national catastrophe. The government and Karolyi himself resigned. It seemed that there was only one way out of this crisis - to try to rely on the help of Soviet Russia. This could not be done without the communists. On March 21, 1919, they and the Social Democrats united and bloodlessly proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Banks, industry, transport, and large land holdings were nationalized. Communist leader Bela Kun became People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and proposed an "armed alliance" with Russia. This call was supported in Moscow. The two Red Armies tried to break through to each other; the Hungarian one pushed back the Czechoslovak troops and entered Transcarpathian Ukraine. But their connection never happened. On July 24, the offensive of the Czechoslovak and Romanian armies began. On August 1, the Soviet government resigned, and soon Budapest entered Romanian troops. Power in Hungary passed to anti-communist groups, which also advocated the restoration of the monarchy in Hungary. Under these conditions, parliamentary elections were held in 1920. The Soviet Republic fell and Miklos Horthy came to power. He banned the Communist Party. In the summer of 1920, the new government signed the Treaty of Trianon. According to it, Hungary lost 2/3 of its territory, 1/3 of its population and access to the sea. 3 million Hungarians ended up in neighboring states, and Hungary itself accepted 400 thousand refugees. The foreign policy of Horthy Hungary was clearly aimed at restoring Hungary within its former borders. Her relations with her neighbors were constantly strained.

She found herself in a difficult situation Austria. In Austria, on October 30, 1918, power was assumed by the Provisional National Assembly and the State Council, a coalition government led by Social Democrat Karl Renner. The Provisional National Assembly abolished the monarchy. Emperor Charles IV, who succeeded the deceased Franz Joseph in 1916, became the last Habsburg on the Austrian throne. The terms of the peace treaty that Austria was forced to sign were unusually difficult for it. Over the centuries, the economic ties between Austria and Hungary have developed and Slavic lands were artificially torn apart, the country lost access to the sea. Vienna, vaunted as the capital of a vast empire and rivaling London and Paris in grandeur, became the capital small state. Having become an almost purely Austrian-German state, Austria naturally began to gravitate toward Germany. But these connections were also limited. This became a breeding ground for the growth of nationalist and fascist sentiments.

The Yugoslav peoples that were part of Austria-Hungary united around Serbia and created on December 4, 1918 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. However, the Serbs sought to take a leading position in this state. At the same time, they did not want to take into account the interests of other peoples, very different from each other, despite their common origin (Croats and Slovenes are Catholics, Macedonians, Montenegrins and the Serbs themselves are Orthodox, some of the Slavs converted to Islam, Albanians are non-Slavs, professing the majority Islam). This almost immediately made the national question the main source of instability in political life. At the same time, the main contradiction turned out to be between the Serbs and Croats - the two largest peoples in the country. The authorities tried to suppress any discontent. The country began to be called the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was supposed to symbolize the “national unity” of the population. In response, Croatian nationalists killed the king in 1934. Only in 1939 the ruling regime decided to make concessions on the national issue: it announced the creation of an autonomous Croatian region.

Lost independence and divided in the 18th century Poland fought for the restoration of her state for more than a century. The First World War created the conditions for achieving this goal. The restoration of an independent Polish state is associated with the name of Józef Pilsudski. Observing the growing contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary, he came up with the idea of using these contradictions to achieve his goal. He offered the Austrians the services of a revolutionary underground to fight Russia. With the outbreak of the First World War, Pilsudski had the opportunity to form Polish national units, which already in 1914 entered into battle with the Russian army. The retreat of the Russian army from Poland in 1915 contributed to the growth of Pilsudski's influence, which caused alarm among the Germans and Austrians, who least of all thought about Polish independence. They assigned Pilsudski only the role of a weapon in the anti-Russian struggle. The February Revolution in Russia and the recognition by the new government of the Poles' right to independence changed the situation. Pilsudski even thought about switching to the side of Russia, and to begin with, he stopped collaborating with the Austrians and Germans. They did not stand on ceremony with him: he ended up in German prison. But this episode further contributed to the growth of his authority in Poland and, no less important, made him an acceptable figure for the Entente as the leader of Poland, the restoration of whose independence became inevitable. The German revolution made it possible to proclaim the independence of Poland, and it also freed Pilsudski.

