Chronology of events. The Battle of Kulikovo took place in

Astronomical chronology studies the patterns of recurring celestial phenomena and establishes precise astronomical time; is also one of the methods of historical chronology.

Historical (technical) chronology is a historical discipline that studies chronology systems and calendars different nations and states and helps to establish the dates of historical events and the time of creation of historical sources.

The purpose of scientific chronology is to restore the true order of historical events and determine the duration of historical processes.

Astronomical chronology

The most natural measure of time is the rotation of the Earth around its axis. A complete revolution (360°) of the Earth is called a sidereal day, since in time it is equal to the interval between two successive culminations of a star. Due to the Earth's revolution around the Sun, the true solar day, i.e., the period of time between two culminations of the Sun, is slightly longer than the sidereal day. This difference constantly changes depending on the uneven rotation of the Earth in the ecliptic plane; therefore, a true day cannot serve as a unit of time. Instead, the average day is usually used, that is, the interval between the culminations of a fictitious luminary - the “average sun”, moving uniformly along the equator, its place on the celestial sphere at certain epochs coincides with the place of the true Sun.

For large periods of time, instead of a day, it is necessary to use other units of time, borrowed from observations of the apparent position of the Moon and Sun among the stars on the celestial sphere. The period of time in which the Moon after full turn around the Earth it falls opposite the same stars, called the sidereal (sidereal) month (27 days 7 hours 43 minutes). Depending on the movement of the Earth together with the Moon around the Sun after the sidereal month, the relative placement of the three luminaries will change somewhat, therefore the phase of the moon visible from the Earth will be slightly different and the interval through which the moon returns to its previous phase, the so-called. synodic month, longer than the sidereal month (29 days 12 hours 44 minutes).

The period of time through which, as a result of the Earth’s revolution around the Sun, this latter apparently returns to the same constellations, to the “same star,” is called the sidereal year. The brilliance of the sun eclipses the stars during the day, and instead of the constellations against which the sun falls, one can compare the constellations opposite them, culminating at midnight at a given time of year. Due to precession, the line of intersection of the planes of the equator and ecliptic changes, the equinox point, from which ecliptic longitudes and right ascensions are calculated on the celestial sphere, slowly recedes, therefore the tropical year, i.e. the interval through which the sun returns to the point (for example, the spring year) equinox, 20 minutes less than sidereal. The magnitude of the sidereal year does not change, the magnitude of the tropical year fluctuates depending on changes in the magnitude of precession; in our time, it concludes in average days and hours 365 d 5 h 48 min 46 s, in sidereal days and hours 366 d 5 h 48 m 46 s. In the time of Hipparchus (2nd century BC), the tropical year was 12 seconds longer. The tropical year determines the onset of the so-called. seasons, and therefore it is accepted as a unit of time in solar calendars.

Individual calendar years must necessarily contain a whole number of days; Meanwhile, the lengths of the year and day are incommensurable. Various systems solar calendars arose as a consequence of greater or lesser accuracy of the length of the year in days accepted in the calendar and certain methods of counting the accumulated fractions of the day, i.e., the distribution of intercalary days. In turn, the lunar month is incommensurate with the solar year; In lunisolar calendars, various methods have been chosen to equalize the accumulating discrepancy with intercalary months. Then the month lost its lunar rotation character and became a conventional fraction of the solar year. Ancient astronomers, not knowing how to observe the culmination of stars, were content with the crude method of observing the rising and setting of stars. Of particular importance was the so-called heliactic star rise. The length of the periods built on helical risings requires each time a special calculation depending on the given star (i.e., its location relative to the celestial equator and ecliptic), the latitude of the given observation location on earth and the magnitude of precession.

Historical chronology

Calendar

Lunar and solar calendars

The first and natural unit of time for ancient people was the day, divided into day and night. Subsequently, when observing the phases of the moon, they began to distinguish the lunar month, which was counted alternately at 29 and 30 days. Then it was noticed that after about 12 lunar months, natural phenomena repeated themselves. Thus the year was opened. However, a year of 12 lunar months of 354 days does not correspond to the astronomical (solar) year, and the lunar calendar of 12 lunar months turned out to be flexible (the Arabs still use this type of calendar). In order to correlate it with the astronomical year, as the error accumulated (approximately once every 3 years), an additional month was inserted (among the Romans, for example, it was called “Mercedonius” and was inserted between February 23-24). This kind of lunisolar calendar was used by most ancient peoples; in modern times it is used by Jews (see Jewish calendar).

The solar calendar was invented in Egypt (see ancient Egyptian calendar). It consisted of 12 months of 30 days and 5 additional days. But since true astronomical year exceeds 365 days, then the Egyptian calendar also turned out to be inaccurate. Subsequently, the Hellenistic kings of Egypt, based on the calculations of Alexandrian astronomers, tried to introduce leap years; but the reform did not take root. In 26 BC. Augustus reformed the Egyptian calendar according to the Julian type, establishing leap years and fixing the beginning of the year (1 tota) on August 29, but “old style” counting was widely practiced in Egypt until the very end of antiquity.

Metonic cycle

Where the Greeks (see ancient Greek calendars) used a sequential system when inserting additional months, they used the octaetheride (eight-year) system, adding a month every 3, 5 and 8 years of the eight-year cycle. In the middle of the 5th century. BC e. The Athenian mathematician and astronomer Meton discovered a 19-year period (Metonian cycle), equal to 235 synodic revolutions of the Moon, after which the Moon and the Sun return to almost the same position relative to the Earth and stars. He offered this period to all Greeks at the Olympic Games of 432 BC. e., proposing to insert 7 months during it. This proposal took root slowly, the Greeks for a long time continued to use a cruder, but also simpler and more familiar octaesteride system; but Meton’s discovery is still used today in the Jewish calendar and in the calculations of Passover, and the position of the year in the Metonic cycle has been called the “golden number” since antiquity.

Julian and Gregorian calendars

The Roman calendar was one of the least accurate. At first, it generally had 304 days and included only 10 months, starting from the first month of spring (Martius) and ending with the onset of winter (December - the “tenth” month); In winter there was simply no keeping track of time. King Numa Pompilius is credited with introducing two winter months (Januarius and Februarius). The additional month - Mercedonius - was inserted by the pontiffs at their own discretion, quite arbitrarily and in accordance with various momentary interests. In 46 BC. e. Julius Caesar carried out a calendar reform based on the developments of the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigenes, using the Egyptian solar calendar as a basis. In order to correct the accumulated errors, he, with his power as the great pontiff, inserted in the transitional year, in addition to Mercedonia, two additional months between November and December; and from January 1, 45, the Julian year was established at 365 days, with leap years every 4 years. In this case, an extra day was inserted between February 23 and 24, as before Mercedonia; and since, according to the Roman calculation system, the day of February 24 was called “the sixth (sextus) from the Kalends of March,” then the intercalary day was called “twice the sixth (bis sextus) from the Kalends of March” and the year accordingly annus bissextus - hence, through the Greek language, our the word "leap year". At the same time, the month of Quintilius was renamed in honor of Caesar (to Julius).

After the assassination of Caesar, the priests began to mistakenly declare every third year to be a leap year. Upon discovery of an error in 9 BC. BC, Emperor Augustus had to avoid introducing a leap year for 16 years. Only from 8 AD. e. Julian calendar began to function normally. The month following Julius (sextile) was named after Augustus.

In the 4th-6th centuries, in most Christian countries, unified Easter tables were established, based on the Julian calendar; thus, the Julian calendar spread throughout christian world. In these tables, March 21 was taken as the day of the vernal equinox.

However, as the error accumulated (1 day in 128 years), the discrepancy between the astronomical vernal equinox and the calendar one became increasingly obvious, and many in Catholic Europe believed that it could no longer be ignored. This was noted by the 13th-century Castilian king Alfonso X the Wise; in the next century, the Byzantine scientist Nikephoros Gregoras even proposed a calendar reform. In reality, such a reform was carried out by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, based on the project of the mathematician and physician Luigi Lilio. The pope's decree of February 24, 1582 established that October 5, 1582 should be followed by October 15, and in the future only those century years will be considered leap years, the number of hundreds of years of which is divisible by 4 without a remainder (1600, 2000, 2400), while others will be considered simple. As a result, the Gregorian calendar was created, which was astronomically more accurate than the Julian calendar. From European countries Catholics switched to the new style immediately, Protestants - for the most part in the 18th century: Northern Germany, Denmark and Norway - from 1700, England - from 1752, Sweden - from 1753; Orthodox countries switched to the Gregorian calendar only at the beginning of the twentieth century: Bulgaria since 1916, Russia since February 1/14, 1918, Serbia and Romania - since 1919, Greece - since 1924.

Chronography

Counting the years. The formation of historical chronology

The need for consistent counting of years appeared with the emergence of written culture and primarily stemmed from administrative needs. As a rule, documents were dated by the year of the king's reign; thus, the list of kings with the years of their reign provided a primitive chronological table. Such lists come from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, but they should be used with caution, since they are often indicated as successive reigns, which in reality are completely or partially synchronous (for example, during times of unrest), and similar “simplifications” are allowed.

In city-states, years were dated by the names of officials elected for the year, who, for example, in Ashur were called “limmu”, in Athens - “archons-eponyms”, etc. (“eponymic year”). In Mesopotamia, years were also often designated by important events - so that the list of years was something like a short chronicle.

The urgent need for chronological calculations appeared with the emergence of historical science, i.e. around the 5th century. BC e. The simplest way of dating was mutual relative dating of events: event A occurred X years before event B; event C happened Y years after event B; Moreover, the same events are mentioned by different authors, so by comparing the works of historians, it is relatively easy to calculate the mutual relationship of the events mentioned by them. For example, the Greco-Persian Wars are the central event of Herodotus’s History, which also affects more early events- formation of the Persian kingdom; Thucydides, describing the Peloponnesian War, mentions that between its beginning and the departure of Xerxes from Hellas, “approximately 50 years” passed, and briefly talks about the events of this “fiftieth year”; Xenophon directly continues Thucydides - that is, only from a comparison of these three authors it is possible to compile a detailed chronological sequence of events over approximately 200 years, from the mid-6th to the mid-4th centuries. BC e.

For events distant in time (such as the Trojan War), an approximate calculation “by generation” was used, based on genealogical tables, taking 3 generations per century. At the same time, attempts are being made to compile a system of absolute chronology. The first chronological tables were compiled: the priestesses of the priestesses of Hera in Argos (their author was Hellanicus of Lesbos, who seems to have been the first to take up chronological issues), lists of Spartan ephors, Athenian archon-eponyms; in Herodotus one can find the years of the reign of the Persian and other eastern kings. When comparing such lists, it became possible to convert a date from one system to another (for example, to say under which Persian king an event occurred that happened under such and such an archon), as well as to find out the chronological relationship of events to each other (i.e., to establish their relative chronology) and with the moment at which the work is written (i.e., find out the absolute chronology). Since there was no single chronological system in Greece, when a historian spoke about some important event, it was desirable to date it according to several systems at once: the year of the reign of the Persian king, the Spartan ephors, the Athenian eponymous archon. For example, here is an excerpt from Thucydides, which contains both relative and absolute dating of the key moment of his “History” - the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC):

“For 14 years, the thirty-year peace concluded after the conquest of Euboea continued to exist. In the fifteenth year, the forty-eighth year of the priesthood of Chrysis in Argos, when Aenesius was ephor in Sparta, and Pythodorus had 4 months of archonship left in Athens, in the sixteenth month after the battle of Potidaea, at the beginning of spring, a detachment of armed Thebans (...) invaded to the Boeotian city of Plataea.” (History, II, 2)

All other dates in the text of Thucydides’ “History” are in one way or another correlated with the date of the start of the war (in the above passage this can be seen in the example of the date of the end of the first Athenian-Spartan war and the Battle of Potidaea; in the future the dates are designated: “for such and such a year of the war” ). Of the dating systems used by Thucydides, dating according to the Athenian archons existed in historical science for many centuries, and this allowed ancient chronologists to easily correlate Thucydides’ data with later chronological scales (according to the Olympiads - through it with the Roman chronology according to consuls and “from foundation of Rome" - and through the latter this event is easily translated into the modern chronology system, which is a direct continuation of the Roman one). Finally, this date is also amenable to astronomical verification, since Thucydides dates a solar eclipse to the summer of the same year, which, according to calculations (first done by Scaliger), took place on August 3, 431 BC. e.

In the 4th century. BC historian Timaeus of Tauromenius proposes to introduce a unified chronological system based on pan-Greek lists of Olympic winners. Lists of this family have been kept since 776 BC. e. Thus, the entire Greek history turned out to be divided into 4-year intervals between the Olympic Games - “Olympiads”, named after the winners, so the dating sounded like this: “in the 3rd year of the 79th Olympiad, when the winner in the race was such and such " This dating system was accepted by historians (it was not used in official administrative practice) and was used along with dating according to the Athenian archons. The first scientific chronology was compiled a hundred years after Timaeus by Eratosthenes, who in his work “Chronography” calculated a number of reference dates (for example, the invasion of Xerxes, the beginning of the Peloponnesian War), and from them he calculated all other events. The chronological fragment of Eratosthenes that has come down to us is as follows:

“From the fall of Troy to the return of the Heraclides - 80 years; from this event to the Ionian colonization - 60 years; then until the guardianship of Lycurgus - 159 years; from there to the start of the Olympics - 108 years; from the 1st Olympiad to the campaign of Xerxes - 297 years; from this campaign to the Peloponnesian War - 48 years; and until the end of this war and until the end of the hegemony of Athens - 27 years; and (from this moment) to the battle of Leuctra - 34 years; from this time until the death of Philip - 35 years, until the death of Alexander - 12 years.”

At the same time, in the Hellenistic East, official dating of the familiar type came into use, counting from one date - the “epoch of an era.” The era was the rise to power of Seleucus Nicator, the commander of Alexander the Great - 312 BC. e. However, the “Seleucid era” remained administrative until late antiquity and was not used by historians. Subsequently, it entered Aramaic, then Arabic historiography (under the incorrect name “Alexander’s era”) and was used by Syrian Christians until the 19th century. The Parthian Arsacids, in turn, introduced the era from their own accession (248 BC), which was also in circulation in the East.

The Romans, who had long kept their “fastas” - lists of consuls, which also served as a short list official chronicle, easily fit into the Greek chronological system, so that, for example, in the work of the Greek author of the Roman era, Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), we find dates at once: according to the Olympiads, according to the Athenian archons and according to the Roman consuls. A contemporary of Diodorus was the Roman scientist Varro, who, on the basis of consular fasts and the years of reign of the Roman kings reported by legend, calculated the date of the founding of Rome (according to Varro - 753 BC) and introduced it as an era into scientific circulation. This era “from the foundation of Rome” was not officially used, but in historiography it survived until the 19th century (since it dealt with the events of Roman history).

