Slavs of the 6th - 7th century on the international scene. Eastern Slavs in the 6th–8th centuries

In the VII-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of decomposition of the tribal system: a transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one. The community members lived in half-dugouts designed for one family. Private property already existed, but the land, forest lands and livestock remained in common ownership.
At this time, tribal nobility emerged - leaders and elders. They surrounded themselves with squads, i.e. armed force, independent of the will of the people's assembly (veche) and capable of forcing ordinary community members to obey. Each tribe had its own prince. The word "prince" comes from the common Slavic " knez" meaning "leader"». One of these tribal princes was Kiy (5th century), who reigned among the Polyan tribe. The Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” called him the founder of Kyiv. Thus, the first signs of statehood were already appearing in Slavic society.

Religion, life and customs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon of Slavic gods emerged, each of which personified a variety of forces of nature or reflected the social relations of the time. The most important gods of the Slavs were Perun - the god of thunder, lightning, war, Svarog - the god of fire, Veles - the patron of cattle breeding, Mokosh - the goddess who protected female part tribe. The sun god was especially revered, who was called differently by different tribes: Dazhd-bog, Yarilo, Khoros, which indicates the absence of stable Slavic inter-tribal unity.

The Slavs lived in small villages along the banks of rivers. In some places, to protect themselves from the enemy, villages were surrounded by a wall around which a ditch was dug. This place was called a city.

The Slavs were hospitable and good-natured. Each wanderer was considered a dear guest. According to Slavic customs, it was possible to have several wives, but only the rich had more than one, because... For each wife, a ransom had to be paid to the bride's parents. Often, when a husband died, the wife, proving her fidelity, killed herself. The custom of burning the dead and erecting large earthen mounds over funeral pyres was widespread - mounds. The more noble the deceased, the higher the hill was built. After the burial, a “funeral funeral” was celebrated, i.e. had feasts, fighting games and horse lists in honor of the deceased.
Birth, wedding, death- all these events in a person’s life were accompanied by spell rituals. The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and various seasons. The purpose of all rituals was to ensure the harvest and health of people, as well as livestock. In the villages there were idols depicting deities to whom “the whole world” (that is, the whole community) made sacrifices. Groves, rivers, and lakes were considered sacred. Each tribe had a common sanctuary, where members of the tribe gathered for especially solemn holidays and to resolve important matters.

On the settlement of East Slavic tribes The ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” can tell a lot. She tells us about the Polyans who lived in the Middle Dnieper region in the Kyiv region, their neighbors - the Drevlyans, who settled in the swampy and wooded Pripyat Polesie. At the northern end of the East Slavic world lived the Ilmen Slovenes, who settled along the shores of Lake Ilmen; the Dregovichi lived between Pripyat and the Western Dvina; their neighbors were Krivichi, a huge array of which over time split into three branches: the Krivichi of Smolensk, Polotsk and Pskov; the neighbors of the clearings on the side of the steppe were northerners; the Radimichi lived in the Sozh River basin, and the Vyatichi lived in the Oka basin. At the southernmost tip of the East Slavic territory, almost on the Black Sea coast, the Ulichs and Tivertsy settled.

For a long time, historians did not trust this chronicle geographical scheme, but archeology at the beginning of the 20th century confirmed it. Helped here... women's jewelry. It turned out that one of the most common types of female jewelry among the Eastern Slavs - temple rings - varies throughout the Russian Plain. It turned out that certain varieties of these decorations correspond to a certain settlement of one or another East Slavic “tribe”. Later, these observations were confirmed by the study of other elements of the material culture of the Eastern Slavs.

Spread over such a vast space, the Eastern Slavs encountered and entered into one relationship or another with the peoples who inhabited Eastern Europe before them or came here at the same time. It is known that the Balts lived right up to the area of ​​modern Moscow, as evidenced by the study of toponymy ( geographical names), which turn out to be very stable, persisting for centuries. The regions of the northeast were inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples, and the south has long been inhabited by Iranian-speaking tribes - descendants of the Sarmatians already known to us. Military clashes gave way to periods of peaceful relations, assimilation processes took place: the Slavs seemed to draw these peoples into themselves, but they themselves changed, acquiring new skills, new elements of material culture. Synthesis, interaction of cultures - the most important phenomenon the time of settlement of the Slavs across the Russian Plain, perfectly illustrated by data from archaeological excavations.

Relations with those ethnic groups were more complex who were able to create quite strong tribal alliances or even earlier state entities. One of these formations in the middle of the 7th century. was created by the Bulgarians. As a result of internal turmoil and external pressure, part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Asparuh, migrated to the Danube, where they subjugated the local South Slavic tribes. Another part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Batbai, moved to the northeast and settled in the middle reaches of the Volga and on the lower Kama, creating the state of Bulgaria. This is the state for a long time represented real threat for the Eastern Slavs.

