Many years after the collapse of the Great Seljuk Empire, a new powerful Turkic-Muslim state arose in Asia Minor - Ottoman Empire.

During the campaign of Genghis Khan in Central Asia, about 70 thousand Oghuz Turks moved to Anatolia. In 1231, Ertogrul from the Oguz family of Gays led his fellow tribesmen to the borders of Ankara, and, pledging to guard the borders with Byzantium, received from the Seljuk Sultan the village of Soyudpu and Eylag Domanchi in the form of an iqta. Soon these Oguzes subjugated the neighboring Byzantine rulers. After the death of Ertogrul, his son Osman bey (1289-1326) headed the gays, put an end to the existence of the Konya Sultanate and created his own state in 1299. The conquest of Bursa in 1326 was a turning point in the history of this state. The Ottomans took possession of the Anatolian part forever Sea of ​​Marmara. Since 1329, Bursa became the capital. Osman's son Kazn - Orkhan bey (1326-1359) took up state building. He defined the authorities of the state and their tasks. The Ottoman Empire was divided into regions and districts.

In order to capture Constantinople, the city of Nicaea had to be captured first. At the Battle of Maltepe in 1329, Orhan Kazn defeated the Byzantines, captured Nicaea and renamed it Iznik. Thus, Byzantium lost one of its main supports in Anatolia. In 1337, the Ottomans captured the city of Nicomedia and renamed it Izmit.

In the 30s of the 14th century, the Byzantine emperor turned to the Ottomans for help to calm internal strife. Suleiman Pasha, who came to the rescue, defeated the rebellious Serbs. Taking advantage of the moment, the Ottomans captured Geliboly and the surrounding Byzantine fortresses in 1354.

Ottoman Empire - oeducation

Murad I (1359-1389), who came to power in 1359, took the title of Sultan. In 1361 he occupied Edirne and made it his capital. In the 14th century, the states of the Balkan Peninsula were weakened by internal feudal strife, as well as wars among themselves. In 1370, Byzantium, and then Bulgaria, recognized their subordination to the Ottomans. In 1371, the Serbs, having lost the Battle of Chirmen, recognized their dependence on the Ottomans, pledging to pay tribute and supply soldiers. Having mobilized all their forces, the Serbs marched against the Ottomans on the Kosovo field on June 25, 1389, but suffered a severe defeat. Sultan Ildirim Bayezid I (1389-1402) put an end to the independence of Serbia, seizing territories up to the banks of the Danube. In 1393, the capital of Bulgaria, Tarnovo, fell, and at the end of the 14th century, most of Bosnia and all of Albania were captured by the Ottomans. The Hungarian king Sigismund, with the help of French, German, English and Czech knights, organized a crusade. In 1396, the Crusaders were defeated in a battle near Nikopol, and the conquest of Bulgaria by the Ottomans was completed. In preparation for the capture of Constantinople, Ildirim Bayazit I built the Anadoluhisar fortress.

At the beginning of the 15th century, taking advantage of the fact that Ildirim Bayazit I was busy besieging Constantinople, Emir Timur raided Eastern Anatolia and returned to Azerbaijan victoriously. During Timur’s repeated campaign on July 28, 1402, one of the largest battles Middle Ages. The Ottomans were defeated and Sultan Bayezid was captured. Timur's victory saved Europe from Ottoman conquest. Upon learning of the result of the battle, the overjoyed Pope ordered bells to be rung throughout Europe for three days and prayers of thanksgiving offered. Then came an 11-year period of struggle for power in the Ottoman Empire.

Sultan Murad II (1421-1451) restored the power of the Ottoman Empire. He defeated the Hungarian-Czech crusaders led by Janos Hunyadin in 1444 near Varna, and in 1448 he again defeated these crusaders on the Kosovo field. The son of Murad II, Mehmet II (1451-1481), besieged Constantinople in the spring of 1453, captured the Golden Horn harbor and, after a 53-day siege, forced the city to surrender. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, died. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul (Istanbul) and made the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmet II received the nickname "The Conqueror".

In 1475 Crimean Khanate fell into vassalage Ottoman state. In 1479, Albania finally submitted, and a peace treaty was concluded with Venice, according to which:

1) islands Aegean Sea went to Turkey, and the islands of Crete and Corfu went to Venice;

2) Venice obliged to pay 1000 ducats of annual tribute, but received the right to duty-free trade.

In the second half of the 15th century, Moldova, Wallachia, the Greek Principality of Morea and the Duchy of Athens also fell under the sultan's control. Main part Ottoman army consisted of feudal cavalry called “akynchy”. Orhan Kazn created mercenary foot troops for the first time, because. During the siege of fortresses, cavalry became ineffective. One of the innovations in the army was the organization of military units made up of the so-called “Janissaries”. These were regular infantry troops, formed from young Christians who converted to Islam and received support from the state treasury.