Of great importance for chronology is the so-called “Royal Canon of Ptolemy” - a list of kings preserved in Theon’s commentary on Ptolemy’s astronomical work. This is a list of the reigns, with exact astronomical dates, of the kings of Babylon (the Babylonian kings themselves, as well as the Persian kings and Alexander the Great as Babylonians), the kings of Hellenistic Egypt, and the Roman emperors. It was compiled by Alexandrian astronomers for the needs of their own calculations (in fact, for dating astronomical phenomena) based on their own records and those of Babylonian priests and then continued by scribes who added the names of Byzantine emperors to it (in some manuscripts it was brought up to the fall of Constantinople in 1453). It begins with the accession to the throne of the Babylonian king Nabonassar on February 27, 747 BC. e. (the so-called “era of Nabonassar”), during which systematic astronomical observations began for the first time, and is based on the moving Egyptian calendar (without high-cox years), which was then used by astronomers.

In the late Roman period, the era from the beginning of the reign of Emperor Diocletian - 284, became widespread in astronomical and astrological texts, in which Easter tables were compiled (this era is still preserved by the Coptic-Ethiopian church under the name “era of martyrs”).

In 525, Pope John I commissioned the monk Dionysius the Lesser to compile a new Easter table. Dionysius used the tables of the Alexandrian church, which used the era of Diocletian, however, not wanting to count by the years of the reign of the “wicked persecutor,” he decided to “designate the years” from the “incarnation of Christ.” In his table, 532 ab inscriptione (“from the incarnation”) followed 247 of the era of Diocletian. This Easter table, having been approved by the papal throne and entering into general use, introduced the era “from the Nativity of Christ”, now generally accepted. In official acts, the era AD is already found in the Capitulary of Carloman dated April 21, 742. In papal acts it has been in use since John XIII (10th century).

Interest in issues of chronology reappears during the Renaissance. It is believed that the foundations of modern chronology were laid by Joseph Scaliger (1540-1609); he introduced dating according to the Julian period he invented, beginning in 4713 BC. e., which made it possible to convert all available dates into one system; He was also the first to begin (or rather resumed, since it was also used sporadically in antiquity) the astronomical verification of dates found in historical sources (for example, he was the first to give an astronomical dating of the solar eclipse of 431 BC, mentioned by Thucydides). By cross-checking synchronous information and using astronomical data, Scaliger and the Jesuit scientist Dionysius Petavius ​​(1583-1652) calculated the main dates, which in turn made it possible to recalculate all the dates of ancient history using a unified chronology system. Petavius ​​in 1627 proposed a system of “counting back” dates “before the birth of Christ.” This system, which received universal recognition only towards the end of the 18th century, greatly facilitated the study of chronology.

a: Battle of Kulikovo

b: Standing on the Ugra River

in: Battle of the Kalka River

g: Neva Battle

4. The Battle of the Neva took place in:

5. The first chronicle mentions of Moscow refer to:

6. The first mention in the chronicle of Moscow is associated with the name of the prince:

a: Vladimir Monomakh

b: Yuri Dolgoruky

in: Daniil Alexandrovich

Mr.: Ivan Kalita

d: Andrei Bogolyubsky

Match

a: Alexander Nevsky

b: Dmitry Donskoy

in: Ivan III

g: Ivan IV the Terrible

1. Standing on the river. Eel

2. Battle of Kulikovo

3. Capture of Kazan

4. Battle on the ice

8.The procedure for occupying positions according to nobility of origin in ancient Russian state called - this:__________________

9. The “Great Stand” on the Ugra River of Russian and Tatar militias led to:

a: the defeat of Moscow, the strengthening of the Great Horde

b: weakening the yoke, reducing the size of the tribute

in: the collapse of the Great Horde, the strengthening of Moscow

d: had no consequences.

10. In 1485, the title “Sovereign of All Rus'” was adopted by:

a: Ivan III

b: Alexander Nevsky

in: Dmitry Donskoy

city: Vladimir I

11. Double headed eagle appeared on the Russian coat of arms with:

a: Ivan the Terrible

b: Peter the Great

in: Dmitry Donskoy

city: Ivan III

Batu's first invasion of Rus' took place in

13. Collection of laws adopted in the 15th century, which played a large role in the centralization of the Russian state:

a: “Russian Truth”

b: “Cathedral Code”

in: "Code of Law"

g: “Table of Ranks”

14. The letter “For the Great Reign” received by the Russian princes from the khans of the Golden Horde was called :_____________________

15. The Battle of Kulikovo took place in:

Seminar 5.

RUSSIA DURING THE REIGN OF IVAN THE TERRIBLE.

TIMES OF TROUBLES

Goals and objectives of the seminar:

Reconstruct the portrait of the first Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible as a person and politician. Identify the reasons for its ambiguous assessment in history. Consider the domestic and foreign policies of Ivan the Terrible and its consequences for the history of Russia. Identify the causes of the time of troubles and its consequences. Describe the features of culture in this period.

Plan and regulations of the seminar session:

Educational and material support for the seminar:

Presentations on the topic.

Plasma TV and computer.

Visual material in the form historical maps, diagrams, etc.

Topics of reports and messages:

1. “The Chosen Rada” is the informal government of Ivan the Terrible.

2. Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible in the assessments of contemporaries and descendants.

3. The phenomenon of imposture and Russian impostors.

4. Medicine of the era of Ivan the Terrible.

5. Culture in the XV – XVI centuries.

Basic literature:

1. Zuev M.N. History of Russia: training manual. Recommended by the Ministry of Education / M. N. Zuev. -M.: Higher Education, 2008. P. 89 – 119, 143 – 154.

1. Additional reading:

1. Brief historical dictionary / A. A. Danilov. - M.: Prospekt, 2009.

2. Domestic history [Electronic resource]: educational and methodological manual / I. I. Nikolaeva, O. Yu. Kuzmina. - Novosibirsk: Sibmedizdat NSMU, 2011.

3. History of the Fatherland [Electronic resource]: educational and methodological manual for full-time students of NSMU / I. I. Nikolaeva, A. G. Shatov, A. Yu. Okhotnikov [and others]. - Novosibirsk: Sibmedizdat NSMU, 2013. P.46-52.

1. Akhiezer A. History of Russia: end or new beginning? M., 2008.

2. Gumilyov L.N. History as a form of energy movement. M.: AST, 2008 and other publications.

3. History of Russia / A.S. Orlov et al. M., 2010.

4. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day / A.N. Sakharov et al. M.., 2010.

1. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State. M.: Eksmo, 2010 and other publications.

2. Klyuchevsky V. O. Full course Russian history. St. Petersburg: Astrel-SPb, 2010 and other publications.

3. Kobrin V.B. Ivan the Terrible: Chosen Rada or Oprichnina. - M., 1986 and other publications.

4. Kostomarov N.I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures. - M., 2005 and other publications.

5. Maksimov Yu. History of Russia. Short course for applicants to universities: a textbook. M., 2010.

5. Platonov S.F. A complete course of lectures on Russian history. M.: AST, 2008 and other publications.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. Troubles. - M.: Publishing house: Mysl, 1988 and other publications.

7. Skrynnikov R.G. Vasily Shuisky. M.: AST, 2002 and other publications.

8. Skrynnikov R.G. Three False Dmitrys. - M.: AST, 2003 and other publications.

9. Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. M.: Eksmo, 2009 and other publications.

10. Tatishchev V. N. Russian History. Parts 1 – 4. M., 2011 and other publications.

Assignment for independent work(done in a notebook in the form of a summary):

1. Fill out the table " Politics of Ivan IV and the Chosen Rada»:

2. Fill out the table " Periods of the Time of Troubles»:

Self-control tasks(performed in the form of solving test tasks):

1. The procedure for occupying positions according to nobility of origin in the ancient Russian state:

a: localism

b: feeding

in: polyudye

g: elderly

2. Territory established in the middle of the 16th century. from the control of the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma:

a: oprichnina

b: Sovereign's yard

in: zemshchina

3. Tsar, first elected at the Zemsky Sobor:

a: Mikhail Romanov

b: Boris Godunov

in: Vasily Shuisky

Mr.: Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov

4. The Great Troubles in Russia took place in:

a: early 17th century

b: in the 18th century.

5. Years of reign of Ivan IV:

a: 1505-1533

b: 1533-1584

in: 1584-1598

g: 1598-1605

6. The first Russian Tsar was crowned king in:

7. During the time of Ivan IV they called the “Chosen Rada”:

a: Zemsky Sobor

b: Boyar Duma

in: informal circle of reformers under the tsar

g: opposition group of boyars

8. The estate-representative monarchy in Russia took shape:

a: at the end of the 15th century. under Ivan III

b: in the middle of the 16th century. under Ivan IV

in: under Peter I

g: under Alexander I

9. During the reform of local government in the 50s of the 16th century. powers were transferred to:

a: to the governors

b: to governors

to: provincial and zemstvo elders

g: to the governors

10. “Instrumental service people” are:

a: nobles

b: Sagittarius

in: hired foreigners

g: boyar children

11. Oprichnina was introduced by Ivan the Terrible in:

12. The Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on the Moat (St. Basil’s) was built in honor of:

a: capture of Kazan

b: capture of Astrakhan

in: conquests of Siberia

g: in memory of those killed in the Livonian War

13. “Reserved summers” are:

a: time frame for finding fugitive peasants

b: prohibition of internecine wars and local disputes

c: prohibition of peasant transfers from one landowner to another

d: the period in which peasants could make a transition from one owner to another a week before and after St. George’s Day

14. Kazan and Astrakhan were annexed to Russia:

a: in the 18th century. Peter the Great

b: in the 15th century. Ivan III

in: in. XVI century Ivan the Terrible

g: in the 18th century. Catherine the Great

15. The militia under the leadership of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky liberated Moscow from Polish occupiers V:

IV century AD - Formation of the first tribal union Eastern Slavs(Volynians and Buzhanians).
V century - Formation of the second tribal union of the Eastern Slavs (Polyans) in the middle Dnieper basin.
VI century - The first written news about “Rus” and “Rus”. Conquest of the Slavic tribe Duleb by the Avars (558).
VII century - Settlement of Slavic tribes in the basins of the upper Dnieper, Western Dvina, Volkhov, Upper Volga, etc.
VIII century - Beginning of expansion Khazar Khaganate to the north, the imposition of tribute on the Slavic tribes of the Polans, Severians, Vyatichi, Radimichi.

Kievan Rus

838 - The first known embassy of the “Russian Kagan” to Constantinople..
860 - Campaign of the Rus (Askold?) against Byzantium..
862 - Formation of the Russian state with its capital in Novgorod. The first mention of Murom in chronicles.
862-879 - The reign of Prince Rurik (879+) in Novgorod.
865 - Capture of Kyiv by the Varangians Askold and Dir.
OK. 863 - Creation of the Slavic alphabet by Cyril and Methodius in Moravia.
866 - Slavic campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople).
879-912 - The reign of Prince Oleg (912+).
882 - Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv under the rule of Prince Oleg. Transfer of the capital from Novgorod to Kyiv.
883-885 - Subjugation of the Krivichi, Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi by Prince Oleg. Formation of the territory of Kievan Rus.
907 - Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople. The first agreement between Rus' and Byzantium.
911 - Conclusion of the second treaty between Rus' and Byzantium.
912-946 - Reign of Prince Igor (946x).
913 - Uprising in the land of the Drevlyans.
913-914 - Campaigns of the Rus against the Khazars along the Caspian coast of Transcaucasia.
915 - Treaty of Prince Igor with the Pechenegs.
941 - 1st campaign of Prince Igor to Constantinople.
943-944 - 2nd campaign of Prince Igor to Constantinople. Treaty of Prince Igor with Byzantium.
944-945 - Campaign of the Rus on the Caspian coast of Transcaucasia.
946-957 - Simultaneous reign of Princess Olga and Prince Svyatoslav.
OK. 957 - Olga's trip to Constantinople and her baptism.
957-972 - Reign of Prince Svyatoslav (972x).
964-966 - Campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav against Volga Bulgaria, Khazars, tribes of the North Caucasus and Vyatichi. The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in the lower reaches of the Volga. Establishing control over the Volga - Caspian Sea trade route.
968-971 - Campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav to Danube Bulgaria. Defeat of the Bulgarians in the Battle of Dorostol (970). Wars with the Pechenegs.
969 - Death of Princess Olga.
971 - Treaty of Prince Svyatoslav with Byzantium.
972-980 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaropolk (980s).
977-980 - Internecine wars for the possession of Kiev between Yaropolk and Vladimir.
980-1015 - Reign of Grand Duke Vladimir the Saint (1015+).
980 - Pagan reform of Grand Duke Vladimir. Trying to create single cult, uniting the gods of various tribes.
985 - Campaign of Grand Duke Vladimir with the allied Torci against the Volga Bulgars.
988 - Baptism of Rus'. The first evidence of the establishment of the power of the Kyiv princes on the banks of the Oka.
994-997 - Campaigns of Grand Duke Vladimir against the Volga Bulgars.
1010 - Founding of the city of Yaroslavl.
1015-1019 - Reign of Grand Duke Svyatopolk the Accursed. Wars for the princely throne.
beginning of the 11th century - settlement of the Polovtsians between the Volga and Dnieper.
1015 - Murder of princes Boris and Gleb by order of Grand Duke Svyatopolk.
1016 - Defeat of the Khazars by Byzantium with the help of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. Suppression of the uprising in Crimea.
1019 - Defeat of the Grand Duke Svyatopolk the Accursed in the fight against Prince Yaroslav.
1019-1054 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (1054+).
1022 - Victory of Mstislav the Brave over the Kasogs (Circassians).
1023-1025 - War of Mstislav the Brave and Grand Duke Yaroslav for the great reign. Victory of Mstislav the Brave in the battle of Listven (1024).
1025 - Division of Kievan Rus between princes Yaroslav and Mstislav (border along the Dnieper).
1026 - Conquest of the Baltic tribes of Livs and Chuds by Yaroslav the Wise.
1030 - Founding of the city of Yuryev (modern Tartu) in the Chud land.
1030-1035 - Construction of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov.
1036 - Death of Prince Mstislav the Brave. Unification of Kievan Rus under the rule of Grand Duke Yaroslav.
1037 - The defeat of the Pechenegs by Prince Yaroslav and the foundation of the Hagia Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv in honor of this event (finished in 1041).
1038 - Victory of Yaroslav the Wise over the Yatvingians (Lithuanian tribe).
1040 - War of the Rus with the Lithuanians.
1041 - Campaign of the Rus against the Finnish tribe Yam.
1043 - Campaign of the Novgorod prince Vladimir Yaroslavich to Constantinople ( last trip to Byzantium).
1045-1050 - Construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.
1051 - Founding of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery. The appointment of the first metropolitan (Hilarion) from the Russians, appointed to the position without the consent of Constantinople.
1054-1078 - The reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich (The actual triumvirate of princes Izyaslav, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich and Vsevolod Yaroslavich. “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs.” Weakening of the supreme power of the Kyiv prince.
1055 - The first news of the chronicle about the appearance of the Polovtsians at the borders of the Pereyaslavl principality.
1056-1057 - Creation of the "Ostromir Gospel" - the oldest dated handwritten Russian book.
1061 - Polovtsian raid on Rus'.
1066 - Raid on Novgorod by Prince Vseslav of Polotsk. The defeat and capture of Vseslav by the Grand Duke Izslav.
1068 - New Polovtsian raid on Rus' led by Khan Sharukan. The Yaroslavichs' campaign against the Polovtsians and their defeat on the Alta River. The uprising of the townspeople in Kyiv, the flight of Izyaslav to Poland.
1068-1069 - Great reign of Prince Vseslav (about 7 months).
1069 - Return of Izyaslav to Kyiv together with the Polish king Boleslav II.
1078 - Death of Grand Duke Izyaslav in the battle of Nezhatina Niva with the outcasts Boris Vyacheslavich and Oleg Svyatoslavich.
1078-1093 - Reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Land redistribution (1078).
1093-1113 - Reign of Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich.
1093-1095 - War of the Rus with the Polovtsians. Defeat of princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh in the battle with the Polovtsians on the Stugna River (1093).
1095-1096 - The internecine struggle of Prince Vladimir Monomakh and his sons with Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich and his brothers for the Rostov-Suzdal, Chernigov and Smolensk principalities.
1097 - Lyubech Congress of Princes. Assignment of principalities to princes on the basis of patrimonial law. Fragmentation of the state into specific principalities. Separation of the Murom principality from the Chernigov principality.
1100 - Vitichevsky Congress of Princes.
1103 - Dolob congress of princes before the campaign against the Polovtsians. Successful campaign of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh against the Polovtsians.
1107 - Capture of Suzdal by the Volga Bulgars.
1108 - Foundation of the city of Vladimir on Klyazma as a fortress for defense Principality of Suzdal from Chernigov princes.
1111 - Campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians. The defeat of the Polovtsians at Salnitsa.
1113 - First edition of The Tale of Bygone Years (Nestor). An uprising of dependent (enslaved) people in Kyiv against the princely power and merchants-usurers. Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich.
1113-1125 - Reign of Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. Temporary strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke. Drawing up the "Charters of Vladimir Monomakh" ( legal registration judicial law, regulation of rights in other areas of life).
1116 - Second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years (Sylvester). Victory of Vladimir Monomakh over the Polovtsians.
1118 - Conquest of Minsk by Vladimir Monomakh.
1125-1132 - Reign of Grand Duke Mstislav I the Great.
1125-1157 - Reign of Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky in the Rostov-Suzdal Principality.
1126 - First election of mayor in Novgorod.
1127 - Final division of the Principality of Polotsk into fiefs.
1127 -1159 - Reign of Rostislav Mstislavich in Smolensk. The heyday of the Smolensk Principality.
1128 - Famine in the Novgorod, Pskov, Suzdal, Smolensk and Polotsk lands.
1129 - Separation of the Ryazan Principality from the Murom-Ryazan Principality.
1130 -1131 - Russian campaigns against Chud, the beginning of successful campaigns against Lithuania. Clashes between the Murom-Ryazan princes and the Polovtsians.
1132-1139 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaropolk II Vladimirovich. The final decline of the power of the Kyiv Grand Duke.
1135-1136 - Unrest in Novgorod, Charter of the Novgorod prince Vsevolod Mstislavovich on the management of merchants, expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. Invitation to Novgorod for Svyatoslav Olgovich. Strengthening the principle of inviting the prince to the veche.
1137 - Separation of Pskov from Novgorod, formation of the Pskov Principality.
1139 - 1st great reign of Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (8 days). Unrest in Kyiv and its capture by Vsevolod Olegovich.
1139-1146 - Reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod II Olgovich.
1144 - Formation of the Principality of Galicia through the unification of several appanage principalities.
1146 - Reign of Grand Duke Igor Olgovich (six months). The beginning of a fierce struggle between the princely clans for the Kiev throne (Monomakhovichi, Olgovichi, Davydovichi) - lasted until 1161.
1146-1154 - The reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav III Mstislavich with interruptions: in 1149, 1150 - the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky; In 1150 - the 2nd great reign of Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (all - less than six months). Intensification of internecine struggle between the Suzdal and Kyiv princes.
1147 - The first chronicle mention of Moscow.
1149 - The struggle of the Novgorodians with the Finns for Vod. Attempts by the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgorukov to recapture the Ugra tribute from the Novgorodians.
Bookmark "Yuryev in the field" (Yuryev-Polsky).
1152 - Founding of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and Kostroma.
1154 - Founding of the city of Dmitrov and the village of Bogolyubov.
1154-1155 - Reign of Grand Duke Rostislav Mstislavich.
1155 - 1st reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Davydovich (about six months).
1155-1157 - Reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky.
1157-1159 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Davydovich in Kyiv and Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir-Suzdal.
1159-1167 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Rostislav Mstislavich in Kyiv and Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir-Suzdal.
1160 - Uprising of the Novgorodians against Svyatoslav Rostislavovich.
1164 - Andrei Bogolyubsky's campaign against the Volga Bulgarians. Victory of the Novgorodians over the Swedes.
1167-1169 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Mstislav II Izyaslavich in Kyiv and Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir.
1169 - Capture of Kyiv by the troops of Grand Duke Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir. The rise of Vladimir Rus'.