The Khazars were also Turkic tribes, which in the second half of the 7th century. began to press the Bulgarians. Over time, they also settled on the earth, creating their own early state formation, which covered vast territories North Caucasus, Lower Volga region, Northern Black Sea region and partly Crimea. Center Khazar Khaganate, as this formation came to be called (the Khazar ruler was called the kagan), was located in the lower reaches of the Volga. There were not many ethnic Khazars-Turks, but the main population consisted of representatives of the so-called Saltovo-Mayak culture, which consisted of representatives of the multi-ethnic population of Eastern Europe, including the Slavs. Basically, the population of the Kaganate was pagan, but the Khazar elite adopted Judaism. Part of the East Slavic tribes, adjacent to the borders (very vague) of the Kaganate, had, according to the chronicle, to pay tribute to the Khazars.

A terrible danger for the Eastern Slavs also hung from the northwest. The meager land of the Scandinavian Peninsula pushed large detachments of “seekers of glory and prey, drinkers of the seas” into Europe - the Normans, who were called in Rus' Varangians. The troops were led by Vikings who originated for the most part from noble families. Seasoned in battles and sea voyages, armed with an effective weapon - an ax with a pointed bayonet, the Normans were a terrible danger for many European countries. Peak of Varangian raids on Slavic territories falls on the 9th century.

In the fight against enemies grew stronger military organization Slavic population, which has its roots going back centuries. Like many other nations, this is a system of hundreds, when each tribe fielded a hundred warriors led by a “sotsky,” and the union of tribes was, apparently, supposed to field a thousand, which is where the position of “thousand” comes from. The prince was one of the military leaders. The word “prince” is a common Slavic word, borrowed, according to linguists, from the ancient German language. This word originally meant the head of a clan, an elder. From sources we know about tribal leaders-princes. Over time, with the growth of the population, the tribe, divided into several clans, split into a number of related tribes, which formed a tribal union. Such tribal unions most likely were the chronicle “tribes” of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, etc. At the head of these unions were leaders towering above the leaders of the individual tribes that were part of the union.

Historical evidence The chronicle legend about Kiy and his descendants contains information about such princes. The chronicle says: “And to this day the brothers (Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv. - Author) often kept their reign in the fields, and in ancient times, theirs, and the Dregovichi, theirs, and their slavs in Novgorod, and the other in Polot, etc. Polotsk residents."

The Arab historian Masudi reports about the ancient Slavic prince Majak, and the Gothic historian Jordan, already known to us, about Prince God. Thus, in addition to the leaders of the tribes, there were also leaders of the tribal unions. These princes had different functions. The prince of the tribe could be elected for a time, during the period of hostilities. His power is small compared to the power of the leader of the tribal union. The power of the latter is constant, the functions are more varied. Such a prince had to deal with the internal construction of the union, collect, organize and lead the army, and be in charge in general foreign policy. These princes also performed some religious and judicial functions. In this they were helped by the council of elders, or, as ancient Russian monuments often call it, the city elders (chronicles use the terms “elders” and “city elders” as equivalent). In chronicle reports, the city elders act as authorized leaders of society, with whom the princes were forced to reckon. Even in the second half of the 10th century. - the turning point of Vladimir’s reign - they still participated in governance and influenced the course of events. The elders-advisers took part in the princely Duma, princely feasts, which performed important social function- communication between the population and the prince. The elders of the city were the tribal nobility who dealt with civil affairs.

The prince was assisted in military affairs by his squad. It also originates in the depths of the primitive communal system, without in any way violating the pre-class social structure. The squad grew together with the prince and, just like the prince, carried out certain social useful features. Among the warriors, the prince was not a master, but first among equals.

One more the most important element the socio-political structure was stronger. Tribal veche - people's assemblies - originate in ancient times. The Byzantine writer-historian Procopius of Caesarea (VI century) wrote about them, telling about the Antes and Sklavens. The study of the oldest documents about the veche indicates that the entire population, including the nobility, took part in it. The People's Assembly functioned continuously throughout the 9th-11th centuries, but over time, as tribal ties disintegrated, it became more active. The fact is that clan ties fetter a person; clan protection, which in ancient times was a blessing for any member of the clan, over time becomes an obstacle to the development of democratic government.

This triad - prince, council of elders and popular assembly - can be found in many societies that experienced an archaic stage of development.

The modern population of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus belongs to a large group of East Slavic peoples with common origin, cultural, religious and everyday traditions. Issues of social structure, culture and life of the East Slavic tribes are quite studied. But historians cannot give an unambiguous answer to the question of when they appeared and what the territory of their settlement was.

Tracing the history of the Slavic peoples is quite difficult, since reliable written sources date back to the 5th–6th centuries AD. e. To comprehensively study this issue, scientists resort to the results of research in the fields of archaeology, linguistics, and ethnography. Based on them, we can briefly talk about the origin of the Slavs. The most important idea about the appearance of the Slavs is obtained by comparing all types of data.