After the Sultan, the second most important in the state was the chief vizier. He kept state seal, led political activity. The defterdar was in charge of financial affairs.

The entire territory of the country was divided into administrative units - pashalygs and sanjaks. Forms land ownership consisted of state lands, lands of the Sultan's family (khasse), wakf lands, mulk. Instead of salaries, mercenary soldiers began to be given lands called “timar”. In 1375, Sultan Murad I created another conditional land tenure - ziyamat.

The entire tax-paying population of the Ottoman Empire was called reaya. Muslim farmers paid ashar, a tax of one tenth of their income. Non-Muslims were subject to a poll tax - ispenja; they were not conscripted for military service.

Ottoman Empire in the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries

Capturing in early XVI century in the Middle East large areas, the Ottoman Empire became the most big state in the region.

Sultan Selim I (1512-1520) captured Aleppo, Damascus and Palestine in 1516, and Egypt in 1518. In the same 1518, the Ottoman fleet under the command of Heireddin Barbarossa inflicted a heavy defeat on the Spanish fleet, Algeria also fell under the influence of the Ottoman Empire. The conquests of Sultan Selim I increased the territory of the empire by 2.5 times. Sultan Suleiman I Kanuni (“legalist”, another nickname is “magnificent”) in 1521 captured Belgrade, which was considered the key to the doors of Central Europe. In 1526, in the battle of Mohács, the Ottomans defeated the Hungarian-Czech army of King Lajos II and captured capital city Will. Sultan Suleiman I elevated his vassal, Janos, to the Hungarian throne. To punish the Austrian Duke Ferdinand, who attacked Buda, Suleiman I besieged Vienna in 1529. But unfavorable weather conditions and the depletion of ammunition forced him to lift the siege.

In 1556, the Ottoman Empire annexed Tripoli and its surroundings, and in 1564 Tunisia. Thus, all of North Africa was captured. The Ottoman Empire spread over three continents (Asia, Europe, Africa). The authority of Suleiman I in the world was very high. In 1535, the “Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Trade” was concluded between the Ottoman Empire and France, which went down in history under the name “Capitulation”. The treaty was divided into chapters (in Latin, “capitulation” means “chapter”), hence the name of the document.

Numerous wars required large amounts of money. Therefore, the government was forced to increase taxes, and this led to the impoverishment of peasant farms. The reduction in the number of war trophies and the loss of military art led to increased internal contradictions.

Dismemberment land holdings timar and ziyamat, as well as refusal military service parts of the Janissaries, who turned into large land owners, led to a crisis in the military-feudal system. Sultan Selim II (1565-1574) banned the division of the Timar and Ziyamat lands, thereby trying to slow down this negative process.

Uprisings XVI - early XVII centuries also dealt a serious blow to the socio-economic and political foundations of the country. Western diplomacy managed to prevent further conquest of Europe by directing the military power of the Ottomans against the Safavid state.

Taking advantage of the Safavid war with the Ottoman Empire, Portugal gained a foothold in the Persian Gulf.

The Ottoman Empire, officially called the Great Ottoman State, lasted 623 years.

She was multinational state, whose rulers respected their traditions, but did not deny others. It was for this advantageous reason that many neighboring countries allied with them.

In Russian-language sources the state was called Turkish or Tursky, and in Europe it was called Porta.

History of the Ottoman Empire

The Great Ottoman State emerged in 1299 and lasted until 1922. The first sultan of the state was Osman, after whom the empire was named.

The Ottoman army was regularly replenished with Kurds, Arabs, Turkmen and other nations. Anyone could come and become a member of the Ottoman army only by uttering an Islamic formula.

The lands obtained as a result of the seizure were allocated for agriculture. On such plots there was a small house and a garden. The owner of this plot, which was called "timar", was obliged to appear to the Sultan at the first call and fulfill his demands. He had to appear to him on his own horse and fully armed.

The horsemen did not pay any taxes, since they paid with “their blood.”

Due to the active expansion of borders, they needed not only cavalry troops, but also infantry, which is why they created one. Osman's son Orhan also continued to expand the territory. Thanks to him, the Ottomans found themselves in Europe.

There they took little boys aged about 7 years old to study with Christian peoples, whom they taught, and they converted to Islam. Such citizens, who grew up in such conditions from childhood, were excellent warriors and their spirit was invincible.

Gradually they formed their own fleet, which included warriors of different nationalities, they even took in pirates who willingly converted to Islam and fought active battles.

What was the name of the capital of the Ottoman Empire?