Rus' Vladimir

1169-1174 - Reign of Grand Duke Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir.
1174 - Murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky. The first mention of the name "nobles" in the chronicles.
1174-1176 - Reign of Grand Duke Mikhail Yuryevich. Civil strife and uprisings of townspeople in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
1176-1212 - Reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod Big Nest. The heyday of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'.
1176 - War of the Rus with the Volga-Kama Bulgaria. The clash between the Rus and the Estonians.
1180 - Beginning of civil strife and the collapse of the Smolensk Principality. Civil strife between the Chernigov and Ryazan princes.
1183-1184 - Great campaign of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes under the leadership of Vsevolod Great nest on the Volga Bulgars. Successful campaign of the princes of Southern Rus' against the Polovtsians.
1185 - Unsuccessful trip Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians.
1186-1187 - Internecine struggle between the Ryazan princes.
1188 - Attack of the Novgorodians on German merchants in Novotorzhka.
1189-1192 - 3rd Crusade
1191 - Campaigns of the Novgorodians with Koreloya to the pit.
1193 - Unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorodians against Ugra.
1195 - The first known trade agreement between Novgorod and German cities.
1196 - Recognition of Novgorod liberties by the princes. Vsevolod's Big Nest march to Chernigov.
1198 - Conquest of the Udmurts by the Novgorodians. Relocation of the Teutonic Order of Crusaders from Palestine to the Baltic states. Pope Celestine III proclaims the Northern Crusade.
1199 - Formation of the Galician-Volyn principality through the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities. The rise of Roman Mstislavich the Great Foundation of the Riga fortress by Bishop Albrecht. Establishment of the Order of the Swordsmen for the Christianization of Livonia (modern Latvia and Estonia)
1202-1224 - Capture of Russian possessions in the Baltic states by the Order of the Swordsmen. The Order's struggle with Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk for Livonia.
1207 - Selection Rostov Principality from Principality of Vladimir. Unsuccessful defense of the Kukonas fortress in the middle reaches of the Western Dvina by Prince Vyacheslav Borisovich (“Vyachko”), grandson of the Smolensk prince Davyd Rostislavich.
1209 - First mention in the chronicle of Tver (according to V.N. Tatishchev, Tver was founded in 1181).
1212-1216 - 1st reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. Internecine struggle with brother Konstantin Rostovsky. Defeat of Yuri Vsevolodovich in the battle on the Lipitsa River near the city of Yuryev-Polsky.
1216-1218 - Reign of Grand Duke Konstantin Vsevolodovich of Rostov.
1218-1238 - 2nd reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich (1238x) 1219 - foundation of the city of Revel (Kolyvan, Tallinn)
1220-1221 - Campaign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich to Volga Bulgaria, seizure of lands in the lower reaches of the Oka. Founding of Nizhny Novgorod (1221) in the land of the Mordovians as an outpost against Volga Bulgaria. 1219-1221 - Genghis Khan's seizure of states Central Asia
1221 - Yuri Vsevolodovich's campaign against the crusaders, unsuccessful siege of the Riga fortress.
1223 - Defeat of the coalition of Polovtsians and Russian princes in the battle with the Mongols on the Kalka River. Yuri Vsevolodovich's campaign against the crusaders.
1224 - Capture of Yuryev (Dorpt, modern Tartu) by the knights-swords, the main Russian fortress in the Baltic states.
1227 - The campaign was carried out. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and other princes to the Mordovians. Death of Genghis Khan, proclamation of Batu as the Great Khan of the Mongol-Tatars.
1232 - Campaign of the Suzdal, Ryazan and Murom princes against Mordovians.
1233 - Attempt of the Knights of the Sword to take the Izborsk fortress.
1234 - Victory of the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich over the Germans near Yuryev and the conclusion of peace with them. Suspension of the advance of the swordsmen to the east.
1236-1249 - Reign of Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky in Novgorod.
1236 - defeat of the Volga Bulgaria and the Volga tribes by the great Khan Batu.
1236 - defeat of the troops of the Order of the Sword by the Lithuanian prince Mindaugas. Death of the Grand Master of the Order.
1237-1238 - Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in North-Eastern Rus'. The destruction of the cities of Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities.
1237 - defeat of the troops by Daniil Romanovich Galitsky Teutonic Order. Merger of the remnants of the Order of the Sword and the Teutonic Order. Formation of the Livonian Order.
1238 - Defeat of the troops of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' in the battle on the Sit River (March 4, 1238). Death of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. Separation of the Belozersky and Suzdal principalities from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
1238-1246 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich..
1239 - Devastation of the Mordovian lands, Chernigov and Pereyaslav principalities by Tatar-Mongol troops.
1240 - Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Southern Rus'. The devastation of Kiev (1240) and the Galician-Volyn principality. Victory of the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich over the Swedish army in the battle on the Neva River (“Battle of the Neva”)..
1240-1241 - Invasion of the Teutonic knights into the lands of Pskov and Novgorod, their capture of Pskov, Izborsk, Luga;
Construction of the Koporye fortress (now a village in the Lomonosov district of the Leningrad region).
1241-1242 - Expulsion of the Teutonic knights by Alexander Nevsky, liberation of Pskov and other cities. Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Eastern Europe. The defeat of the Hungarian troops on the river. Solenaya (04/11/1241), devastation of Poland, fall of Krakow.
1242 - Victory of Alexander Nevsky over the knights of the Teutonic Order in the battle of Lake Peipsi("Battle on the Ice"). Making peace with Livonia on the terms of its renunciation of claims to Russian lands. Defeat of the Mongol-Tatars from the Czechs in the Battle of Olomouc. Completion of the "Great" Western campaign".
1243 - Arrival of Russian princes at Batu's headquarters. Announcement of Prince Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich as “the oldest” Formation of the “Golden Horde”
1245 - Battle of Yaroslavl (Galitsky) - last battle Daniil Romanovich Galitsky in the struggle for possession of the Principality of Galicia.
1246-1249 - Reign of Grand Duke Svyatoslav III Vsevolodovich 1246 - Death of the Great Khan Batu
1249-1252 - Reign of Grand Duke Andrei Yaroslavich.
1252 - The devastating "Nevryuev's army" to the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
1252-1263 - Reign of Grand Duke Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky. The campaign of Prince Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Novgorodians to Finland (1256).
1252-1263 - reign of the first Lithuanian prince Mindovg Ringoldovich.
1254 - foundation of the city of Saray - the capital of the Golden Horde. The struggle between Novgorod and Sweden for Southern Finland.
1257-1259 - The first Mongol census of the population of Rus', the creation of a Baska system for collecting tribute. The uprising of the townspeople in Novgorod (1259) against the Tatar "numerals".
1261 - Establishment of the Orthodox diocese in the city of Saray.
1262 - Uprisings of the townspeople of Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir and Yaroslavl against Muslim tax farmers and tribute collectors. The assignment of collecting tribute to the Russian princes.
1263-1272 - Reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav III Yaroslavich.
1267 - Genoa receives the khan's label for ownership of Kafa (Feodosia) in Crimea. The beginning of the Genoese colonization of the coast of the Azov and Black Seas. Formation of colonies in Kafa, Matrega (Tmutarakan), Mapa (Anapa), Tanya (Azov).
1268 - Joint campaign of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, Novgorodians and Pskovites to Livonia, their victory at Rakovor.
1269 - Siege of Pskov by the Livonians, conclusion of peace with Livonia and stabilization of the western border of Pskov and Novgorod.
1272-1276 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily Yaroslavich 1275 - campaign of the Tatar-Mongol army against Lithuania
1272-1303 - Reign of Daniil Alexandrovich in Moscow. Foundation of the Moscow dynasty of princes.
1276 Second Mongolian census of Rus'.
1276-1294 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich of Pereyaslavl.
1288-1291 - struggle for the throne in the Golden Horde
1292 - Invasion of the Tatars led by Tudan (Deden).
1293-1323 - War of Novgorod with Sweden for the Karelian Isthmus.
1294-1304 - Reign of Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.
1299 - Transfer of the metropolitan see from Kyiv to Vladimir by Metropolitan Maxim.
1300-1301 - Construction of the Landskrona fortress on the Neva by the Swedes and its destruction by the Novgorodians led by Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.
1300 - Victory of Moscow Prince Daniil Alexandrovich over Ryazan. Annexation of Kolomna to Moscow.
1302 - Annexation of the Pereyaslav Principality to Moscow.
1303-1325 - Reign of Prince Yuri Daniilovich in Moscow. Conquest of Mozhaisk by Prince Yuri of Moscow appanage principality(1303). The beginning of the struggle between Moscow and Tver.
1304-1319 - Reign of Grand Duke Mikhail II Yaroslavich of Tver (1319x). Construction (1310) by the Novgorodians of the Korela fortress (Kexgolm, modern Priozersk). Reign of Grand Duke Gediminas in Lithuania. Annexation of the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities to Lithuania
1308-1326 - Peter - Metropolitan of All Rus'.
1312-1340 - reign of Uzbek Khan in the Golden Horde. The rise of the Golden Horde.
1319-1322 - Reign of Grand Duke Yuri Daniilovich of Moscow (1325x).
1322-1326 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes (1326x).
1323 - Construction of the Russian fortress Oreshek at the source of the Neva River.
1324 - Campaign of the Moscow prince Yuri Daniilovich with the Novgorodians to the Northern Dvina and Ustyug.
1325 - Tragic death in the Golden Horde of Yuri Daniilovich of Moscow. Victory of Lithuanian troops over the people of Kiev and Smolensk.
1326 - Transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow by Metropolitan Theognostus.
1326-1328 - Reign of Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy (1339x).
1327 - Uprising in Tver against the Mongol-Tatars. The flight of Prince Alexander Mikhailovich from the punitive army of the Mongol-Tatars.