Based on data obtained by linguists, speakers of East Slavic languages ​​belong to a large community Indo-European peoples. The time when the Slavic tribes separated from the Indo-European peoples is the 2nd millennium BC. e. At that time The Indo-Europeans split into three major branches:

1. Proto-Germanic peoples occupying the territories of Western and Southern Europe. These included the Celts, Germans, and Romans.
2. Balto-Slavic peoples who occupied vast lands Central Europe between the rivers Elbe, Vistula, Dnieper and Danube.
3. Iranian and Indian peoples settled in the Asian expanses.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. There was a division of the Balto-Slavic peoples into two independent branches: the Balts and the Slavs. By the 6th century AD in Central and Eastern Europe There were about 150 Proto-Slavic tribes, united in three groups:

• Wends inhabited the lands in the Vistula River basin;
• sklavins settled in the area between the Dniester, Danube and Vistula rivers;
• antes settled the lands between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, an ancient Byzantine historian wrote that these groups had common language, religious and legal norms, cultural and everyday traditions. Modern historians They believe that it is quite easy to name the ancestors of the modern peoples of Eastern Europe, since they were representatives of all three Proto-Slavic groups.

In the 6th–7th centuries. n. uh. the single pre-Slavic nation breaks up into several branches; this process was influenced by the events of the Great Migration of Peoples. The migration of Slavic tribes took place in three directions:

• southern direction (Balkan Peninsula);
• northwestern (downstream of the Vistula and Oder rivers);
• northeastern (to the north and east of the East European Plain).

As a result of these migration processes, modern bands Slavic peoples: Western Slavs(Poles, Slovaks, Czechs); South Slavs (Montenegrins, Serbs, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Croats, Slovenes); Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians).

Settlement of the people

As a result of migration in the northeast direction, the Eastern Slavs in ancient times settled huge territory East European Plain. In the VIII-IX centuries. About 150 Slavic tribes moved to this territory, reaching Lake Ladoga in the north, the upper reaches of the Volga and Oka in the east, and the Black Sea steppes in the south.

By the 9th century. n. uh. in Eastern Europe 14 large tribal unions, which united smaller tribes. The table and map in the history atlas for the 10th grade will help you remember the names and geographical locations of tribal unions.

Each tribal union had its own language, cultural and everyday traditions, and farming methods. The fragmentation of the East Slavic tribes was facilitated by differences in the natural and climatic conditions of the lands they occupied. Their list, going from north to south, is as follows:

The settlement of our ancestors was mostly peaceful. Coming to new territories, the Slavs either assimilated small local tribes, or peacefully coexisted and exchanged cultural and everyday traditions with the indigenous population. Such relations were maintained with our western neighbors:

• Baltic tribes: Estonians, Lithuanians, Lithuanians, Latgalians, Yatvingians;
• West Slavic tribes: Poles, Slovaks, Czechs.

In the northeast of the East Slavic tribes lived the indigenous Finno-Ugric population: Karelians, Ves, Chud, Merya, Muroma, Meshchera.

Quite tense relations developed between the East Slavic tribal unions and their eastern and southern neighbors, the Turkic-speaking tribes.

In the east, in the upper reaches of the Volga, there was Volga Bulgaria state, formed by part of a large tribe of Bulgarians. Part of this people migrated to the Balkan Peninsula, mixed with the local Slavic population and formed the Bulgarian kingdom.

There was a powerful state on the lower Volga Khazar Khaganate, whose tributaries for quite a long time were some Slavic tribes: Polyans, Vyatichi, Radimichi and Northerners. They had to send tribute to the Kaganate in the form of fur-bearing animal skins.

Oral sources mentioned raids on the Slavic tribe Buzhan Avars- nomadic Turkic-speaking people who managed to create a state association Avar Khaganate, which existed until the end of the 8th century.

Tribes living in the forest-steppe zone were periodically subjected to raids by nomadic peoples moving from east to west along the Black Sea steppes. These include: Ugrians (Hungarians), Pechenegs, Polovtsians.

Strengthening the position of East Slavic tribal unions led to the formation of large associations with signs of statehood. Arabic sources dating back to the 10th century mention three super-unions of the Eastern Slavs: Slavia, centered in Novgorod; Kuyabiya, the center of which was Kyiv. The location of the third super-union - the country of Artania - is not known for certain. Some researchers place it in the Rostov region. Also called lands in the Chernigov and Ryazan region.

According to the main written source By ancient Russian history- Tale of Bygone Years - the state of the Eastern Slavs originated in the north in the lands of the Ilmen Slovenes in the middle of the 9th century. This event is associated with the calling of the Varangian Rurik to reign in Novgorod, who by the end of his reign subjugated most of the northeastern Slavic tribes and neighboring Finno-Ugric peoples. His successor, Prince Oleg, continued to expand the influence of the Varangian princely dynasty to the south, conquering Kyiv in 882. This date is considered the time of formation of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus.