Arriving in Warsaw, becoming the head of the resurgent Polish state, he concentrated all his energy on creating a combat-ready Polish army from disparate units and detachments, which, in his opinion, was supposed to play decisive role in determining the boundaries of the Polish state. Poland's western borders were determined at the Paris Peace Conference. Pilsudski tried to recreate the eastern ones in the form in which they were in 1772, when, in addition to the Polish lands themselves, it included all of Belarus, Lithuania, part of Latvia and Right Bank Ukraine. Such plans could not but meet with opposition from the peoples inhabiting these territories. They also contradicted the principle of self-determination of peoples, which formed the basis of the post-war reconstruction.

In December 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente established the “Curzon Line” as the temporary border of Poland in the east, which ran along the approximate border of the Poles, on the one hand, and the Ukrainians and Lithuanians, on the other. However, relying on the support of France, which saw strong Poland a reliable counterweight to Germany in the east, Piłsudski could ignore this decision. This was also facilitated by the weakness of the states that had just declared their independence (Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus) after the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Polish troops successively established control over Galicia (this part of Ukraine was part of Austria-Hungary before the First World War), the Vilna region of Lithuania, and in May 1920 they occupied Kyiv. After the signing of the peace treaty, in March 1921, the Soviet-Polish border passed east of the “Curzon Line”, and the western part of Ukraine and Belarus became part of Poland. Soon the Poles again captured the Vilna region from Lithuania. This is how the borders of Poland were formed, in which a third of the population was non-Poles.

In 1921, a constitution was adopted proclaiming Poland a parliamentary republic. In foreign policy, Poland, being in an alliance with France since 1921, pursued an anti-German and anti-Soviet policy.

Independence was granted on December 31, 1917 Finland. Already in January 1918, left-wing Social Democrats and the Finnish Red Guard tried to establish Soviet power. They captured the capital of Finland, Helsinki, industrial centers in the south of the country, created a revolutionary government that entered into a treaty of friendship with Soviet Russia. In addition, after the declaration of independence, units of the Russian army remained on the territory of Finland that supported the revolution. The Finnish government moved to the city of Vasya on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia and began to form a national army, entrusting it to the former Russian general K.G.E. Mannerheim. The presence of Russian troops gave Finland a reason to ask Germany for help. At the beginning of April 1918, about 10 thousand German soldiers landed in Finland. The revolutionaries were defeated. But the country found itself dependent on Germany; plans were discussed to proclaim Finland a kingdom and invite a German prince to the throne. After Germany's defeat in World War I, a republic was proclaimed in Finland, and German troops left the country. Before the formation of elected authorities, the new state was headed by Mannerheim. Soviet-Finnish relations remained for a long time tense.

Territory of the future independent Lithuania already in 1915 it was occupied by German troops. Under the auspices of Germany, the Lithuanian Tariba (Assembly) was created there, headed by A. Smetona. On December 11, 1917, she proclaimed the re-establishment of the Lithuanian state. Germany recognized the independence of Lithuania, forcing Soviet Russia to recognize it through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. However, after the Compiegne Truce, the Red Army invaded Lithuania, Soviet power was proclaimed there, Lithuania and Belarus were united into one Soviet republic. Negotiations began about its federal union with Soviet Russia. These plans did not come true. The Vilna region was captured by Polish troops, and from the rest of Lithuania the Red Army was driven out with the help of volunteer detachments consisting of remnants German army. In April 1919, the Lithuanian Tariba adopted a provisional constitution and elected A. Smetona as president. All Soviet decrees were canceled. However, Smetona's power at first was purely nominal. Part of the country's territory was occupied by the Polish army, the north of Lithuania was controlled by German troops, and relations with Soviet Russia remained unsettled. The Entente countries were suspicious of new government, seeing in her German proteges. It was decided to send the newly formed Lithuanian army to clear the territory of German troops, then, on the basis of anti-Polish interests, it was possible to regulate relations with Soviet Russia. An agreement was signed with her, according to which the Vilna region was recognized as Lithuanian.

IN Soviet-Polish war Lithuania adhered to neutrality, but Soviet Russia handed over to it the Vilna region, from which they were knocked out Polish troops. However, after the retreat of the Red Army, the Poles again captured the Vilna region, between the Polish and Lithuanian armies There were continuous clashes. Only in November 1920, with the mediation of the Entente countries, a truce was concluded. In 1923, the League of Nations recognized the annexation of the Vilna region to Poland. Kaunas became the capital of Lithuania. As compensation, the League of Nations agreed to Lithuania's seizure of Memel (Klaipeda) on the Baltic Sea coast, a German territory that came under French control after the World War. In 1922, the Constituent Seimas adopted the Constitution of Lithuania. It became a parliamentary republic. An agrarian reform was carried out, during which large landownership, predominantly Polish, was eliminated. About 70 thousand peasants received land as a result of this reform.