Rus' Moscow

1328-1340 - Reign of Grand Duke Ivan I Danilovich Kalita. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Vladimir to Moscow.
The division of the Vladimir principality by Khan Uzbek between Grand Duke Ivan Kalita and Prince Alexander Vasilyevich of Suzdal.
1331 - Unification of the Vladimir principality by Grand Duke Ivan Kalita under his rule..
1339 - The tragic death of Prince Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy in the Golden Horde. Construction of a wooden Kremlin in Moscow.
1340 - Founding of the Trinity Monastery by Sergius of Radonezh (Trinity-Sergius Lavra) Death of Uzbek, Great Khan of the Golden Horde
1340-1353 - Reign of Grand Duke Simeon Ivanovich Proud 1345-1377 - Reign of Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich. Annexation of Kyiv, Chernigov, Volyn and Podolsk lands to Lithuania.
1342 - Nizhny Novgorod, Unzha and Gorodets joined the Suzdal principality. Formation of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality.
1348-1349 - Crusades of the Swedish king Magnus I in the Novgorod lands and his defeat. Novgorod recognizes the independence of Pskov. Bolotovsky Treaty (1348).
1353-1359 - Reign of Grand Duke Ivan II Ivanovich the Meek.
1354-1378 - Alexey - Metropolitan of All Rus'.
1355 - Division of the Principality of Suzdal between Andrei (Nizhny Novgorod) and Dmitry (Suzdal) Konstantinovich.
1356 - subjugation of the Bryansk principality by Olgerd
1358-1386 - Reign of Svyatoslav Ioannovich in Smolensk and his struggle with Lithuania.
1359-1363 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal. The struggle for the great reign between Moscow and Suzdal.
1361 - seizure of power in the Golden Horde by Temnik Mamai
1363-1389 - Reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy.
1363 - Olgerd's campaign to the Black Sea, his victory over the Tatars on Blue waters(tributary of the Southern Bug), subordination to Lithuania Kyiv land and Podolia
1367 - Mikhail Alexandrovich Mikulinsky came to power in Tver with the help of the Lithuanian army. Worsening relations between Moscow and Tver and Lithuania. Construction of the white stone walls of the Kremlin.
1368 - Olgerd’s 1st campaign against Moscow (“Lithuanianism”).
1370 - Olgerd’s 2nd campaign against Moscow.
1375 - Dmitry Donskoy's campaign against Tver.
1377 - Defeat of the troops of Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod from the Tatar prince Arab Shah (Arapsha) on the Pyana River Unification of Mamai uluses west of the Volga
1378 - Victory of the Moscow-Ryazan army over the Tatar army of Begich on the Vozha River.
1380 - Mamai’s campaign against Rus' and his defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo. The defeat of Mamai by Khan Tokhtamysh on the Kalka River.
1382 - Tokhtamysh’s campaign against Moscow and the destruction of Moscow. The destruction of the Ryazan principality by the Moscow army.
OK. 1382 - Coin minting begins in Moscow.
1383 - Annexation of the Vyatka land to the Nizhny Novgorod principality. Death of the former Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal.
1385 - Judicial reform in Novgorod. Declaration of independence from the metropolitan court. Dmitry Donskoy's unsuccessful campaign against Murom and Ryazan. Union of Krevo Lithuania and Poland.
1386-1387 - Campaign of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy at the head of the coalition Vladimir princes to Novgorod. Payments of indemnity by Novgorod. Defeat of the Smolensk prince Svyatoslav Ivanovich in the battle with the Lithuanians (1386).
1389 - The appearance of firearms in Rus'.
1389-1425 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily I Dmitrievich, for the first time without the sanction of the Horde.
1392 - Annexation of the Nizhny Novgorod and Murom principalities to Moscow.
1393 - Campaign of the Moscow army led by Yuri Zvenigorodsky to the Novgorod lands.
1395 - Defeat of the Golden Horde by the troops of Tamerlane. Establishment of vassal dependence of the Smolensk Principality on Lithuania.
1397-1398 - Campaign of the Moscow army to the Novgorod lands. Annexation of Novgorod possessions (Bezhetsky Verkh, Vologda, Ustyug and Komi lands) to Moscow, return of the Dvina land to Novgorod. Conquest of the Dvina land by the Novgorod army.
1399-1400 - Campaign of the Moscow army led by Yuri Zvenigorodsky to the Kama against the Nizhny Novgorod princes who took refuge in Kazan 1399 - victory of Khan Timur-Kutlug over the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vitovt Keistutovich.
1400-1426 - Reign of Prince Ivan Mikhailovich in Tver, strengthening of Tver 1404 - capture of Smolensk and the Smolensk principality by the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vitovt Keistutovich
1402 - Annexation of the Vyatka land to Moscow.
1406-1408 - War of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I with Vitovt Keistutovich.
1408 - March on Moscow by Emir Edigei.
1410 - Death of Prince Vladimir Andreevich the Brave Battle of Grunwald. The Polish-Lithuanian-Russian army of Jogaila and Vytautas defeated the knights of the Teutonic Order
OK. 1418 - Popular uprising against the boyars in Novgorod.
OK. 1420 - Beginning of coinage in Novgorod.
1422 - Peace of Melno, agreement between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland with the Teutonic Order (concluded on September 27, 1422 on the shore of Lake Mielno). The Order finally abandoned Samogitia and Lithuanian Zanemanje, retaining the Klaipeda region and Polish Pomerania.
1425-1462 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark.
1425-1461 - Reign of Prince Boris Alexandrovich in Tver. An attempt to enhance the significance of Tver.
1426-1428 - Campaigns of Vytautas of Lithuania against Novgorod and Pskov.
1427 - Recognition of vassal dependence on Lithuania by the Tver and Ryazan principalities. 1430 - death of Vytautas of Lithuania. The beginning of the decline of the Lithuanian great power
1425-1453 - Internecine war in Rus' between Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark and Yuri Zvenigorodsky, cousins Vasily Kosy and Dmitry Shemyaka.
1430 - 1432 - struggle in Lithuania between Svidrigail Olgerdovich, representing the “Russian” party, and Sigismund, representing the “Lithuanian” party.
1428 - Raid Horde army to Kostroma lands - Galich Mersky, destruction and robbery of Kostroma, Ples and Lukh.
1432 - Trial in the Horde between Vasily II and Yuri Zvenigorodsky (on the initiative of Yuri Dmitrievich). Confirmation of Grand Duke Vasily II.
1433-1434 - Capture of Moscow and the great reign of Yuri of Zvenigorod.
1437 - Ulu-Muhammad's campaign to the Zaoksky lands. Battle of Belevskaya December 5, 1437 (defeat of the Moscow army).
1439 - Basil II refuses to accept the Florentine Union with the Roman Catholic Church. The campaign of the Kazan Khan Makhmet (Ulu-Muhammad) to Moscow.
1438 - separation of the Kazan Khanate from the Golden Horde. The beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde.
1440 - Recognition of the independence of Pskov by Casimir of Lithuania.
1444-1445 - Raid of the Kazan Khan Makhmet (Ulu-Muhammad) on Ryazan, Murom and Suzdal.
1443 - separation of the Crimean Khanate from the Golden Horde
1444-1448 - War of Livonia with Novgorod and Pskov. The campaign of Tver residents to the Novgorod lands.
1446 - Transfer to Moscow service of Kasim Khan, brother of the Kazan Khan. The blinding of Vasily II by Dmitry Shemyaka.
1448 - Election of Jonah as Metropolitan at the Council of the Russian Clergy. Signing of a 25-year peace between Pskov and Novgorod and Livonia.
1449 - Agreement between Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark and Casimir of Lithuania. Recognition of the independence of Novgorod and Pskov.
OK. 1450 - First mention of St. George's Day.
1451 - Annexation of the Suzdal Principality to Moscow. The campaign of Mahmut, the son of Kichi-Muhammad, to Moscow. He burned the settlements, but the Kremlin did not take them.
1456 - The campaign of Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark against Novgorod, the defeat of the Novgorod army near Staraya Russa. Yazhelbitsky Treaty of Novgorod with Moscow. The first restriction of Novgorod liberties. 1454-1466 - The Thirteen Years' War between Poland and the Teutonic Order, which ended with the recognition of the Teutonic Order as a vassal of the Polish king.
1458 The final division of the Kyiv Metropolis into Moscow and Kyiv. The refusal of the church council in Moscow to recognize Metropolitan Gregory sent from Rome and the decision to henceforth appoint a metropolitan by the will of the Grand Duke and the council without approval in Constantinople.
1459 - Subordination of Vyatka to Moscow.
1459 - Separation of the Astrakhan Khanate from the Golden Horde
1460 - Truce between Pskov and Livonia for 5 years. Recognition of Moscow's sovereignty by Pskov.
1462 - Death of Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark.

Russian state (Russian centralized state)