The settlement of the Slavs in Eastern Europe occurred in two directions: to the north into an area of ​​dense forests, lakes and swamps; and east into the forest-steppe, where forests alternated with large open spaces of black soil. This difference in natural conditions left its mark on the life, economic activities and morals of the Slavs.

Economic activity

The main activity of the Slavic population of Eastern Europe was agriculture. In the north, due to natural conditions, the slash-and-burn type of land cultivation began to predominate. It was as follows: in the first year, farmers uprooted a section of the forest, burned the remaining stumps and roots, fertilizing the soil with their ash, and next year The area was planted with agricultural crops. Such a plot was depleted in 2-3 years, and the peasants moved to new land.

In the south, the ancient Slavs were engaged in shifting agriculture, which consisted of burning herbs on a certain area and its subsequent use for 4-5 years. After this, the plot was left for 20-25 to restore its fertility.

No less important occupation ancient population Eastern Europe in ancient times was cattle breeding. Its specificity varied depending on geographical location tribe. In the north, the population preferred raising cattle (oxen, cows), which were used as draft animals for agricultural work. East Slavic pastoralists in southern lands preferred the breeding of horses, among which there were draft breeds and riding varieties.

In addition to cattle, they raised pigs, goats, and poultry.

In the north of the ancient Slavic ecumene Beekeeping (collecting honey from wild bees), fishing and hunting were also common. It should be noted that honey and fur-bearing animal skins were the main goods in trade with neighbors and foreign merchants.

Crafts developed quite actively: blacksmithing, pottery, jewelry, leather. The East Slavic tribes and their neighbors conducted active trade with each other.

Social structure

Quite difficult living conditions and the need to work in a team contributed to preservation of the communal system in East Slavic society. Initially, it was of a tribal nature, but with the development of farming methods and tools, tribal relations were transformed into neighborly ones. The neighboring community existed on the territory of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus until the beginning of the 20th century.

With development public relations Polygamous relationships are being replaced by monogamous families, which have become integral part neighboring community and the basis of the social structure of the East Slavic ethnic group.

Features of life

lived in semi-dugout type dwellings with a two or three pitched roof. Inside there was one room with a stove without a chimney (the smoke came out through the door and a hole in the roof of the building). Several courtyards were united into a village, which was located in the bends of the rivers, surrounded by an earthen rampart and surrounded by a palisade. This protected the inhabitants of the settlement from animals and enemies.

Household utensils were made of wood or clay. Iron was rarely used. Tools and weapons were mainly made from it.

Clothes were made from linen and cotton fabrics, which were spun by women in each family. Things were decorated with embroidery, by which one could determine in which territory its owner lived.

Religion and Beliefs

Our ancestors practiced paganism until the 10th century. They deified nature, believed in spirits and supernatural powers. Each tribe had its own pantheon of gods and a patron god. We can distinguish a number of gods common to all East Slavic tribes: Perun - the god of thunder and lightning; Genus - fertility; Yarilo (Dazhbog, Hore) - the sun; Makosh - household; Veles - cattle breeding and wealth; Svarog - god of the sky; Simargl - the underworld. There was no main god in the Slavic pantheon. Only with the strengthening of princely power does the cult of Perun rise and strengthen, who becomes the god of war and the patron of warriors.

Most often, gods were depicted in the form of stone or wooden idols installed in special places - temples. They were the venue for religious ceremonies, often accompanied by sacrifices. Human sacrifice has been common for quite a long time. Priests played an important role in the pagan cult.

By the 10th century, our ancestors settled in Eastern Europe. Their hard work, perseverance, and peacefulness allowed them to actively develop and contributed to the emergence of the ancient Slavic state - Kievan Rus.

Answer plan: 1) the origin of the Slavs; 2) written sources about the Eastern Slavs; 3) territory of settlement; 4) economic and social order; 5) religious beliefs; 6) relations with other tribes and peoples; 7) prerequisites for the formation of the state.

Slavs belong to Indo-European family peoples Their ancestors settled huge spaces Eurasia. The settlement territory of the Slavic tribes was originally Central and Eastern European lands, and the natural borders were the Oder River in the west, the Dnieper in the east, the Baltic coast in the north, and the Carpathians in the south.

A significant increase in the number of Slavs led to their migration in the 6th century. Another reason for the movement of the Slavs was the beginning of social stratification, the emergence of the nobility, which required land in ever-increasing quantities.