Territory of future independent republics Latvia and Estonia by the time of the October Revolution it was only partially occupied by German troops. Soviet power was proclaimed in the remaining part of Latvia and Estonia, but in February 1918 the German army captured this territory as well. Under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Soviet Russia recognized the secession of Latvia and Estonia. Germany planned to create a Baltic duchy here, led by one of the representatives of the Prussian Hohendollern dynasty. But after the Compiegne Armistice, Germany transferred power in Latvia to the government of K. Ulmanis, and in Estonia to the government of K. Päts, who declared the independence of their states. Both governments consisted of representatives of democratic parties. Almost simultaneously, an attempt was made to restore Soviet power here. Units of the Red Army entered Estonia. The Estonian Labor Commune was proclaimed, and the RSFSR recognized its independence. At the initiative of the government of the RSFSR, part of the territory of the Petrograd province with a predominantly Russian population was transferred to Estonia.

In Latvia, a Provisional Soviet government was created from Latvian Bolsheviks, which turned to the RSFSR for help. The Red Army took control of mostly Latvia. Then the creation of the Socialist Party was proclaimed Soviet Republic Latvia. In the fight against Soviet troops, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts were forced to rely on the help of the German army, and after its evacuation, on volunteer detachments consisting of Baltic Germans and soldiers of the German army. Since December 1918, assistance to these governments began to come from the British; their squadron arrived in Tallinn. In 1919, Soviet troops were forced out. Having reoriented themselves towards the Entente and created national armies, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts expelled the German troops.

In 1920, the RSFSR recognized the new republics. They held elections to the Constituent Assembly and adopted constitutions. An important role in stabilization inner life these states played, as in Lithuania, agrarian reforms. Large land holdings owned primarily German barons, were liquidated. Tens of thousands of peasants received land on preferential terms. In foreign policy, these states were guided by England and France.

Conclusion

The First World War ended with the defeat of Germany and its allies. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–20 prepared treaties with defeated countries. The following were signed: the Treaty of Versailles 1919 with Germany (June 28), the Treaty of Saint-Germain 1919 with Austria (September 10), the Treaty of Neuilly 1919 with Bulgaria (November 27), the Treaty of Trianon 1920 with Hungary (June 4), the Treaty of Sèvres peace treaty of 1920 with Turkey (August 10).

The conference decided to establish the League of Nations and approved its charter, which became an integral part of the peace treaties. Germany and its former allies were deprived of significant territories, forced to pay large reparations, and significantly limit their armed forces.

The post-war peace “settlement” in the interests of the victorious imperialist powers was completed by the Washington Conference of 1921-22. Treaties with Germany and its former allies and agreements signed at the Washington Conference constituted the so-called. Versailles-Washington system of world organization. Being the result of compromises and deals, it not only did not eliminate the contradictions between the imperialist powers, but significantly strengthened them.

Conclusion. The First World War was an important milestone in the development of mankind. It proved the unity of the world and marked the beginning of fundamental changes in the economy, domestic political life, international relations, culture, and most importantly - in the consciousness and behavior of people.

With all the tragedy of what happened, the First World War served as a starting point for dramatic changes in politics, economics and public life not only in Europe, but also in entire continents.

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Post-war peace settlement in Europe.

Consequences of World War II

World War II was the hardest and bloodiest war in human history. During the war, at least 60 million people, including about 27 million citizens of the Soviet Union. Tens of millions of people were injured and became disabled. The war devastated entire countries, reduced cities and villages to ruins, and turned millions of people into refugees. In Europe alone, the number of so-called displaced persons forced to leave their place of residence has exceeded 11 million people. The loss of life in the Second World War was almost six times greater than in the First World War, and the damage to property was 12 times greater. Of the 4.5 million Soviet troops captured by Germany, only 1.8 million returned home. In specially created German death camps, the Nazis destroyed more than 11 million people, including 6 million Jews.