1462-1505 - Reign of Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich.
1462 - Ivan III stopped issuing Russian coins with the name of the Khan of the Horde. Statement by Ivan III on the renunciation of the khan's label for the great reign..
1465 - Scriba's detachment reaches the Ob River.
1466-1469 - Travel Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin to India.
1467-1469 - campaigns of the Moscow army against the Kazan Khanate..
1468 - Campaign of Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat to Ryazan.
1471 - 1st campaign of Grand Duke Ivan III against Novgorod, defeat of the Novgorod army on the Sheloni River. Horde campaign to the Moscow borders in the Trans-Oka region.
1472 - Annexation of the Perm land (Great Perm) to Moscow.
1474 - Annexation of the Rostov Principality to Moscow. Conclusion of a 30-year truce between Moscow and Livonia. The conclusion of the alliance of the Crimean Khanate and Moscow against the Great Horde and Lithuania.
1475 - capture of Crimea by Turkish troops. The transition of the Crimean Khanate into vassal dependence on Turkey.
1478 - 2nd campaign of Grand Duke Ivan III to Novgorod.
Elimination of independence of Novgorod.
1480 - “Great Stand” on the Ugra River of Russian and Tatar troops. Ivan III's refusal to pay tribute to the Horde. The end of the Horde yoke.
1483 - The campaign of the Moscow governor F. Kurbsky in the Trans-Urals on the Irtysh to the city of Isker, then down the Irtysh to the Ob in the Ugra land. Conquest of the Pelym Principality.
1485 - Annexation of the Tver Principality to Moscow.
1487-1489 - Conquest of the Kazan Khanate. Capture of Kazan (1487), adoption of the title by Ivan III Grand Duke Bulgar". The protégé of Moscow, Khan Muhammad-Emin, was elevated to the Kazan throne. The introduction of a local land tenure system.
1489 - March on Vyatka and the final annexation of the Vyatka land to Moscow. Annexation of Arsk land (Udmurtia).
1491 - “Campaign into the Wild Field” of a 60,000-strong Russian army to help the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey against the khans of the Great Horde. The Kazan Khan Muhammad-Emin joins the campaign to attack the flank.
1492 - Superstitious expectations of the “end of the world” in connection with the end (March 1) of the 7th millennium “from the creation of the world.” September - decision of the Moscow Church Council to postpone the start of the year to September 1. The first use of the title "autocrat" was in a message to Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich. Foundation of the Ivangorod fortress on the Narva River.
1492-1494 - 1st war of Ivan III with Lithuania. Annexation of Vyazma and the Verkhovsky principalities to Moscow.
1493 - Treaty of Ivan III on an alliance with Denmark against the Hansa and Sweden. Denmark cedes its possessions in Finland in exchange for the cessation of Hanseatic trade in Novgorod.
1495 - selection Khanate of Siberia from the Golden Horde. Collapse of the Golden Horde
1496-1497 - War of Moscow with Sweden.
1496-1502 - reign in Kazan of Abdyl-Letif (Abdul-Latif) under the protectorate of Grand Duke Ivan III
1497 - Code of Law of Ivan III. The first Russian embassy in Istanbul
1499 -1501 - Campaign of the Moscow governors F. Kurbsky and P. Ushaty to the Northern Trans-Urals and the lower reaches of the Ob.
1500-1503 - 2nd war of Ivan III with Lithuania for the Verkhovsky principalities. Annexation of the Seversk land to Moscow.
1501 - Formation of a coalition of Lithuania, Livonia and the Great Horde, directed against Moscow, Crimea and Kazan. On August 30, the 20,000-strong army of the Great Horde began the devastation of the Kursk land, approaching Rylsk, and by November it reached the Bryansk and Novgorod-Seversky lands. The Tatars captured the city of Novgorod-Seversky, but did not go further to the Moscow lands.
1501-1503 - War between Russia and the Livonian Order.
1502 - The final defeat of the Great Horde by the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, the transfer of its territory to the Crimean Khanate
1503 - Annexation of half of the Ryazan principality (including Tula) to Moscow. Truce with Lithuania and annexation of Chernigov, Bryansk and Gomel (almost a third of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) to Russia. Truce between Russia and Livonia.
1505 - Anti-Russian uprising in Kazan. The beginning of the Kazan-Russian War (1505-1507).
1505-1533 - Reign of Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich.
1506 - Unsuccessful siege of Kazan.
1507 - First raid of the Crimean Tatars on the southern borders of Russia.
1507-1508 - War between Russia and Lithuania.
1508 - Conclusion of a peace treaty with Sweden for 60 years.
1510 - Elimination of independence of Pskov.
1512-1522 - War between Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
1517-1519 - Publishing activity of Francis Skaryna in Prague. Skaryna publishes a translation from Church Slavonic into Russian - “The Russian Bible”.
1512 - "Eternal Peace"with Kazan. Unsuccessful siege of Smolensk.
1513 - Accession of the Volotsk inheritance to the Moscow Principality.
1514 - Capture of Smolensk by the troops of Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich and annexation of the Smolensk lands.
1515, April - Death Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, a longtime ally of Ivan III;
1519 - Campaign of the Russian army to Vilna (Vilnius).
1518 - Moscow’s protégé, Khan (Tsar) Shah-Ali, came to power in Kazan
1520 - Conclusion of a truce with Lithuania for 5 years.
1521 - Campaign of the Crimean and Kazan Tatars led by Muhammad-Girey (Magmet-Girey), Khan of Crimea and Kazan Khan Saip-Girey (Sahib-Girey) to Moscow. Siege of Moscow by the Crimeans. Complete annexation of the Ryazan principality to Moscow. Seizure of the throne of the Kazan Khanate by the dynasty of the Crimean khans Giray (Khan Sahib-Girey).
1522 - Arrest of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Vasily Shemyachich. Annexation of the Novgorod-Seversky Principality to Moscow.
1523-1524 - 2nd Kazan-Russian War.
1523 - Anti-Russian protests in Kazan. The march of Russian troops into the lands of the Kazan Khanate. Construction of the Vasilsursk fortress on the Sura River. Capture of Astrakhan by Crimean troops..
1524 - New Russian campaign against Kazan. Peace negotiations between Moscow and Kazan. Proclamation of Safa-Girey as king of Kazan.
1529 - Russian-Kazan Peace Treaty Siege of Vienna by the Turks
1530 - Campaign of the Russian army to Kazan.
1533-1584 - Reign of the Grand Duke and Tsar (from 1547) Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible.
1533-1538 - Regency of the mother of Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich Elena Glinskaya (1538+).
1538-1547 - Boyar rule under the infant Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich (until 1544 - Shuiskys, from 1544 - Glinskys)
1544-1546 - Annexation of the lands of the Mari and Chuvash to Russia, campaign in the lands of the Kazan Khanate.
1547 - Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich accepted the royal title (coronation). Fires and civil unrest in Moscow.
1547-1549 - Political program of Ivan Peresvetov: the creation of a permanent Streltsy army, the support of royal power on the nobles, the seizure of the Kazan Khanate and the distribution of its lands to the nobles.
1547-1550 - Unsuccessful campaigns (1547-1548, 1549-1550) of Russian troops against Kazan. Campaign of the Crimean Khan against Astrakhan. Construction of a protege of Crimea in Astrakhan
1549 - First news of Cossack towns on the Don. Formation of the embassy order. Convening of the first Zemsky Sobor.
1550 - Sudebnik (code of laws) of Ivan the Terrible.
1551 - "Stoglavy" Cathedral. Approval of the reform program (with the exception of the secularization of church lands and the introduction of a secular court for clergy). 3rd Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible.
1552 - 4th (Great) campaign of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich to Kazan. Unsuccessful trip Crimean troops to Tula. Siege and capture of Kazan. Liquidation of the Kazan Khanate.
1552-1558 - Subjugation of the territory of the Kazan Khanate.
1553 - Unsuccessful campaign of the 120,000-strong army of Prince Yusuf of the Nogai Horde against Moscow..
1554 - 1st campaign of Russian governors to Astrakhan.
1555 - Cancellation of feedings (completion of labial and zemstvo reform) Recognition by the Khan of the Siberian Khanate Ediger of vassal dependence on Russia
1555-1557 - War between Russia and Sweden.
1555-1560 - Campaigns of Russian governors to Crimea.
1556 - Capture of Astrakhan and annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate to Russia. The transition of the entire Volga region to Russian rule. Adoption of the “Code of Service” - regulation of the service of nobles and local salary standards. Disintegration of the Nogai Horde into the Greater, Lesser and Altyul Horde..
1557 - The oath of allegiance of the ambassadors of the ruler of Kabarda to the Russian Tsar. Recognition of vassal dependence on Russia by Prince Ismail of the Great Nogai Horde. The transition of the western and central Bashkir tribes (subjects of the Nogai Horde) to the Russian Tsar.
1558-1583 - Russian Livonian War for access to the Baltic Sea and for the lands of Livonia.
1558 - Capture of Narva and Dorpat by Russian troops.
1559 - Truce with Livonia. D. Ardashev's campaign to Crimea. Transition of Livonia under the protectorate of Poland.
1560 - Victory of the Russian army at Ermes, capture of Fellin castle. The victory of A. Kurbsky was won by the Livonians near Wenden. Fall of the government The chosen one is pleased, A. Adasheva fell from grace. Transition of Northern Livonia to Swedish citizenship.
1563 - Capture of Polotsk by Tsar Ivan IV Seizure of power in the Siberian Khanate by Kuchum. Severance of vassal relations with Russia
1564 - Publication of "Apostle" by Ivan Fedorov.
1565 - Introduction of oprichnina by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. Beginning of oprichnina persecutions 1563-1570 - Northern Seven Years Danish- Swedish war for dominance in the Baltic Sea. The Peace of Stettin 1570 largely restored the status quo.
1566 - Completion of the construction of the Great Zasechnaya Line (Ryazan-Tula-Kozelsk and Alatyr-Temnikov-Shatsk-Ryazhsk). The city of Orel was founded.
1567 - Union of Russia and Sweden. Construction of the Terki fortress (Tersky town) at the confluence of the Terek and Sunzha rivers. The beginning of Russia's advance into the Caucasus.
1568-1569 - Mass executions in Moscow. Destruction by order of Ivan the Terrible appanage prince Andrey Vladimirovich Staritsky. Conclusion of peace agreements between Turkey and Crimea with Poland and Lithuania. The beginning of the openly hostile policy of the Ottoman Empire towards Russia
1569 - Campaign of the Crimean Tatars and Turks to Astrakhan, unsuccessful siege of Astrakhan Union of Lublin - Formation of a single Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1570 - Punitive campaigns of Ivan the Terrible against Tver, Novgorod and Pskov. The devastation of the Ryazan land by the Crimean Khan Davlet-Girey. The beginning of the Russian-Swedish war. Unsuccessful siege of Revel Formation of the vassal kingdom of Magnus (brother of the King of Denmark) in Livonia.
1571 - Campaign of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey to Moscow. Capture and burning of Moscow. Flight of Ivan the Terrible to Serpukhov, Alexandrov Sloboda, then to Rostov..
1572 - Negotiations between Ivan the Terrible and Devlet-Girey. New campaign Crimean Tatars to Moscow. Victory of governor M.I. Vorotynsky on the Lopasna River. Retreat of Khan Devlet-Girey. Abolition of the oprichnina by Ivan the Terrible. Execution of oprichnina leaders.
1574 - Founding of the city of Ufa;.
1575-1577 - Campaigns of Russian troops in Northern Livonia and Livonia.
1575-1576 - Nominal reign of Simeon Bekbulatovich (1616+), Kasimov Khan, proclaimed by Ivan the Terrible "Grand Duke of All Rus'".
1576 - Founding of Samara. Capture of a number of strongholds in Livonia (Pernov (Pärnu), Venden, Paidu, etc.) Election of the Turkish protege Stefan Batory to the Polish throne (1586+).
1577 - Unsuccessful siege of Revel.
1579 - Capture of Polotsk and Velikiye Luki by Stefan Batory.
1580s - First news of Cossack towns on Yaik.
1580 - 2nd campaign of Stefan Batory to Russian lands and his capture of Velikiye Luki. Capture of Korela by the Swedish commander Delagardi. The decision of the church council to prohibit the acquisition of land by churches and monasteries.
1581 - Capture of the Russian fortresses of Narva and Ivangorod by Swedish troops. Cancellation of St. George's Day. The first mention of “reserved” years. The murder of his eldest son Ivan by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible.
1581-1582 - Stefan Batory’s siege of Pskov and its defense by I. Shuisky.
1581-1585 - The campaign of the Cossack ataman Ermak to Siberia and the defeat of the Siberian Khanate of Kuchum.
1582 - Yam-Zapolsky truce between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for 10 years. Transfer of Livonia and Polotsk into Polish possession. Relocation of part Don Cossacks in the Grebni tract on the North. Caucasus Bull of Pope Gregory XIII on calendar reform and the introduction of the Gregorian calendar.
1582-1584 - Mass uprisings of the peoples of the Middle Volga region (Tatars, Mari, Chuvash, Udmurts) against Moscow Introduction of a new calendar style in Catholic countries (Italy, Spain, Poland, France, etc.). "Calendar riots" in Riga (1584).
1583 - Plyus truce between Russia and Sweden for 10 years with the cession of Narva, Yama, Koporye, Ivangorod. Completion Livonian War, which lasted (with interruptions) 25 years.
1584-1598 - Reign of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich 1586 - election of the Swedish prince Sigismund III Vasa as king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1632+)
1586-1618 - Annexation of Western Siberia to Russia. Founding of Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk (1587), Berezov (1593), Obdorsk (1595), Tomsk (1604).
OK. 1598 - death of Khan Kuchum. The power of his son Ali remains in the upper reaches of the Ishim, Irtysh, and Tobol rivers.
1587 - Renewal of relations between Georgia and Russia.
1589 - Founding of the Tsaritsyn fortress at the portage between the Don and Volga. Establishment of the patriarchate in Russia.
1590 - Founding of Saratov.
1590-1593 - Successful war Russia with Sweden 1592 - King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III Vasa came to power in Sweden. The beginning of Sigismund's struggle with another contender for the throne and relative Charles Vasa (the future king of Sweden Charles IX)
1591 - Death of Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich in Uglich, uprising of the townspeople.
1592-1593 - Decree on the exemption from duties and taxes of the lands of landowners bearing military service and living on their estates (the appearance of “white lands”). Decree banning peasant exit. The final attachment of peasants to the land.
1595 - Treaty of Tyavzin with Sweden. Return to Russia the cities of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod, Oreshek, Nyenshan. Recognition of Swedish control over Russia's Baltic trade.
1597 - Decree on indentured servants (lifetime of their condition without the possibility of paying off the debt, termination of service with the death of the master). Decree on a five-year period for searching for fugitive peasants (lesson years).
1598 - Death of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich. The end of the Rurik dynasty. Adoption of the Babinovskaya road as the official government route to Siberia (instead of the old Cherdynskaya road).

Time of Troubles

1598-1605 - Reign of Tsar Boris Godunov.
1598 - Active construction of cities in Siberia begins.
1601-1603 - Famine in Russia. Partial restoration of St. George's Day and limited output of peasants.
1604 - Construction of the Tomsk fortress by a detachment from Surgut at the request of the prince of the Tomsk Tatars. The appearance of the impostor False Dmitry in Poland, his campaign at the head of the Cossacks and mercenaries against Moscow.
1605 - Reign of Tsar Fyodor Borisovich Godunov (1605x).
1605-1606 - Reign of the impostor False Dmitry I
Preparation of a new Code allowing peasant exit.
1606 - Conspiracy of the boyars led by Prince V.I. Shuisky. Overthrow and murder of False Dmitry I. Proclamation of V.I. Shuisky as king.
1606-1610 - Reign of Tsar Vasily IV Ivanovich Shuisky.
1606-1607 - Rebellion of I.I. Bolotnikov and Lyapunov under the motto “Tsar Dmitry!”
1606 - Appearance of the impostor False Dmitry II.
1607 - Decrees on “voluntary slaves”, on a 15-year period for searching for runaway peasants and on sanctions for the reception and retention of runaway peasants. Cancellation of the reforms of Godunov and False Dmitry I.
1608 - Victory of False Dmitry II over government troops led by D.I. Shuisky near Bolkhov.
Creation of the Tushino camp near Moscow..
1608-1610 - Unsuccessful siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by Polish and Lithuanian troops.
1609 - Appeal for help (February) against False Dmitry II to the Swedish king Charles IX at the cost of territorial concessions. Advance of Swedish troops to Novgorod. Entry of the Polish king Sigismund III into the Russian state (September). The beginning of the Polish intervention in Russia. Naming Metropolitan Philaret (Fedor Nikitich Romanov) patriarch in the Tushino camp. Confusion in the Tushino camp. Flight of False Dmitry II.
1609-1611 - Siege of Smolensk by Polish troops.
1610 - Battle of Klushin (June 24) between Russian and Polish troops. Liquidation of the Tushino camp. A new attempt by False Dmitry II to organize a campaign against Moscow. Death of False Dmitry II. Removal of Vasily Shuisky from the throne. The entry of the Poles into Moscow.
1610-1613 - Interregnum (“Seven Boyars”).
1611 - Defeat of Lyapunov's militia. The fall of Smolensk after a two-year siege. Captivity of Patriarch Filaret, V.I. Shuisky and others.
1611-1617 - Swedish intervention in Russia;.
1612 - Gathering of a new militia of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky. Liberation of Moscow, defeat of Polish troops. Death of the former Tsar Vasily Shuisky in captivity in Poland.
1613 - Convening of the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow. Election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne.
1613-1645 - Reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov.
1615-1616 - Liquidation of the Cossack movement of Ataman Balovnya.
1617 - Peace of Stolbovo with Sweden. The return of Novgorod lands to Russia, the loss of access to the Baltic - the cities of Korela (Kexholm), Koporye, Oreshek, Yam, Ivangorod went to Sweden.
1618 - Deulin truce with Poland. Transfer of Smolensk lands (including Smolensk), except for Vyazma, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands with 29 cities to Poland. Refusal of the prince of Poland Vladislav from claims to the Russian throne. Election of Filaret (Fedor Nikitich Romanov) as Patriarch.
1619-1633 - Patriarchate and reign of Filaret (Fedor Nikitich Romanov).
1620-1624 - Beginning of Russian penetration into Eastern Siberia. Hiking to the Lena River and up the Lena to the land of the Buryats.
1621 - Establishment of the Siberian diocese.
1632 - Organization in Russian army troops of the "foreign system". Founding of the first ironworks in Tula by A. Vinius. The war between Russia and Poland for the return of Smolensk. Foundation of the Yakut fort (in its present location since 1643) 1630-1634 - Swedish period Thirty Years' War, when the Swedish army invaded Germany (under the command of Gustav II Adolf) and won victories at Breitenfeld (1631), Lützen (1632), but was defeated at Nördlingen (1634).
1633-1638 - Campaign of the Cossacks I. Perfilyev and I. Rebrov from the lower reaches of the Lena to the Yana and Indigirka rivers 1635-1648 - Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War, when with the entry of France into the war the clear superiority of the anti-Habsburg coalition was determined. As a result, the Habsburg plans collapsed, and political hegemony passed to France. Ended Peace of Westphalia 1648.
1636 - Foundation of the Tambov fortress.
1637 - Taking Don Cossacks Turkish fortress Azov at the mouth of the Don.
1638 - Hetman Ya. Ostranin, who rebelled against the Poles, moved with his army to Russian territory. The formation of suburban Ukraine began (regions of Kharkov, Kursk, etc. between the Don and Dnieper)
1638-1639 - Campaign of the Cossacks P. Ivanov from Yakutsk to the upper reaches of the Yana and Indigirka.
1639-1640 - The campaign of the Cossacks I. Moskvitin from Yakutsk to the Lamsky (Sea of ​​Okhotsk, access to the Pacific Ocean. Completion of the latitudinal crossing of Siberia, begun by Ermak.
1639 - Founding of the first glass factory in Russia.
1641 - Successful defense of the Azov fortress by the Don Cossacks at the mouth of the Don (“Azov Seat”).
1642 - Termination of the defense of the Azov fortress. The decision of the Zemsky Sobor to return Azov to Turkey. Registration of the noble military class.
1643 - Liquidation of the Koda Khanty principality on the right bank of the Ob. Sea voyage Cossacks led by M. Starodukhin and D. Zdyryan from Indigirka to Kolyma. The exit of Russian servicemen and industrial people to Baikal (K. Ivanov’s campaign) The discovery of Sakhalin by the Dutch navigator M. de Vries, who mistook Sakhalin Island for part of Hokkaido Island..
1643-1646 - V. Poyarkov’s campaign from Yakutsk to Aldan, Zeya, Amur to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.
1645-1676 - Reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov.
1646 - Replacement of direct taxes with a tax on salt. Cancellation of the salt tax and return to direct taxes due to mass unrest. Census of the draft and partly non-tax population.
1648-1654 - Construction of the Simbirsk abatis line (Simbirsk-Karsun-Saransk-Tambov). Construction of the Simbirsk fortress (1648).
1648 - S. Dezhnev’s voyage from the mouth of the Kolyma River to the mouth of the Anadyr River through the strait separating Eurasia from America. "Salt riot" in Moscow. Uprisings of citizens in Kursk, Yelets, Tomsk, Ustyug, etc. Concessions to the nobles: convening of the Zemsky Sobor to adopt a new Code, abolition of collection of arrears. The beginning of the uprising of B. Khmelnitsky against the Poles in Ukraine..
1649 - Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich. The final formalization of serfdom (the introduction of an indefinite search for fugitives), the liquidation of “white settlements” (feudal estates in cities exempt from taxes and duties). Legalization of the search for denunciation of intent against the Tsar or his insult (“The Sovereign’s Word and Deed”) Deprivation of the British trade privileges at the request of the Russian merchants..
1649-1652 - E. Khabarov’s campaigns on the Amur and Daurian land. The first clashes between the Russians and the Manchus. Creation of territorial regiments in Slobodskaya Ukraine (Ostrogozhsky, Akhtyrsky, Sumsky, Kharkovsky).
1651 - Beginning of church reform by Patriarch Nikon. Base German settlement in Moscow.
1651-1660 - M. Stadukhin’s hike along the Anadyr-Okhotsk-Yakutsk route. Establishing a connection between the northern and southern routes to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.
1652-1656 - Construction of the Zakamskaya abatis line (Bely Yar - Menzelinsk).
1652-1667 - Clashes between secular and ecclesiastical authorities.
1653 - The decision of the Zemsky Sobor to accept the citizenship of Ukraine and the start of the war with Poland. Adoption of a trade charter regulating trade (a single trade duty, a ban on collecting travel duties in the possessions of secular and spiritual feudal lords, limiting peasant trade to trade from carts, increasing duties for foreign merchants).
1654-1667 - Russian-Polish war for Ukraine.
1654 - Approval of Nikon's reforms by the church council. The emergence of the Old Believers led by Archpriest Avvakum, the beginning of a schism in the church. Approval by the Pereyaslav Rada of the Zaporizhzhya Treaty Troops (01/8/1654) on the transition of Ukraine (Poltava, Kiev, Chernihiv, Podolia, Volyn) to Russia with the preservation of broad autonomy (inviolability of the rights of the Cossacks, election of a hetman, independent foreign policy, non-jurisdiction of Moscow, payment of tribute without the intervention of Moscow collectors). Capture of Polotsk, Mogilev, Vitebsk, Smolensk by Russian troops
1655 - Capture of Minsk, Vilna, Grodno by Russian troops, access to Brest. Swedish invasion of Poland. Beginning of the first Northern War
1656 - Capture of Nyenskans and Dorpat. Siege of Riga. Armistice with Poland and declaration of war on Sweden.
1656-1658 - Russian-Swedish war for access to the Baltic Sea.
1657 - Death of B. Khmelnitsky. Election of I. Vyhovsky as hetman of Ukraine.
1658 - Nikon open conflict with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Beginning of the issuance of copper money (payment of salaries in copper money and collection of taxes in silver). Termination of negotiations with Poland, resumption Russian-Polish war. Invasion of Russian troops into Ukraine Gadyach Treaty between Hetman of Ukraine Vyhovsky and Poland on the annexation of Ukraine as an autonomous “Russian principality” to Poland.
1659 - Defeat of Russian troops at Konotop from Hetman of Ukraine I. Vygovsky and the Crimean Tatars. Refusal of the Pereyaslav Rada to approve the Gadyach Treaty. Removal of Hetman I. Vygovsky and election of Hetman of Ukraine Yu. Khmelnytsky. Approval by the Rada of a new agreement with Russia. The defeat of Russian troops in Belarus, the betrayal of Hetman Yu. Khmelnitsky. Split Ukrainian Cossacks on supporters of Moscow and supporters of Poland.
1661 - Treaty of Kardis between Russia and Sweden. Russia's renunciation of the conquests of 1656, return to the conditions of the Stolbovo Peace of 1617 1660-1664 - Austro-Turkish War, division of the lands of the Kingdom of Hungary.
1662 - "Copper riot" in Moscow.
1663 - Founding of Penza. The split of Ukraine into the hetmanates of Right-Bank and Left-Bank Ukraine
1665 - Reforms of A. Ordin-Nashchekin in Pskov: establishment of merchant companies, introduction of elements of self-government. Strengthening Moscow's position in Ukraine.
1665-1677 - hetmanship of P. Doroshenko in Right Bank Ukraine.
1666 - Nikon was deprived of the rank of patriarch and the condemnation of the Old Believers by a church council. Construction of a new Albazin fort on the Amur by the rebel Ilim Cossacks (adopted into Russian citizenship in 1672)..
1667 - Construction of ships for the Caspian flotilla. New trading charter. Archpriest Avvakum's exile to the Pustozersky prison for "heresies" (criticism) of the country's rulers. A. Ordin-Nashchekin at the head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz (1667-1671). Conclusion of the Andrusovo truce with Poland by A. Ordin-Nashchekin. Implementation of the division of Ukraine between Poland and Russia (transition of Left Bank Ukraine under Russian rule).
1667-1676 - Solovetsky uprising of schismatic monks (“Solovetsky sitting”).
1669 - Hetman's transition Right Bank Ukraine P. Doroshenko under Turkish rule.
1670-1671 - Uprising of peasants and Cossacks led by Don Ataman S. Razin.
1672 - First self-immolation of schismatics (in Nizhny Novgorod). The first professional theater in Russia. Decree on the distribution of “wild fields” to servicemen and clergy in the “Ukrainian” regions. Russian-Polish agreement on assistance to Poland in the war with Turkey 1672-1676 - the war between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire for Right Bank Ukraine..
1673 - Campaign of Russian troops and Don Cossacks to Azov.
1673-1675 - Campaigns of Russian troops against Hetman P. Doroshenko (campaigns against Chigirin), defeat by Turkish and Crimean Tatar troops.
1675-1678 - Russian embassy mission to Beijing. The Qin government's refusal to consider Russia as an equal partner.
1676-1682 - Reign of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich Romanov.
1676-1681 - Russian-Turkish war for Right Bank Ukraine.
1676 - Russian troops occupy the capital of Right Bank Ukraine, Chigirin. Zhuravsky peace of Poland and Turkey: Türkiye receives Podolia, P. Doroshenko is recognized as a vassal of Turkey
1677 - Victory of Russian troops over the Turks near Chigirin.
1678 - Russian-Polish treaty extending the truce with Poland for 13 years. Agreement of the parties on the preparation of "eternal peace". Capture of Chigirin by the Turks
1679-1681 - Tax reform. Transition to household taxation instead of taxation.
1681-1683 - Seit uprising in Bashkiria due to forced Christianization. Suppression of the uprising with the help of Kalmyks.
1681 - Abolition of the Kasimov kingdom. Bakhchisarai peace treaty between Russia and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate. Establishment of the Russian-Turkish border along the Dnieper. Recognition of Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv by Russia.
1682-1689 - Simultaneous reign of the princess-ruler Sofia Alekseevna and the kings Ivan V Alekseevich and Peter I Alekseevich.
1682-1689 - Armed conflict between Russia and China on the Amur.
1682 - Abolition of localism. Start Streltsy riot in Moscow. Establishment of the government of Princess Sophia. Suppression of the Streltsy revolt. Execution of Avvakum and his supporters in Pustozersk.
1683-1684 - Construction of the Syzran abatis line (Syzran-Penza).
1686 - “Eternal Peace” between Russia and Poland. Russia joining the anti-Turkish coalition of Poland, Holy Empire and Venice (Holy League) with Russia’s obligation to make a campaign against Crimean Khanate.
1686-1700 - War between Russia and Turkey. Crimean campaigns of V. Golitsin.
1687 - Founding of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow.
1689 - Construction of the Verkhneudinsk fortress (modern Ulan-Ude) at the confluence of the Uda and Selenga rivers. Nerchinsk Treaty between Russia and China. Establishment of the border along the Argun - Stanovoy Range - Uda River to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. Overthrow of the government of Princess Sofia Alekseevna.
1689-1696 - Simultaneous reign of Tsars Ivan V Alekseevich and Peter I Alekseevich.
1695 - Establishment of the Preobrazhensky Prikaz. The first Azov campaign of Peter I. Organization of "companies" to finance the construction of the fleet, the creation of a shipyard on the Voronezh River.
1695-1696 - Uprisings of the local and Cossack population in Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk and Transbaikalia.
1696 - Death of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich.