The basis of the economic life of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture, settled cattle breeding, hunting, and fishing. Agricultural crops were wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, peas, beans, buckwheat, and hemp. The soil was initially cultivated using a hoe and plow. The harvest was harvested with a sickle. The use of a plow with an iron share made it possible to significantly increase production volumes, which led to the emergence of surplus grain and the possibility of using hired labor.

The religion of the Eastern Slavs was paganism. They deified the forces of nature and worshiped them. Svarog was revered as the god of sky and fire, Perun as the god of thunderstorms, and Veles as the god of cattle. Sacrificial rituals were performed in honor of the gods.

The clan community was soon replaced by a neighboring one, which was based not on family ties, but on economic ties. In the VI-VIII centuries. The Eastern Slavs were in the process of forming the first tribal military alliances led by leaders (princes). In an effort to strengthen their power over free community members, the princes imposed tribute on them. The need to collect tribute was explained by the interests of maintaining a military squad, guaranteeing the peaceful labor of community members. Along with this, there was a process of formation of a new ruling class - large land owners: people close to the prince from his squad, as well as representatives of the clan nobility, occupied fertile lands, formerly belonging to the community. At the same time, in the conditions of strengthening of princely power, the relative independence of the community members was preserved, as well as such elements military democracy, like veche, blood feud, etc.

All this created objective conditions for the formation of the Old Russian state.

East Slavs belong to the western branch of the most ancient Indo-European tribes. Their history begins long before our era, but the Eastern Slavs in the 6th-9th centuries were only able to form long-term associations of allied tribes, which formed the prototype of the state system.

Eastern Slavs in ancient times

The 6th-9th centuries AD are centuries distant from us. Nevertheless, some information about the history of the Slavs in those distant times became known. For example, there is no question about the fact that modern territories Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, the Eastern Slavs appeared during the era of the great migration of peoples. They populated the forest and forest-steppe zones of Eastern Europe and played a significant role. The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs of the 6th-9th centuries had already formed their own states: from the west, the settlements of the Proto-Russians were surrounded by Byzantine lands, from the south - by the Hunnic state. Later, on the outskirts of the Slavic lands, unstable state formations of nomadic peoples arose - the power of the Avars (Obrov), the Bulgarian kingdom.

Neighbors of the Slavs

Relations with neighbors were not easy. In the 6th-9th centuries, the Eastern Slavs repeatedly repelled enemy attacks, went on military campaigns, and concluded military alliances. The main friend-enemy in this era becomes the powerful Byzantium. The first mentions of the Eastern Slavs as an organized force are found in Byzantine sources. For example, famous chronicler Procopius of Caesarea pointed out that the Antes and Sklavs do not have a king, these tribes live in the interests of the community, worship one god and speak the same language.

Territory of the Eastern Slavs

The first homeland of the Eastern Slavs was the territories located on the banks of the Oder River. Most eastern point settlements are considered to be the western slopes of the Carpathian Mountains. The development of more eastern lands gradually began. The mild climate and fertile lands of the Dnieper plain were developed and settled by the Eastern Slavs in the 6th-9th centuries. Settlement to the north occurred later, during the formation period Kievan Rus. Slavic tribes settled on the banks of the Neva and Ladoga and reached the harsh coast of the Northern Dvina. In the border lands there was a gradual assimilation of Slavic tribes with the Baltic and Finno-Ugric peoples. Monuments containing images Slavic deities, can still be found in our northern territories.

Tribes of the Eastern Slavs

In the 6th-9th centuries, the Eastern Slavs formed associations that were formed not on a tribal basis, but on a territorial basis. For example, the glades lived in the forest-steppe, which was located along the middle reaches of the Dnieper. The right bank was occupied by the Drevlyans. To the north of this tribe, between the banks of the Pripyat and Western Dvina, the lands of the Dregovichi stretched. This name comes from Slavic word"trash" Nearby were the Polotsk people, named after the Polota River, on the banks of which these tribes lived. The known tribes were Tivertsy, Vyatichi, Radimichi, Krivichi, and White Croats settled on the western slopes of the Carpathians. Travelers who visited Slavic lands, noted that the Eastern Slavs in the 6th-9th centuries, as at the beginning of the millennium, inhabited their territories unevenly. The most dense settlements were in the Dnieper region, where the glades lived.

One of the names that stuck with these people sounded like Rus'. The question of the origin of this term is not completely clear. Gradually, their assimilation with the indigenous tribes led to the emergence of relatively strong tribal alliances. This is how the foundations of statehood were laid, and the social system of the Eastern Slavs of the 6th-9th centuries was formed.

How the Slavs lived in ancient times

The community (verv) played a major role in the life of the Slavic tribe. Low labor productivity required the use of the entire team. The tasks of the elders included control over the use of resources and the observance of a fair distribution of the results of labor.