Emperor Mehmed II, having captured Constantinople, made it his capital and called it Istanbul.

However, not all battles went smoothly. IN late XVI I century there was a series of failures. For example, the Russian Empire took Crimea, as well as the Black Sea coast, from the Ottomans, after which the state began to suffer more and more defeats.

In the 19th century, the country began to quickly weaken, the treasury began to empty, agriculture was poorly conducted and inactive. When defeated during the First World War, a truce was signed, Sultan Mehmed V was abolished and went to Malta, and subsequently to Italy, where he lived until 1926. The empire fell apart.

The territory of the empire and its capital

The territory expanded very actively, especially during the reign of Osman and Orhan, his son. Osman began to expand his borders after he came to Byzantium.

Territory of the Ottoman Empire (click to enlarge)

Initially, it was located on the territory of modern Turkey. Then the Ottomans reached Europe, where they expanded their borders and captured Constantinople, which was later named Istanbul and became the capital of their state.

Serbia, as well as many other countries, were also annexed to the territories. The Ottomans annexed Greece, some islands, as well as Albania and Herzegovina. This state was one of the most powerful for many years.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire

The reign of Sultan Suleiman I is considered the heyday. During this period, many trips were made to Western countries, thanks to which the borders of the Empire were significantly expanded.

Due to active positive period reign, the Sultan was nicknamed Suleiman the Magnificent. He actively expanded borders not only in Muslim countries, but also by annexing European countries. He had his own viziers, who were obliged to inform the Sultan about what was happening.

Suleiman I ruled long time. His idea throughout the years of his reign was the idea of ​​uniting the lands, just like his father Selim. He also planned to unite the peoples of the East and West. That is why he maintained his position quite directly and did not deviate from his goal.

Although active expansion of borders also occurred in the 18th century, when most of the battles were won, however, the most positive period is still considered era of the reign of Suleiman I - 1520-1566.

Rulers of the Ottoman Empire in chronological order

Rulers of the Ottoman Empire (click to enlarge)

The Ottoman dynasty ruled for a long time. Among the list of rulers, the most prominent were Osman, who formed the Empire, his son Orhan, and Suleiman the Magnificent, although each sultan left his mark on the history of the Ottoman State.

Initially, the Ottoman Turks, fleeing the Mongols, partially migrated towards the West, where they were in the service of Jalal ud-Din.

Next, part of the remaining Turks was sent to the possession of the padishah Sultan Kay-Kubad I. Sultan Bayazid I, during the battle of Ankara, was captured and then died. Timur divided the Empire into parts. After this, Murad II began its restoration.

During the reign of Mehmed Fatih, the Fatih Law was adopted, which implied the murder of all those who interfere with the rule, even siblings. The law did not last very long and was not supported by everyone.

Sultan Abduh Habib II was overthrown in 1909, after which the Ottoman Empire ceased to be a monarchical state. When Abdullah Habib II Mehmed V began to rule, under his rule the Empire began to actively fall apart.

Mehmed VI, who ruled briefly until 1922, until the end of the Empire, left the state, which finally collapsed in the 20th century, but the prerequisites for this were already in the 19th century.

Last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

The last sultan was Mehmed VI, who was 36th on the throne. Before his reign, the state was experiencing a significant crisis, so it was extremely difficult to restore the Empire.

Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI Vahideddin (1861-1926)

He became ruler at the age of 57. After the start of his reign, Mehmed VI dissolved parliament, but the First World War greatly undermined the activities of the Empire and the Sultan had to leave the country.

Sultanas of the Ottoman Empire - their role in government

Women in the Ottoman Empire did not have the right to rule the state. This rule existed in all Islamic states. However, there is a period in the history of the state when women actively participated in government.

It is believed that the female sultanate emerged as a result of the end of the period of campaigns. Also, the formation of a female sultanate is largely connected with the abolition of the law “On Succession to the Throne”.

The first representative was Hurrem Sultan. She was the wife of Suleiman I. Her title was Haseki Sultan, which means "Most Beloved Wife." She was very educated and knew how to lead business negotiations and respond to various messages.

She was an advisor to her husband. And since he most of spent time in battles, she took on the main responsibilities of the government.

Fall of the Ottoman Empire

As a result of numerous failed battles during the reign of Abdullah Habib II Mehmed V, the Ottoman state began to actively collapse. Why the state collapsed is a complex question.

However, we can say that the main moment in its collapse was precisely the First World War, which put an end to the Great Ottoman State.

Descendants of the Ottoman Empire in modern times

In modern times, the state is represented only by her descendants, identified on the family tree. One of them is Ertogrul Osman, who was born in 1912. He could have become the next sultan of his empire if it had not collapsed.