As a result of the Second World War, the balance of power on the world stage changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan which before the war were among the great powers, having been defeated, temporarily became dependent countries occupied by foreign troops. Their economy was destroyed by the war, and for a number of years they could not compete with their former competitors. France, defeated by Germany in 1940 and occupied by Nazi troops for four years - from 1940 to 1944 - temporarily lost its position as a great power. Great Britain successfully ended the war as one of the three victorious great powers, but its position was weakened. Economically and militarily, it lagged far behind the United States and was dependent on American aid. Only United States of America came out of the war much stronger. Without conducting military operations on their territory, avoiding military destruction and major human losses, they were far ahead of all other countries economically and militarily. Only the United States had atomic weapons; their navy and air force were the strongest in the world, their industrial production was greater than that of all other countries combined. The USA has turned into a giant “superpower”, the leader of the capitalist world, claiming world hegemony.
The second "superpower" became Soviet Union. Having won victory, despite colossal casualties and destruction, having made a decisive contribution to the defeat Hitler's Germany, The Soviet Union increased its power, influence and prestige to an unprecedented degree. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the world's largest land army and enormous industrial potential, surpassing that of any other country except the United States. The armed forces of the USSR were located in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in East Germany, in North Korea. The Soviet Union controlled the situation in the countries of the People's Democracy and enjoyed their full support, as well as the support of North Korea and China - the most populous country in the world.

Occupation regimes of Germany, Austria and Japan.

At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the USSR, USA and Great Britain agreed that After the surrender, Germany will be subjected to a long occupation. The goals of the occupation were the disarmament, demilitarization and denazification of Germany, including complete abolition of its armed forces, destruction fascist party and all other fascist organizations, preparations for the reconstruction of German political life on a democratic basis.
The territory of Germany was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet - in the east, English - in the northwest, French - in the west and American - in the southwest. The German capital Berlin, located on the territory of the Soviet zone, was also divided into four sectors of occupation: Soviet English, French and American Supreme power in Germany was temporarily exercised by the commanders-in-chief allied forces, each in his own zone of occupation. The coordination of the actions of the four powers on all issues affecting Germany was carried out by the Control Council, which consisted of the commanders of the occupation forces. The general administration of Berlin was entrusted to the quadripartite inter-allied commandant's office. The Control Council and the inter-allied commandant's office acted on the principle of unanimity.

Since Austria in 1938-1945. was part of Germany, it was also occupied. Like Germany Austria was divided into four occupation zones: Soviet, English, American and French. Supreme power in Austria was temporarily exercised by the Allied Council, consisting of representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France. In October 1945, elections were held in Austria and a government was formed, but the occupation regime remained in place because the Soviet Union refused to conclude a peace treaty with Austria until a peace treaty with Germany was signed.

In Japan, unlike Germany and Austria, there were no different zones of occupation. The occupation of the territory of the Japanese Islands, as well as the territories of the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean, which were under Japanese rule before the Second World War, was carried out only American troops. Created by agreement between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain, the Allied Council and the Far Eastern Commission for Japan, consisting of representatives of the USA, USSR, China and Great Britain, did not have real power and could only give non-binding recommendations to the commander-in-chief of the American occupation forces. In fact, the American occupation authorities solely controlled all activities of the Japanese government.

At the conference in Yalta it was achieved dividing line agreement between Soviet and Anglo-American troops operating in Europe. It ran from north to south from the Baltic Sea through Germany and Austria, along the Yugoslav border with Italy all the way to the Adriatic Sea. The territories east of this line, with the exception of Greece, were liberated by Soviet troops, and those to the west of it by Anglo-American troops. A similar dividing line was drawn in Korea. South Korea (up to the 38th parallel) also entered the zone of American occupation, while North Korea (where the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was subsequently formed) was occupied by Soviet troops