The gradual improvement of tools and settled life contributed to greater independence of individual families and clans. The main occupations of the Eastern Slavs of the 6th-9th centuries were deforestation, sowing crops, cattle breeding, hunting and fishing. The single economy gradually disintegrated; huge houses, in which several hundred people lived, gave way to small dwellings intended for individual families. The offensive gave people iron axes, plows with metal tips, hoes, shovels, and also improved weapons: bows and arrows, swords, and darts came into use. Thus, the ability of individual families not only to grow crops on their own, but also to maintain their safety, gradually increased. Common possessions were divided into small plots - allotments, but hunting large animals and clearing land for agricultural purposes still required significant effort.

Increasing inequality

The gradually increasing prosperity of each family led to the emergence of surplus products. This is how property arose, and later the Old Family Nobility became the cream of feudal society, gradually seizing new lands and forcing free community members to pay tribute. So the Eastern Slavs in the 6th-9th centuries formed a new feudal social system. Both feudal estates and peasant farms for the most part had a subsistence nature of production. Both of them did not consider the created products of labor as goods. Small surpluses were used to pay tribute or serve as a means of exchange for handicraft goods. Cities became the centers of such transactions. From a defensive structure designed to protect nearby lands and serve as protection for the princely family, cities turned into centers of trade.

Beliefs and life of the Eastern Slavs

In the 6th-9th centuries of the first millennium AD religious views our ancestors constituted a stable religion, well adapted to the everyday realities of every Slav.

The origins of beliefs were in the depths of antiquity. Many ideas about the world order of things came from the Indo-European past, or even from the Paleolithic era. For example, Svarog, the god of the entire surrounding world, became the head of the Slavic pantheon. His sons brought light and fire to people. The sun god Dazhdbog was considered a national deity - it is not for nothing that “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” calls the ancient Russians “Dazhdbog’s sons.” The Slavs prayed ancient family and women in labor - goddesses of family and fertility. Veles was considered the patron of livestock and trade, and Stribog became the ruler of the winds.

Slavic beliefs

The culture of the Eastern Slavs of the 6th - 9th centuries was based on the worship of their gods. Archaeologists find plenty of evidence close connection spiritual and material world our ancestors. Numerous idols, ancient temples and embroidery obregs show us that amazing world, full of mythical creatures, in which the Eastern Slavs lived and believed in the 6th-9th centuries. Briefly, their worldview boiled down to the existence of three worlds - heavenly, earthly and underground.

The heavenly world was the home of gods and lightning, the earthly world was inhabited by people, animals and various mythological creatures. Underworld was the abode of the dead.

Along with the spread of pagan beliefs, social ladders were also built. Society was increasingly stratified into an independent nobility and warriors and dependent peasants. More and more lands were concentrated in the hands of princes and nobles, and more and more often peasants had to pay taxes and serve duties. The society established feudal relations, which led to the rise of the Polyan tribe and the formation of the state of Kievan Rus.

Ancestral home and origin of the Slavs

First written mentions in sources about the Slavs refer to VI century(Gothic historian Jordan, Byzantine writer Procopius of Caesarea).

Some researchers consider the tribes known to early medieval authors to be Proto-Slavs Wends, Antes and Sklavins .

Like most European languages, Slavic belongs to the Indo-European language family, forming independent group. Archaeological culture, which scientists certainly associate with the Slavs, is called Prague (so named after the characteristic molded ceramics excavated near Prague).

Question about ancestral home Slavic ethnicity remains debatable. Most researchers, based on archaeological and linguistic data, believe that the ancestral homeland of the Slavs was the basins of the Danube, Vistula and Oder rivers.

The era of the Great Migration of Peoples (IV–VII centuries AD) also affected part of the Slavic tribes. In the VI-VII centuries. The previously unified Slavic ethnic group is divided into three main groups:

· western;

· southern;

· eastern .

The latter was formed by Slavic tribes that settled the territory of the East European Plain during this period. In the process of settlement, the Eastern Slavs assimilated the aboriginal Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes.

The oldest chronicle source is “The Tale of Bygone Years” ( beginning of XII c.) mentions the following East Slavic tribal unions:

· glade (middle Dnieper), Drevlyans (in the forests south of the river Pripyat);

· Ilmen Slovenes (basin of the Volkhov River and Lake Ilmen);

· Polotsk (course of the Polota River);

· Krivichi (upper reaches of the Dnieper and Volga);

· Dregovichi (swamps between Pripyat and Western Dvina);

· northerners (the Desna and Seversky Donets river basins),

· Radimichi (between the Dnieper and Desna rivers);

· Vyatichi (upper reaches of the Oka and the Moscow River basin).

It is also reported about the Ulichs, Tiverts, White Croats and Volynians who lived in the south and southwest of the East European Plain.

Activities of the Eastern Slavs

The Eastern Slavs were a sedentary people, and the basis of their economic activity was agriculture. In the VI–IX centuries. they cultivated

1) rye;

2) wheat;

3) millet;

4) buckwheat;

5) oats and barley.