Russian Empire

1689 - 1725 - Reign of Peter I.
1695 - 1696 - Azov campaigns.
1699 - Reform of city government.
1700 - Russian-Turkish truce agreement.
1700 - 1721 - Great Northern War.
1700, November 19 - Battle of Narva.
1703 - Founding of St. Petersburg.
1705 - 1706 - Uprising in Astrakhan.
1705 - 1711 - Uprising in Bashkiria.
1708 - Provincial reform Peter I.
1709, June 27 - Battle of Poltava.
1711 - Establishment of the Senate. Prut campaign of Peter I.
1711 - 1765 - Years of life of M.V. Lomonosov.
1716 - Military regulations of Peter I.
1718 - Establishment of the college. Start capitation census.
1721 - Establishment of the Chief Magistrate of the Synod. Decree on possessional peasants.
1721 - Peter I accepted the title of ALL-RUSSIAN EMPEROR. RUSSIA BECAME AN EMPIRE.
1722 - "Table of Ranks".
1722 -1723 - Russian - Iranian war.
1727 - 1730 - Reign of Peter II.
1730 - 1740 - Reign of Anna Ioannovna.
1730 - Repeal of the 1714 law on unified inheritance. Acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Younger Horde in Kazakhstan.
1735 - 1739 - Russian - Turkish War.
1735 - 1740 - Uprising in Bashkiria.
1741 - 1761 - Reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.
1742 - Discovery of the northern tip of Asia by Chelyuskin.
1750 - Opening of the first Russian theater in Yaroslavl (F.G. Volkov).
1754 - Abolition of internal customs.
1755 - Foundation of Moscow University.
1757 - 1761 - Russian participation in Seven Years' War.
1757 - Establishment of the Academy of Arts.
1760 - 1764 - Mass unrest among assigned peasants in the Urals.
1761 - 1762 - Reign Peter III.
1762 - Manifesto "on the freedom of the nobility."
1762 - 1796 - Reign of Catherine II.
1763 - 1765 - Invention of I.I. Polzunov's steam engine.
1764 - Secularization of church lands.
1765 - Decree allowing landowners to exile peasants to hard labor. Establishment of the Free Economic Society.
1767 - Decree prohibiting peasants from complaining about landowners.
1767 - 1768 - "Commission on the Code".
1768 - 1769 - "Koliivschina".
1768 - 1774 - Russian - Turkish war.
1771 - "Plague riot" in Moscow.
1772 - First partition of Poland.
1773 - 1775 - Peasant War led by E.I. Pugacheva.
1775 - Provincial reform. Manifesto on Freedom of Organization industrial enterprises.
1783 - Annexation of Crimea. Treaty of Georgievsk on a Russian protectorate over Eastern Georgia.
1783 - 1797 - Uprising of Sym Datov in Kazakhstan.
1785 - Charter granted to the nobility and cities.
1787 - 1791 - Russian - Turkish war.
1788 -1790 - Russian-Swedish war.
1790 - Publication of “Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev.
1793 - Second partition of Poland.
1794 - Uprising in Poland led by T. Kosciuszko.
1795 - Third partition of Poland.
1796 - 1801 - Reign of Paul I.
1798 - 1800 - Mediterranean campaign of the Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakova.
1799 - Italian and Swiss campaigns of Suvorov.
1801 - 1825 - Reign of Alexander I.
1803 - Decree "on free cultivators."
1804 - 1813 - War with Iran.
1805 - Creation of an alliance between Russia and England and Austria against France.
1806 - 1812 - War with Turkey.
1806 - 1807 - Creation of an alliance with England and Prussia against France.
1807 - Peace of Tilsit.
1808 - War with Sweden. Accession of Finland.
1810 - Creation of the State Council.
1812 - Annexation of Bessarabia to Russia.
1812, June - Invasion of Napoleonic army into Russia. The beginning of the Patriotic War. August 26 - Battle of Borodino. September 2 - leaving Moscow. December - Expulsion of Napoleonic army from Russia.
1813 - Annexation of Dagestan and part of Northern Azerbaijan to Russia.
1813 - 1814 - Foreign trips Russian army.
1815 - Congress in Vienna. The Duchy of Warsaw is part of Russia.
1816 - Creation of the first secret organization of the Decembrists, the Union of Salvation.
1819 - Uprising of military settlers in the city of Chuguev.
1819 - 1821 - Around the world expedition to Antarctica F.F. Bellingshausen.
1820 - Unrest of soldiers in tsarist army. Creation of a "prosperity union".
1821 - 1822 - Creation of the "Southern Secret Society" and the "Northern Secret Society".
1825 - 1855 - Reign of Nicholas I.
1825, December 14 - Decembrist uprising on Senate Square.
1828 - Annexation of Eastern Armenia and all of Northern Azerbaijan to Russia.
1830 - Military uprising in Sevastopol.
1831 - Uprising in Staraya Russa.
1843 - 1851 - Construction of the railway between Moscow and St. Petersburg.
1849 - Help the Russian army in suppressing the Hungarian uprising in Austria.
1853 - Herzen created the “Free Russian Printing House” in London.
1853 - 1856 - Crimean War.
1854, September - 1855, August - Defense of Sevastopol.
1855 - 1881 - Reign of Alexander II.
1856 - Treaty of Paris.
1858 - The Aigun Treaty on the border with China was concluded.
1859 - 1861 - Revolutionary situation in Russia.
1860 - Beijing Treaty on the border with China. Foundation of Vladivostok.
1861, February 19 - Manifesto on the liberation of peasants from serfdom.
1863 - 1864 - Uprising in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus.
1864 - The entire Caucasus became part of Russia. Zemskaya and judicial reform.
1868 - Khanate of Kokand and Bukhara Emirate recognize political dependence on Russia.
1870 - Reform of city government.
1873 - The Khan of Khiva recognized political dependence on Russia.
1874 - Introduction of universal conscription.
1876 ​​- Liquidation Kokand Khanate. Creation of a secret revolutionary organization "Land and Freedom".
1877 - 1878 - Russian - Turkish War.
1878 - Treaty of San Stefano.
1879 - Split of "Land and Freedom". Creation of the "Black Redistribution".
1881, March 1 - Assassination of Alexander II.
1881 - 1894 - Reign of Alexander III.
1891 - 1893 - Conclusion of the Franco-Russian alliance.
1885 - Morozov strike.
1894 - 1917 - Reign of Nicholas II.
1900 - 1903 - Economic crisis.
1904 - Murder of Plehve.
1904 - 1905 - Russian - Japanese War.
1905, January 9 - "Bloody Sunday".
1905 - 1907 - The first Russian revolution.
1906, April 27 - July 8 - First State Duma.
1906 - 1911 - Stolypin's agrarian reform.
1907, February 20 - June 2 - Second State Duma.
1907, November 1 - 1912, June 9 - Third State Duma.
1907 - Creation of the Entente.
1911, September 1 - Murder of Stolypin.
1913 - Celebration of the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty.
1914 - 1918 - First World War.
1917, February 18 - Strike at the Putilov plant. March 1 - creation of the Provisional Government. March 2 - Nicholas II abdicates the throne. June - July - crisis of power. August - Kornilov rebellion. September 1 - Russia is declared a republic. October - Bolshevik seizure of power.
1917, March 2 - Formation of the Provisional Government.
1917, March 3 - Abdication of Mikhail Alexandrovich.
1917, March 2 - Establishment of the Provisional Government.

Russian Republic and RSFSR

1918, July 17 - assassination of the deposed Emperor and royal family.
1917, July 3 - July Bolshevik uprisings.
1917, July 24 - Announcement of the composition of the second coalition of the Provisional Government.
1917, August 12 - Convening of the State Conference.
1917, September 1 - Russia is declared a republic.
1917, September 20 - Formation of the Pre-Parliament.
1917, September 25 - Announcement of the composition of the third coalition of the Provisional Government.
1917, October 25 - Appeal by V.I. Lenin on the transfer of power to the Military Revolutionary Committee.
1917, October 26 - Arrest of members of the Provisional Government.
1917, October 26 - Decrees on peace and land.
1917, December 7 - Establishment of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission.
1918, January 5 - Opening of the Constituent Assembly.
1918 - 1922 - Civil War.
1918, March 3 - Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
1918, May - Uprising Czechoslovak Corps.
1919, November - Defeat of A.V. Kolchak.
1920, April - Transfer of power in the Volunteer Army from A.I. Denikin to P.N. Wrangel.
1920, November - Defeat of the army of P.N. Wrangel.