UN education

An important event international life first post-war years there was a creation United Nations (UN), whose main task was to maintain international peace and security, development of cooperation between peoples and states.
According to a preliminary agreement between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain, reached at the conference of the heads of the three great powers in Yalta, the Founding Conference of the UN opened in April 1945 in San Francisco (USA). States that declared war on Germany and other countries of the fascist bloc were invited to it. The conference adopted the UN Charter, which established the most important principles international law development of friendly relations between nations on the basis of equality and self-determination of peoples, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, resolution of international disputes by peaceful means, refraining from the threat of using force. The Charter stated that international cooperation must be carried out in the spirit of “respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion.”
According to the Charter, the governing bodies of the UN are General Assembly And Security Council. General Assembly, i.e. an assembly of all members of the UN, where each country has one vote, meets periodically in sessions that consider general principles international cooperation and problems related to the maintenance of international peace and security The decisions of the General Assembly are not binding, but advisory in nature, but have high international authority. The Security Council, which has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, makes decisions that are binding on UN members. The Security Council consists of permanent and non-permanent members. The five great powers are permanent members: USSR, USA, UK, China, France. The non-permanent members, which initially consisted of six countries, are elected by the General Assembly for a term of two years. Decisions of the Security Council are valid only if there is unanimity of all its permanent members.
The UN has an Economic and Social Council. Guardianship Council, International Court and the Secretariat headed by Secretary General elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a period of 5 years with the right to re-election for another term. In addition, there are a number of international specialized organizations at the UN, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which has gained great authority. The day of entry into force of the UN Charter - October 24, 1945 - is celebrated annually as UN Day.

In 1945, 51 states became members of the UN - participants in the conference in San Francisco. Countries of the fascist bloc - Germany, Japan. Italy and their allies were initially not allowed into the UN. Then the number of UN members increased significantly and by the end of the 50s reached 83. Gradually, the UN became the most authoritative international organization, playing a major role in maintaining peace, preventing nuclear war, struggle against colonialism, protection of human rights

The trials involved the main war criminals.

In accordance with wartime agreements, the USSR, USA, England and France established the International Military Tribunal to try the main war criminals. Tribunal sessions opened November 20, 1945 in the city of Nuremberg, where the fascist party congresses used to take place. 24 surviving main Nazi war criminals were put on trial, including Hitler's deputies Goering and Hess, Admiral Doenitz, who replaced Hitler as head of government former chancellor Papen, Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, leaders of the military command Keitel and Jodl, banker Schacht. They were charged with conspiracy against peace by preparing and waging wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including, inter alia, the enslavement and mass extermination of civilians for political, racial or religious reasons.
On October 1, 1946, the tribunal sentenced 12 defendants to death by hanging, the rest to various terms of imprisonment. The Tribunal recognized the leadership of the Nazi Party, security and assault troops (SS, SD and Gestapo) as criminal organizations. Contrary to dissenting opinion member of the tribunal from the USSR, the tribunal considered it possible not to apply death penalty to Hess, sentencing him to life imprisonment, acquitted Schacht and Papen, did not recognize the government as criminal organizations, general staff and the German military high command.
The main Japanese war criminals were also put on trial by the International Military Tribunal, which was held in the capital of Japan Tokyo from May 3, 1946 to November 12, 1948 Charges of preparing and unleashing aggressive wars, violating international treaties, rules and customs of warfare (in particular, killing prisoners of war) were brought against 28 former Japanese leaders. Among them were 4 former prime minister, 11 ministers commanding the army and navy, 7 accused, including former prime ministers Tojo and Hirota, were hanged, the rest were sentenced to various prison terms.
The Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of major war criminals were the first trials in history of the organizers of aggressive wars and other crimes against peace and humanity. Their verdicts condemning aggression, war crimes, terror against civilians not only punished the main war criminals, but also became important source international law

Make a plan for the story: the main economic, social, political consequences of the Second World War for the countries that were its main participants.
What do the terms “Iron Curtain”, “Cold War”, the doctrine of “containment”, the Marshall Plan mean?
What was the essence of the Marshall Plan? Why did the USSR demand that Eastern European countries not take part in this plan?
WITH leave the contents of fragments of two treaties (documents in the column on the right) - on the creation of the North Atlantic Alliance and the Warsaw Treaty. What common and different provisions can you note? What do the dates of these agreements indicate?
Describe the UN. For what purpose was it created? What structure does it have?

Send a file with completed tasks and answers to questions to: [email protected]

1. The First World War ended with the defeat of Germany and its allies. After the conclusion of the Compiègne Armistice, the victorious powers began to develop plans for a post-war “settlement”. The post-war peace “settlement” in the interests of the victorious powers was completed by the Washington Conference of 1921-1922. Treaties with Germany and its former allies and agreements signed at the Washington Conference constituted the so-called Versailles-Washington world system. Being the result of compromises and deals, it not only did not eliminate the contradictions between the imperialist powers, but significantly strengthened them.