It was common in forested areas slash-and-burn agriculture. A plot of forest was burned, the land fertilized with ash was used for several years, and after the soil was depleted, it was abandoned for a while.

In the steppe regions it was dominated shifting (burning herbs), and with VIII century – arable farming .

Eastern Slavs used two-field crop rotation , in which the land was divided into two parts - spring sowing and fallow. In the forest-steppe zone in the 8th–9th centuries. begins to be used and three-field , in which one part of the field is occupied by spring crops, the second by winter crops, and the third remains fallow.

The most common agricultural tools were:

1) harrow-harrow,

2) Ralo,

3) plow,

4) from VIII–IX centuries . began to be used in the forest-steppe zone plow.

Most of the East European Plain belongs to the zone of risky agriculture, so the following played an important role in their economy: cattle breeding (cattle and small cattle, pigs, poultry), hunting, fishing and beekeeping (collection of honey and wax from wild bees), those. crafts.

The Eastern Slavs predominantly led natural economy . However, an important change in their life in the 8th–9th centuries. there was a gradual separation crafts from agriculture. Separates first metal processing And pottery production, then other crafts appeared - stone-cutting, metalworking, cooperage, jewelry, etc. Craftsmen made tools and weapons from iron. Mastering the techniques grains, filigree, enamels, they created wonderful jewelry. The Slavs were skilled in bone processing.

International trade developed on the Baltic-Volga route, as well as on the well-known route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which connected Northern Europe (Varangians) with the Byzantine Empire (Greeks). They sold: furs, furs, wax, honey, slaves. They bought: fabrics, wines, luxury goods.

Social structure of the Eastern Slavs

IN VI–IX centuries Eastern Slavs lived primitive communal system . Basic form social organization appeared for a long time clan community (clan). Kindred worked together. Land, livestock, farmland, and tools were in collective ownership and use.

WITH VIII century . V southern regions starts to take shape new form society organizations – neighboring (territorial) community. Among the Eastern Slavs it was called rope view. While maintaining collective ownership of land and holdings, it appears individual (family) plowing. IN Individual ownership and use of tools and the results of labor, as well as livestock, are transferred.

Several neighboring communities located close to each other usually made up a tribe, and the tribes, in turn, united into large tribal unions (Polyane, Vyatichi, Dregovichi, etc.).

Administrative centers tribal unions were fortified cities (for the Polyans - Kyiv, for the Ilmen Slovenians - Novgorod, for the Polotsk people - Polotsk, etc.).

The formation of a neighborhood community contributed to the emergence of property and social inequality. Gradually begins to stand out know (deliberate child). It can be attributed to princes (military leaders) elders Magi (servants of pagan gods).

The most important issues affecting the interests of the entire team were resolved at veche – meeting community members (adult men - warriors).

Existed among the Eastern Slavs and patriarchal slavery . They took prisoners in order to ransom them or sell them into slavery. If this could not be done, then the captives were released or remained among the Slavs as free men.

Social structure of the Eastern Slavs in the 6th–9th centuries. historians call "military democracy".

Information about the first princes is contained in the Tale of Bygone Years. The chronicler notes that the tribal unions, although not all of them, had their own reigns. Thus, in relation to the glades, he recorded a legend about the princes, the founders of the city of Kyiv: Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid.

More reliable are the data of the Arab encyclopedist al-Masudi (10th century), who wrote that long before his time the Slavs had a political union, which he called Valinana. Most likely, we are talking about the Volyn Slavs (the chronicle Duleb), whose union was crushed, according to PVL data, by the Avar invasion in the 7th century. The works of other Arab authors contain information about three centers of the Eastern Slavs: Kuyavia, Slavia, Artania . Some domestic historians associate the first with Kiev, the second with Novgorod or its more ancient predecessor, location Artania continues to cause controversy. Apparently, they were pre-state formations, including several tribal unions. All these local reigns had little connection with each other and could not resist the powerful external forces: Khazars and Varangians.

The Slavs lived in unfortified settlements with half-dugout dwellings, or small wooden log houses with stoves.

Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs

The main part of the territory of the East European Plain before the settlement of the Slavs (VI–VII centuries) was occupied by Finno-Ugric (Meshchera, Merya, all, Muroma, Chud, Mordovians, Korela) and Baltic (Lithuania, Zhmud, Aukshayty, Letgola, Prussians, etc.) tribes.

All of them during this period lived in conditions of the primitive communal system, were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting, gathering, and fishing. Most of these tribes were gradually assimilated Slavs.

In the east and southeast, the Slavs lived side by side with semi-nomadic peoples - Volga Bulgars and Khazars , which by that time had already formed states (Volga Bulgaria and the Khazar Kaganate).

The Scandinavians, whom the Slavs called Varangians.