1921, March 18 - Signing of the Peace of Riga with Poland.
1921 - X Party Congress, resolution “On Party Unity.”
1921 - Beginning of the NEP.
1922, December 29 - Union Treaty.
1922 - “Philosophical Steamship”
1924, January 21 - Death of V.I. Lenin
1924, January 31 - Constitution of the USSR.
1925 - XVI Party Congress
1925 - Adoption of the resolution of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) regarding the party’s policy in the field of culture
1929 - The year of the “great turning point”, the beginning of collectivization and industrialization
1932-1933 - Famine
1933 - Recognition of the USSR by the USA
1934 - First Congress of Writers
1934 - XVII Party Congress (“Congress of Winners”)
1934 - Inclusion of the USSR in the League of Nations
1936 - Constitution of the USSR
1938 - Clash with Japan at Lake Khasan
1939, May - Clash with Japan at the Khalkhin Gol River
1939, August 23 - Signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
1939, September 1 - Beginning of World War II
1939, September 17 - Soviet invasion of Poland
1939, September 28 - Signing of the Treaty with Germany “On Friendship and Borders”
1939, November 30 - Beginning of the war with Finland
December 14, 1939 - Expulsion of the USSR from the League of Nations
March 12, 1940 - Conclusion of a peace treaty with Finland
1941, April 13 - Signing of a non-aggression pact with Japan
1941, June 22 - Invasion of Germany and its allies in Soviet Union
1941, June 23 - The Headquarters of the High Command was formed
1941, June 28 - Capture by German troops Minsk
1941, June 30 - Establishment of the State Defense Committee (GKO)
1941, August 5-October 16 - Defense of Odessa
1941, September 8 - Beginning of the siege of Leningrad
1941, September 29-October 1 - Moscow Conference
1941, September 30 - Start of implementation of the Typhoon plan
1941, December 5 - Beginning of the counter-offensive of Soviet troops in the Battle of Moscow

1941, December 5-6 - Defense of Sevastopol
1942, January 1 - Accession of the USSR to the Declaration of the United Nations
1942, May - Defeat of the Soviet army during Kharkov operation
1942, July 17 - Beginning Battle of Stalingrad
1942, November 19-20 - Operation Uranus begins
1943, January 10 - Operation Ring begins
1943, January 18 - End of the siege of Leningrad
1943, July 5 - Beginning of the counter-offensive of Soviet troops in the battle of Kursk Bulge
1943, July 12 - Beginning of the Battle of Kursk
1943, November 6 - Liberation of Kyiv
1943, November 28-December 1 - Tehran Conference
1944, June 23-24 - Beginning of the Iasi-Kishinev operation
1944, August 20 - Operation Bagration begins
1945, January 12-14 - Beginning of the Vistula-Oder operation
1945, February 4-11 - Yalta Conference
1945, April 16-18 - Beginning of the Berlin operation
1945, April 18 - Surrender of the Berlin garrison
1945, May 8 - Signing of the act of unconditional surrender of Germany
1945, July 17 - August 2 - Potsdam Conference
1945, August 8 - Announcement of soldiers of the USSR to Japan
1945, September 2 - Japanese surrender.
1946 - Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the magazines “Zvezda” and “Leningrad””
1949 - Test atomic weapons USSR. Leningrad affair". Testing of Soviet nuclear weapons. Education of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. 1949 Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).
1950-1953 - Korean War
1952 - XIX Congress parties
1952-1953 - “the doctors’ case”
1953 - Test of hydrogen weapons of the USSR
1953, March 5 - Death of I.V. Stalin
1955 - Formation of the Warsaw Pact organization
1956 - XX Party Congress, debunking the personality cult of J.V. Stalin
1957 - Completion of construction of the nuclear-powered icebreaker "Lenin"
1957 - The USSR launches the first satellite into space
1957 - Establishment of Economic Councils
1961, April 12 - Yu. A. Gagarin's flight into space
1961 - XXII Party Congress
1961 - Kosygin reforms
1962 - Unrest in Novocherkassk
1964 - Removal of N. S. Khrushchev from the post of First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee
1965 - Construction of the Berlin Wall
1968 - Introduction of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia
1969 - Military clash between the USSR and China
1974 - Construction of BAM begins
1972 - A.I. Brodsky expelled from the USSR
1974 - A.I. Solzhenitsyn expelled from the USSR
1975 - Helsinki Agreement
1977 - New Constitution
1979 - Entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan
1980-1981 - Political crisis in Poland.
1982-1984 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee Yu.V. Andropova
1984-1985 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee K.U. Chernenko
1985-1991 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev
1988 - XIX Party Conference
1988 - Beginning of the armed conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan
1989 - Election of the Congress of People's Deputies
1989 - Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan
1990 - Election of M. S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR
1991, August 19-22 - Creation of the State Emergency Committee. Coup attempt
1991, August 24 - Mikhail Gorbachev resigns from the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee (August 29, the Russian parliament prohibits the activities of the Communist Party and seizes party property).
1991, December 8 - Belovezhskaya Agreement, abolition of the USSR, creation of the CIS.
1991, December 25 - M.S. Gorbachev resigns as president of the USSR.

Russian Federation

1992 - Beginning of market reforms in the Russian Federation.
1993, September 21 - “Decree on phased constitutional reform in the Russian Federation.” The beginning of the political crisis.
1993, October 2-3 - clashes in Moscow between supporters of the parliamentary opposition and the police.
1993, October 4 - military units seized the White House, arrested A.V. Rutsky and R.I. Khasbulatova.
1993, December 12 - Adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Elections to the first State Duma of the Russian Federation for a transition period (2 years).
1994, December 11 - Entry of Russian troops into the Chechen Republic to establish “constitutional order.”
1995 - Elections to the State Duma for 4 years.
1996 - Elections to the position of President of the Russian Federation. B.N. Yeltsin gains 54% of the vote and becomes President of the Russian Federation.
1996 - Signing of a temporary agreement on the suspension of hostilities.
1997 - completion of withdrawal federal troops from Chechnya.
1998, August 17 - economic crisis in Russia, default.
1999, August - Chechen militants invaded the mountainous regions of Dagestan. Beginning II Chechen campaign.
1999, December 31 - B.N. Yeltsin announced his early resignation as President of the Russian Federation and the appointment of V.V. Putin as acting president of Russia.
2000, March - election of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
2000, August - the death of the nuclear submarine Kursk. 117 members nuclear submarine crew"Kursk" was posthumously awarded the Order of Courage, the captain was posthumously awarded the Hero's Star.
2000, April 14 - The State Duma decided to ratify the Russian-American START-2 treaty. This agreement involves further reductions in the strategic offensive weapons of both countries.
2000, May 7 - Official entry of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
2000, May 17 - Approval of M.M. Kasyanov Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation.
2000, August 8 - Terrorist attack in Moscow - an explosion in the underground passage of the Pushkinskaya metro station. 13 people were killed, a hundred were injured.
2004, August 21-22 - There was an invasion of Grozny by a detachment of militants numbering more than 200 people. For three hours they held the city center and killed more than 100 people.
2004, August 24 - Two passenger planes taking off from Moscow Domodedovo Airport to Sochi and Volgograd were simultaneously blown up in the sky over the Tula and Rostov regions. 90 people died.
2005, May 9 - Parade on Red Square on May 9, 2005 in honor of the 60th anniversary of Victory Day.
2005, August - Scandal with the beating of the children of Russian diplomats in Poland and the “retaliatory” beating of Poles in Moscow.
2005, November 1 - A successful test launch of the Topol-M missile with a new warhead was carried out from the Kapustin Yar test site in the Astrakhan region.
2006, January 1 - Municipal reform in Russia.
2006, March 12 - First Unified Voting Day (change in the electoral legislation of the Russian Federation).
2006, July 10 - Chechen terrorist “number 1” Shamil Basayev was killed.
2006, October 10, Russian President Vladimir Putin and Federal Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel unveiled a monument to Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky in Dresden by People's Artist of Russia Alexander Rukavishnikov.
2006, October 13 - Russian Vladimir Kramnik was declared the absolute world chess champion after winning a match over Bulgarian Veselin Topalov.
2007, January 1 - Krasnoyarsk Territory, Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) and Evenki Autonomous Okrugs merged into a single subject of the Russian Federation - Krasnoyarsk Territory.
2007, February 10 - President of Russia V.V. Putin said the so-called "Munich speech".
2007, May 17 - In the Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Savior, Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Rus' and the First Hierarch of the ROCOR, Metropolitan of Eastern America and New York Laurus, signed the “Act of Canonical Communion,” a document that put an end to the division between the Russian Church Abroad and the Moscow Patriarchate.
2007, July 1 - Kamchatka Region and Koryak Autonomous Okrug merged into Kamchatka Territory.
2007, August 13 - Nevsky Express train accident.
2007, September 12 - The government of Mikhail Fradkov resigned.
2007, September 14 - Viktor Zubkov was appointed as the new Prime Minister of Russia.
2007, October 17 - The Russian national football team led by Guus Hiddink defeated the English national team with a score of 2:1.
2007, December 2 - Elections to the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the 5th convocation.
2007, December 10 - Dmitry Medvedev was nominated as a candidate for President of the Russian Federation from United Russia.
2008, March 2 - The elections of the third President of the Russian Federation were held. Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev won.
2008, May 7 - Inauguration of the third President of the Russian Federation, Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev.
2008, August 8 - In the zone of the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict, active fighting: Georgia stormed Tskhinvali, to armed conflict Russia officially joined on the side of South Ossetia.
2008, August 11 - Active hostilities began in the zone of the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict: Georgia stormed Tskhinvali, Russia officially joined the armed conflict on the side of South Ossetia.
2008, August 26 - Russian President D. A. Medvedev signed a decree recognizing the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
2008, September 14 - A Boeing 737 passenger plane crashed in Perm.
2008, December 5 - Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II died. Temporarily, the place of the primate of the Russian Orthodox Church is occupied by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad.
2009, January 1 - The Unified State Exam became mandatory throughout Russia.
2009, January 25-27 - Extraordinary Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church elected a new Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'. It was Kirill.
2009, February 1 - Enthronement of the newly elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Kirill.
2009, July 6-7 - Visit of US President Barack Obama to Russia.

Since in time it is equal to the interval between two consecutive climaxes any star. Due to the rotation of the Earth around Sun The true solar day, that is, the time interval between two culminations of the Sun, is approximately 4 minutes longer than the sidereal day. This difference varies throughout the year due to the uneven rotation of the Earth around the Sun in the plane ecliptic, therefore, a true day cannot serve as an accurate unit of time. Instead they are usually used average day, that is, the interval between the culminations of a fictitious luminary - the “average sun”, moving evenly along the equator; its place on the celestial sphere in certain epochs coincides with the place of the true Sun.

For large time intervals, instead of a day, it is more convenient to use other units of time, historically associated with observing the apparent position Moon and the Sun among the stars on the celestial sphere. The period of time during which the Moon, after completing a full revolution around the Earth, is opposite the same stars is called sidereal(to the stars) month(27 days 7 hours 43 minutes). Depending on the movement of the Earth together with the Moon around the Sun after the sidereal month, the relative placement of the three luminaries will change somewhat, therefore the phase of the moon visible from the Earth will be slightly different, and the interval through which the moon returns to its previous phase, the so-called synodic month, more than sidereal (29 days 12 hours 44 minutes).

The period of time through which, as a result of the Earth’s revolution around the Sun, the luminary returns to the same constellations, to the “same star,” is called sidereal year. During the day, the brilliance of the sun eclipses the stars, and, instead of the constellations against which the sun falls, one can compare the constellations opposite them, culminating at midnight at a given time of year. Seasons are determined by the passage of the Sun through points equinoxes And solstices. Due to precession the points of intersection of the planes of the equator and the ecliptic (equinox), as well as the points of greatest distance of the Sun from the line of the celestial equator (solstice), shift. The total duration of four seasons is called tropical year and is determined through average speed movement of the Sun in longitude. The tropical year is often defined as the average interval between two successive passages of the Sun through the vernal equinox, which is not true, since the equinoxes and solstices shift relative to each other due to planetary disturbances Tropical year 20 minutes less than stellar. The magnitude of the sidereal year does not change, the magnitude of the tropical year fluctuates depending on changes in the magnitude of precession; in our time, the tropical year consists of 365 d 5 h 48 min 46 s in average days and hours, and 366 d 5 h 48 m 46 s in sidereal days and hours. During times Hipparchus(II century BC) the tropical year was 12 seconds longer.

Individual calendar years must necessarily contain a whole number of days; Meanwhile, the lengths of the year and day are incommensurable. Various systems solar calendars arose as a consequence of greater or lesser accuracy of the length of the year in days accepted in the calendar and certain methods of calculating the accumulated fractions of the day, that is, the distribution of intercalary days. In turn, the lunar month is incommensurate with the solar year; in famous lunisolar calendars existed various techniques equalize the accumulating discrepancy with intercalary months. Later, the month lost its lunar rotation character and became a conventional fraction of the solar year. Ancient astronomers, not knowing how to observe the culmination of stars, were content with the crude method of observing their rising and setting. Of particular importance was the so-called heliacal sunrise stars. The length of the periods built on heliacal risings requires each time a special calculation depending on the given star (that is, on its location relative to the celestial equator and ecliptic), the latitude of the given observation location on earth and the magnitude of precession.

Historical chronology

Calendar

Lunar and solar calendars

The first and natural unit of time for ancient people was the day, divided into day and night. Subsequently, when observing the phases of the moon, they began to distinguish the lunar month, which was counted alternately at 29 and 30 days. Then it was noticed that after about 12 lunar months, natural phenomena repeated themselves. Thus the year was opened. However, a year of 12 lunar months of 354 days does not correspond to the astronomical (solar) year, and lunar calendar of 12 lunar months turned out to be movable (the Arabs still use this type of calendar). In order to correlate it with the astronomical year, as the error accumulated (approximately once every 3 years), an additional month was inserted (among the Romans, for example, it was called “Mercedonius” and was inserted between February 23-24). This kind lunisolar calendar used by most ancient peoples; in modern times it is used by Jews (see Jewish calendar).

Solar calendar was invented in Egypt (see ancient egyptian calendar). It consisted of 12 months of 30 days and 5 additional days. But since the true astronomical year exceeds 365 days, the Egyptian calendar also turned out to be inaccurate. Subsequently, the Hellenistic kings of Egypt, based on the calculations of Alexandrian astronomers, tried to introduce leap years; but the reform did not take root. In 26 BC. e. August reformed the Egyptian calendar according to the Julian type, establishing leap years and fixing the beginning of the year (1 tota) on August 29, however, counting “according to the old style” was widely practiced in Egypt until the very end of antiquity.