A struggle began between the main powers for a new redivision of the world.

2. In terms of its scale and consequences, the First World War had no equal in the entire previous history of mankind.

It lasted 4 years, 3 months and 10 days (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918), covering 38 countries with a population of over 11.5 billion people.

About 45 million people were mobilized in the Entente countries, 25 million in the coalition of the Central Powers, and a total of 70 million people.

The most efficient part was removed from material production and thrown into mutual destruction.

By the end of the war, the number of ground forces increased compared to peacetime in Russia by 8.5 times, in France by 5 times, in Germany by 9 times, and in Austria-Hungary by 8 times.

The large number of armies led to the formation of vast fronts, total length which reached 3-4 thousand km.

3. The war required the mobilization of all material resources, showing the decisive role of the economy during the armed struggle. The First World War was characterized by the massive use of a variety of military equipment.

The industry of the warring powers gave the front millions of rifles, over 1 million light and heavy machine guns, over 150 thousand artillery pieces, 47.7 billion cartridges, over 1 billion shells, 9200 tanks, about 18 thousand aircraft. During the war years, the number of heavy artillery guns increased 8 times, machine guns 20 times, and aircraft 24 times. Multimillion-strong armies demanded a continuous supply of food, uniforms, and fodder.

The growth of military production was achieved mainly due to peaceful industries and overstrain of the national economy. This led to a violation of the proportions between various industries production, and, ultimately, to a decline in economic performance.

Agriculture was especially badly damaged. Mobilization into the army deprived the village of its most productive labor force and taxes.

Cultivated areas have decreased, crop yields have fallen, and the number of livestock and its productivity have decreased.

In the cities of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia there was an acute shortage of food, and then real famine broke out. It also extended to the army, where allowance standards were reduced.

4. The First World War required enormous financial costs, which were many times greater than the costs of all previous wars. There is no scientifically sound estimate of the total cost of the First World War.

The most common estimate in the literature is given by the American economist E. Bogart, who determined the total cost of the war at 359.9 billion dollars in gold (699.4 billion rubles), including direct (budget) expenses of 280.3 billion. dollars (405 billion rubles) and indirect - 151.6 billion dollars (294.4 billion rubles).

5. The First World War came important stage in the history of military art, in the construction of the armed forces.

In 1916, tanks appeared - a powerful striking and maneuverable force. Tank troops developed rapidly and by the end of the war there were 8 thousand tanks in the Entente countries.

Aviation experienced rapid development. Various types of aviation emerged - fighter, reconnaissance, bomber, and attack. By the end of the war, the warring countries had over 10 thousand combat aircraft. In the fight against aviation, air defense developed.

Chemical forces emerged.

The importance of cavalry as a branch of the army declined, and by the end of the war its numbers had fallen sharply.

The role of military logistics and logistics support for troops has increased significantly.

Rail and road transport have become important.

6. The war brought unprecedented hardships and suffering to humanity, general hunger and ruin, and brought all of humanity to the brink of the abyss.

During the war it happened mass destruction material assets, the total cost of which was 58 billion rubles. Entire areas (especially in Northern France) were turned into desert.

9.5 million people 20 million people were killed and died of wounds, 20 million people were injured, of which 3.5 million were left crippled. The greatest losses were suffered by Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses). The population decline for these reasons in only 12 warring states amounted to over 20 million people, including 5 million people in Russia, 4.4 million people in Austria-Hungary, and 4.2 million people in Germany.

Unemployment, inflation, rising taxes, rising prices - all this exacerbated the need, poverty, and extreme insecurity of the vast majority of the population of the warring countries.

7. The collapse of the Russian army in the First World War is a natural stage in the development of socio-economic processes in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century, the result of its domestic and foreign policy during this period.

Having won a number of brilliant victories and suffered several defeats, the Russian army in the First World War declared itself as a serious military force.

However, due to serious internal and external reasons The Russian army failed to take a firm position on issues of war and revolution in a timely manner and, as a result, slid down the path of destruction and split.

The last test of the remnants of the Russian army was the Civil War in Russia, where victory was on the side of that part that went for Soviet power, which compared to tsarist autocracy was a more progressive form of socio-economic structure of society and which, unfortunately, failed to prove its viability in the twentieth century.

Chapter XII. Post-war peace settlement