An important economic and cultural partner East Slavic unions there were tribes Byzantine Empire - the most powerful state of the early Middle Ages.

Paganism

Dominant religious form among the Eastern Slavs until the end of the 10th century. remained paganism (polytheism, polytheism). The Slavs deified forces of nature, having a direct impact on their lives and worshiped Shchur and Rod – ancient ancestors; women in labor - goddesses of prosperity and fertility.

TO IX century . a whole one has already been drawn up pantheon Slavic pagan deities (Svarog - god of heavenly fire, Yarilo - Sun God; Stribog - god of the air element; Veles or Volos – patron of livestock, as well as music and songs; Mokosh – patroness of women, home and economy, etc.). Special place occupied by the god of thunder and lightning Perun , who over time turned into the princely warrior god of war. The Eastern Slavs had peculiar minor deities brownies (the spirits of ancestors are the patrons of the home), goblin, water, navy (mermaids), kikimores, ghouls , shishigi, etc. The Slavs also worshiped wells, stones and lakes, groves and individual trees (sacred oak). Sacrifices, sometimes human, were made to the gods in specially designated places - temples. Princes often acted as high priests, but there were also special priests - Magi and Wizards who prayed and performed various rituals at the temples. On the basis of paganism, the Slavs developed a rich oral folk art - songs, spells and conspiracies, epics, proverbs and sayings, riddles, fairy tales. Some pagan holidays and rituals dedicated to natural cycles have survived to this day: Maslenitsa, Kupala, etc.

2. Key dates

3. Basic concepts

Autochthonous population -To indigenous population.

beekeeping -With wild honey harvesting.

Varangians -P about one of the versions - warriors- vigilantes from the Scandinavian countries, which were often called Normans. According to another version, people from the Baltic Sea coast, related to the Slavic tribes

Varangian route (“from the Varangians to the Greeks”) -O the bottom of the names of an important waterway that connected Northern Rus' with the south. The path arose at the end of the 11th century, most important had in the X-XI centuries. The path went from the Varangian (Baltic) Sea along the Volkhov River, along Lake Ilmen, along the Lovat River, then dragged to the Dnieper River, along it to the Black Sea and further along seashore to Byzantium.

Veles - P patron of cattle breeding and guardian of the underworld of the ancestors. Later it began to personify economic success, wealth and prosperity.

Rope - a piece of land measured with a rope, community.

Veche –n national assembly.

Military democracy –f form of statehood at the stage of decomposition primitive system when it occurs power hereditary prince , based on military force of his squad. But this power was limited to the remnants of tribal relations - veche.

Leader -g lava tribe.

"Howls" -m Uzhsky population of the clan.

Magi -P prophets, predictors of the future, healers, who stood closer than a mere mortal to the mysterious forces of nature among the ancient Slavs, servants of pagan gods.

Hryvnia, rezana, kuna, fox, veksha –d monetary units among the Slavs.

Dazhdbog -Sun God.

Vigilantes –l people professionally engaged in military affairs, who served the prince and received material rewards from him for their service.

Two-field -With a land tenure system where part of the field is sown with grain, the other is fallow. The name of the grain among the Slavs.

Idol -And image of a pagan deity in the form of a statue, sculpture.

Kagan - (O t Turkic "lord") - the title of the head of state among the ancient Turkic-speaking peoples (Avar, Khazars, Pechenegs). From the middle of the 6th century. it was worn by the rulers of the Turkic Kaganate. From the end of the 8th century. this title, along with the princely one, was appropriated to themselves Kyiv princes, which symbolized their independence from the Khazar Kaganate.

Temple -I pagan temple among the Slavs; a place in a temple where sacrifices were made to the gods.

Prince - into a military leader.

Makosh - P patroness of women and the hearth.

Deliberate child – to be in the tribe.

Relog –si a farming system in which the steppe was burned, then sown, and after depletion, abandoned.

Perun – b og lightning and thunderstorms.

Midday –d uh - the patroness of the villagers' rest in the midday heat.

Proto-Slavs -P Slavs are rare.

Tribe -With a union of clans living in the same territory.

Ralo –d the Slavs' tools of labor are more jealous.

Genus -To group of relatives.

Women in labor –b goddesses of fertility.

Svarog - God of the sky.

Elder -y respected, experienced person.

Strada -With agricultural season.

Stribog -b og of the wind.

Trekhpolye -With a farming system in which one part of the field is allocated to winter crops, another to spring crops, and still others fallow.

Trizna -n funeral feast.

Chur –b divine image of the tribal community.

Paganism –d Christian and non-Christian religions based on the worship of many gods associated with natural phenomena. The term "paganism" comes from the New Testament, in which paganism meant nations or "tongues" in contrast to the early Christian communities.

Yarila –b the deification of the sun, spring, fertility and love among the Eastern Slavs.

4. Basic schemes

1. Beliefs of the ancient Slavs