Metonic cycle

Some calendars

Chronography

Counting the years. The formation of historical chronology

The need for consistent counting of years appeared with the emergence of written culture and primarily stemmed from administrative needs. As a rule, documents were dated by the year of the king's reign; thus, the list of kings with the years of their reign provided a primitive chronological table. Such lists come from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, but they should be used with caution, since they are often indicated as successive reigns, which in reality are completely or partially synchronous (for example, during times of unrest), and similar “simplifications” are allowed.

In city-states, years were dated by the names of officials elected for the year, who, for example, Ashur were called "limmu", in Athens - "archons- eponyms"etc. ( "eponymous year"). In Mesopotamia, years were also often designated by important events - so the list of years was something like a short chronicle.

The urgent need for chronological calculations appeared with the emergence of historical science, that is, approximately in 5th century BC e. The simplest way of dating was mutual relative dating of events: event A occurred X years before event B; event C happened Y years after event B; Moreover, the same events are mentioned by different authors. From this, when comparing the works of historians, it is relatively easy to calculate the mutual relationship between the events they mention. So, for example, Greco-Persian Wars are the central event " Stories » Herodotus, affecting earlier events - the formation of the Persian kingdom; Thucydides, describing Peloponnesian War, mentions that between her beginning and her departure Xerxes“Approximately 50 years” have passed from Hellas, and briefly talks about the events of this “fiftieth anniversary”; Xenophon Thucydides directly continues - that is, only from a comparison of these three authors, it is possible to compile a detailed chronological sequence of events over approximately 200 years, from middle to middle IV century BC e.

For events distant in time (such as Trojan War), based on genealogical tables, an approximate calculation “by generation” was used, taking 3 generations per century. At the same time, attempts were made to compile a system of absolute chronology. The first chronological tables were compiled: priesthoods of priestesses Hera V Argose(their author, Hellanicus of Lesbos, apparently was the first to take up chronological questions), lists Spartan ephors, Athenian archons-eponyms; at Herodotus you can find the reigns of the Persian and other eastern kings. When comparing such lists, it became possible to convert a date from one system to another (for example, to say under which Persian king an event occurred that happened under such and such an archon), as well as to find out the chronological relationship of events to each other (that is, to establish their relative chronology) and with the moment at which the work is written (that is, to find out the absolute chronology). Since there was no single chronological system in Greece, when a historian spoke about some important event, it was desirable to date it according to several systems at once: the year of the reign of the Persian king, the Spartan ephors, the Athenian eponymous archon. As an example, here is an excerpt from Thucydides, which contains both relative and absolute dating of the key moment of his " Stories" - began Peloponnesian War (431 BC e.):

The thirty-year peace concluded after the conquest continued to exist for 14 years. Euboea. In the fifteenth year, the forty-eighth year of the priesthood of Chrysis in Argos, when Enesius was ephor in Sparta, and Pythodorus had 4 months of archonship left in Athens, in the sixteenth month after the Battle of Potidaea, at the beginning of spring, a detachment of armed Thebans(...) at the beginning of the night's sleep invaded the Boeotian city of Plataea...

All other dates in the text of Thucydides’ “History” are in one way or another correlated with the date of the start of the war (in the above passage this can be seen in the example of the date of the end of the first Athenian-Spartan war and the Battle of Potidaea; in the future the dates are designated: “for such and such a year of the war” ). Of the dating systems used by Thucydides, dating according to the Athenian archons existed in historical science for many centuries, and this allowed ancient chronologists to easily correlate Thucydides’ data with later chronological scales (according to the Olympiads - through it with the Roman chronology according to consuls and “from the foundation Rome" - and through the latter this event is easily translated into the modern chronology system, which is a direct continuation of the Roman one). Finally, this date is also amenable to astronomical verification, since Thucydides dates a solar eclipse to the summer of the same year, which, according to calculations (first done already Joseph Scaliger), took place August 3 431 BC e.

At the same time, in the Hellenistic East, official dating of the familiar type came into use, counting from one date - the “epoch of an era.” The era was the rise to power Seleucus Nicatora, commander Alexander the Great - 312 BC e. However, the “Seleucid era” remained administrative until late antiquity and was not used by historians. Subsequently, it entered Aramaic, then Arabic historiography (under the incorrect name “Alexander’s era”) and was used by Syrian Christians until the 19th century. Parthian Arsacids, in turn, introduced the era from their own accession ( 248 BC e.), also in circulation in the East.

The Romans, who had long kept their “fastas” - lists of consuls, which also served as a brief official chronicle, easily fit into the Greek chronological system, so that, for example, in the work of a Greek author of the Roman era Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC e.) we come across datings at once: according to the Olympiads, according to the Athenian archons and according to the Roman consuls. A contemporary of Diodorus was a Roman scientist Varro, who, on the basis of consular fasts and the years of reign of the Roman kings reported by legend, calculated the date of the founding of Rome (according to Varro - 753 BC e.) and introduced it as an era into scientific circulation. This era “from the foundation of Rome” was not officially used, but in historiography it survived until the 19th century (since it dealt with the events of Roman history).

The so-called “Royal Canon” is of great importance for chronology. Ptolemy" - a list of kings preserved in Theon's commentary on the astronomical work of Ptolemy. This is a list of reigns, with exact astronomical dates, of kings Babylon(the Babylonian kings themselves, as well as the Persian kings and Alexander the Great as Babylonians), the kings of Hellenistic Egypt and the Roman emperors. It was compiled by Alexandrian astronomers for the needs of their own calculations (in fact, for dating astronomical phenomena) according to their own records and the records of Babylonian priests and then continued by scribes who entered into it the names of Byzantine emperors (in some manuscripts it was brought to the fall of Constantinople in 1453). It begins with the accession to the throne of the Babylonian king Nabonassar February 27 747 BC e.(the so-called “era of Nabonassar”), during which systematic astronomical observations began for the first time, and is based on the moving Egyptian calendar (without high-cox years), which was then used by astronomers.

In the late Roman period, the era from the beginning of the reign of the emperor became widespread in astronomical and astrological texts Diocletian - 284, in it the Easter tables are compiled (this era is still preserved by the Coptic-Ethiopian church under the name “era of martyrs”).

Interest in issues of chronology reappears during the Renaissance. It is believed that the foundations of modern chronology were laid by Joseph Scaliger(-); he introduced dating according to the Julian period he invented, beginning in 4713 BC. e., which made it possible to convert all available dates into one system; He was also the first to begin (or rather resumed, since it was used sporadically in antiquity) the astronomical verification of dates found in historical sources (for example, he was the first to give an astronomical dating of the solar eclipse of 431 BC, mentioned Thucydides) . By cross-checking synchronic information and using astronomical data, Scaliger and the Jesuit scientist Dionysius Petavius(-) calculated the main dates, which in turn made it possible to recalculate all the dates of ancient history using a unified chronology system. Petavius ​​in 1627 proposed a system of “counting back” dates “before the Nativity of Christ.” This system, which received universal recognition only towards the end of the 18th century, greatly facilitated the study of chronology.

The controversy caused by the works of Scaliger stimulated the appearance of a large number of works on astronomical and technical chronology. The general work in this area was in XVIII century the work of the Benedictines d’Antin, Clemense and Durand “The Art of Verifying Dates”, the last edition of which included 44 volumes. Back to top XX century Scientific chronology has reached its peak. Until now, the work of the German astronomer and chronologist Christian-Ludwig Idler, “Handbook of Mathematical and Technical Chronology,” has not lost its significance. Among modern chronology specialists, the American scientist is especially famous Russian origin E. Bickerman, author of the work “Chronology ancient world"(London, 1969; Russian translation M., 1975).

Questions of the reliability of ancient chronology

Roman chronology, the direct continuation of which, as indicated, is our chronology system, is completely reliable. It is characteristic, for example, that the date of Diocletian’s coming to power ( 284) was established by three different scientists using three different ways. Scaliger came from the Coptic-Ethiopian tradition, which equated 1582 by 1299 of the era of Diocletian, what guided the Coptic-Ethiopian tradition, equating 1582 by 1299 Diocletian [ specify] Petavius ​​- from the fact that Diocletian, according to the Easter Chronicle, came to power in the consulate of Carinus (second) and Numerian, which, according to the consular fasts, corresponds 284; Idler instead used Ptolemy's Canon and astronomical observation to derive a synchronic dating: 81 years after the reign of Diocletian = 1112 years after the accession of Nabonassar; this equation again leads to 284.

Greek history can be synchronized with the Roman one, since many dates are known in both the Greek and Roman numeral systems. Those eastern chronological data that have a direct or indirect connection with Roman chronology are also reliable. So, lists of Egyptian pharaohs Manetho include the Persian kings and the Ptolemies, the dates of whose reigns are precisely known - this makes it possible to calculate the dates of the reigns of previous rulers. Here, however, difficulties arise due to the mentioned features of the eastern royal lists. However, it is believed that up to approximately 800 BC e. Egyptian reigns are dated absolutely precisely [ by whom?], until the 16th century BC. e. (that is, before the beginning of the New Kingdom) - with a tolerance of several decades. But the duration of the transition period between the Middle and New Kingdoms is not precisely known - as a result, the connection with Roman chronology is lost. Important role in the chronology of the Middle Kingdom plays a letter on papyrus dating back to the end of the XII dynasty; it states that Sirius will rise on the 16th numbers VIII lunar month of the 7th year. Obviously this refers to the reign of Senusret III, but it could also be his son Amenemhat III. In any case, the date of this event is about 1800, and this allows us (since the number of years of reign of the pharaohs of the dynasty is known) to conclude that XII Dynasty rules from about 2000 to 1800 BC. e. The duration of the First Transition Period between the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms is also unknown, and therefore the chronology of the Old Kingdom is even more guesswork.

The historians of Western Asia have somewhat more solid support. First of all, the Assyrian list of eponyms (limmu) has been preserved, between 911 and 648 BC. e., which are verified both by the “Canon of Ptolemy” and by the solar eclipse indicated in it. For earlier centuries, establishing the date of the beginning of the reign of King Hammurabi is key. It is based on the observation described in a cuneiform document of the heliacal rising (the first rising of the morning dawn) of Venus, which occurred in the 6th year of the reign of Amisaduga, one of the last kings of the dynasty Hammurabi(whereas it is known that 1 year of his reign is 146 years away from 1 year of Hammurabi’s reign). The heliacal rising conditions described in the document are repeated over several decades, so that as a result, several variant dates for the 1st year of Hammurabi's reign have emerged; Based on the totality of historical data, the most plausible date is considered to be 1792 BC. e. Accordingly, the dating of previous and subsequent reigns is tied to this date.

China has always had a developed historiographical tradition with its own detailed chronology, based on reigns with their mottos, as well as 60-year cycles (see. chinese calendar); in India, issues of chronology and historiography were treated much more lightheartedly. Therefore, the key date for synchronizing the ancient history of India with the European one is given by the decree of the king carved on stone Ashoka(III century BC) about the embassy he sent to Greece for missionary purposes of promoting Buddhism; it mentions five Hellenistic rulers (Antigonus Gonatus and others), whose reign is precisely known.

Some eras

• A group of Byzantine eras which are generally stated to begin:
  • March 1 5509 BC e. ultramart style )
  • September 1 5509 BC e. - Byzantine era from the “creation of the world” (used in Rus' until 1700)
  • March 1 5508 BC e.- Old Russian era from the “creation of the world” ( march style)
  • 5504 BC e. - Bulgarian era from the “creation of the world”
  • March 25 5493 BC e.- Alexandrian era from the “creation of the world” according to Annianus

However, it must be kept in mind that " nobody of those who followed the Byzantine era did not believe that 5508 years passed from the creation of the world to the incarnation. If there was a need to indicate the year of Christ’s birth, they put it in 5500. Paradoxically, there were 5508 number, But not the date". Thus, in the chronicles the date of birth of Christ was taken to be 5500 (only sometimes 5505), but due to errors in the chronology of the reign of the Roman emperors, subsequent events were dated in such a way that when recalculating them to modern chronology, the above eras must be used.

• January 1 4713 BC e. - era of Scaliger, the beginning of the Julian days
• 4004 BC e.- era from the “creation of the world”, according to the bishop Ashsheru
• October 7 3761 BC e. - Jewish era from the “creation of the world”
• February 18 3102 BC e. - Kaliyuga era (according to Indian mythology this "Iron Age" will last 432,000 years)
• August 11 2497 BC e. - main (main, 1st) Armenian era
• 2397 BC e. - Chinese cyclical era
• July 1 776 BC e.- era from the first olympic games; introduced around 264 BC e. and was used until 394 years.
• April 21 753 BC e.- era from the founding of Rome (according to Varro). It was used until the end of the 17th century.
• February 26 747 BC e.- era of Nabonassar. Used in astronomy before times Copernicus.
• March 11 545 BC e.- Buddhist era
• October 1 312 BC e.- Seleucid era
• 248 BC e.- Arsacid era
• 37 BC e.- Spanish era (used in Spain until the Late Middle Ages).
• September 1 31 BC e.- era “From the Augustan Peace”, or “ Era of Aktium" - (used in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire).
• January 1 1 year- Christian era from the Nativity of Christ, introduced Dionysius the Small V 525.
• August 29 284 years- era Diocletian(Christians have the “era of martyrs”).
• October 27 551- Armenian era
• July 16 622 years- era Hijras(Muslim)
• September 22 1792- Era of the Republic (French revolutionary)

Dating methods

Physical

• Potassium-argon method
• Uranium-thorium method

Chemical

• Racemization of amino acids

Geological

Archaeological

• Typology (archaeology)
• Cross dating

Biological

Linguistic

See also

Notes

Literature

• Bickerman E. Chronology of the ancient world. Middle East and Antiquity / Trans. from English I. M. Steblin-Kamensky. M.: Nauka, 1975.
• Ermolaev I. P. Historical chronology. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 1980.
• Klimishin I. A. Calendar and chronology. - M.: “Science”, 1981.
• Kamentseva E. I. Chronology: Textbook. manual for university students. - Ed. 2nd, corrected and additional - M.: Aspect Press, 2003. - 160 p. - 4000 copies. - ISBN 5-7567-0293-8 (region) (1st ed. - 1967)
• Seleshnikov S. I. Calendar history and chronology. M., 1970 (with a list of earlier literature).
• Syuzyumov M. Ya. The chronology is universal. - Sverdlovsk, 1971.
• Chronological table. 750-500 BC e. (East. Egypt. Greece. Colonies. Architecture and art. Literature) // Cambridge History of the Ancient World. T. III, part 3. M., 2007. pp. 563-571. ISBN 978-5-86218-467-9
• Cherepnin L.V. Russian chronology, M., 1944.
• Calendar-chronological culture and problems of its study: to the 870th anniversary of the “Teaching” of Kirik Novgorod: scientific materials. conf. Moscow, December 11-12. 2006/ comp. Yu. E. Shustova; Editorial Board: R. A. Simonov (chief editor) and others; Ross. state humanitarian University, Ist.-Arch. Institute, Department source study and auxiliary. ist. disciplines, Institute of General. History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. state University of Printing. - M.: RSUH, 2006.
• Dyakonov I. M. How do we know when this was // Science and life, No. 5, 1986, p. 66-74.

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