Ertogrul Osman became the last grandson of Abdul Hamid II. He speaks several languages ​​fluently and has a good education.

His family moved to Vienna when he was about 12 years old. There he received his education. Ertogul is married for the second time. His first wife died without giving him any children. His second wife was Zaynep Tarzi, who is the niece of Ammanullah, former king Afghanistan.

The Ottoman state was one of the great ones. Among its rulers there are several of the most outstanding, thanks to whom its borders significantly expanded in a fairly short period of time.

However, the First World War, as well as many lost defeats, caused serious damage to this empire, as a result of which it disintegrated.

Currently, the history of the state can be seen in the film “The Secret Organization of the Ottoman Empire,” where summary, but many moments from history are described in sufficient detail.

The legend says: “The Slav Roksolana, who brazenly invaded the Ottoman family, weakened her influence and removed most of the worthy political figures and associates of Sultan Suleiman from the road, thereby greatly shaking the stable political and economic situation of the state. She also contributed to the emergence of genetically inferior descendants of the great ruler, Suleiman the Magnificent, giving birth to five sons, the first of whom died young, the second was so weak that he did not even survive the age of two, the third quickly became a complete alcoholic, the fourth turned into a traitor and went against his father, and the fifth was very ill from birth, and also died at a young age, without even being able to have a single child. Then Roksolana literally forced the Sultan to marry herself, violating large number traditions that have been in effect since the founding of the state and served as a guarantee of its stability. She marked the beginning of such a phenomenon as the "Women's Sultanate", which further weakened the competitiveness of the Ottoman Empire in the world political arena. Roksolana's son, Selim, who inherited the throne, was a completely unpromising ruler and left behind even more worthless offspring. As a result, the Ottoman Empire soon completely collapsed. Roxolana's grandson Murad III turned out to be such an unworthy sultan that devout Muslims were no longer surprised by the surging crop failures, inflation, Janissary riots, or open sales government positions. It’s scary to even imagine what kind of disaster this woman would have brought to her homeland if the Tatars hadn’t dragged her away from her native place on the Tatar’s lasso. Having destroyed the Ottoman Empire, she saved Ukraine. Honor and glory to her for this!”

Historical facts:

Before talking directly about refuting the legend, I would like to note a few general historical facts, relating to the Ottoman Empire before and after the generation of Hurrem Sultan. Since it is precisely because of ignorance or misunderstanding of key historical moments people of this state begin to believe in such legends.

The Ottoman Empire was founded in 1299, when a man who went down in history as the first Sultan of the Ottoman Empire under the name Osman I Ghazi declared the independence of his small country from the Seljuks and took the title of Sultan (although some sources note that this was the first time such a title was officially worn only his grandson is Murad I). Soon he managed to conquer all western part Asia Minor. Osman I was born in 1258 in a Byzantine province called Bithynia. He died of natural causes in the city of Bursa (sometimes mistakenly considered the first capital of the Ottoman state) in 1326. After this, power passed to his son, known as Orhan I Ghazi. Under him, a small Turkic tribe finally turned into strong state with a modern (at that time) army.

Throughout the history of its existence, the Ottoman Empire changed 4 capitals:
Söğüt (the real first capital of the Ottomans), 1299-1329;
Bursa (former Byzantine fortress of Brusa), 1329-1365;
Edirne (formerly the city of Adrianople), 1365-1453;
Constantinople (now the city of Istanbul), 1453-1922.

Returning to what is written in the legend, it must be said that the last wedding of the current Sultan before the era of Suleiman Kanuni took place in 1389 (more than 140 years before Hurrem’s wedding). Sultan Bayazid I the Lightning, who ascended the throne, married the daughter of a Serbian prince, whose name was Olivera. It was after the tragic events that happened to them at the very beginning of the 15th century that official marriages of current sultans became an extremely undesirable phenomenon for the next century and a half. But from this side there is no talk of any violation of traditions “in force since the founding of the state.” The ninth legend already spoke in detail about the fate of Shehzade Selim, and separate articles will be devoted to all the other children of Hurrem. In addition, it should be noted the high level of infant mortality in those days, from which even the conditions could not save ruling dynasty. As you know, some time before Khyurrem appeared in the harem, Suleiman lost his two sons, who, due to illness, did not live half their time before coming of age. The second son of Hurrem, Shehzade Abdallah, unfortunately, was no exception. As for the “Women’s Sultanate”, here we can say with confidence that this era, although it did not carry exclusively positive aspects, was the cause of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, and even more so the consequence of any decline, such a phenomenon as The “Women's Sultanate” could not appear. Also, due to a number of factors, which will be discussed a little later, Hurrem could not be its founder or in any way be considered a member of the “Women’s Sultanate”.

Historians divide the entire existence of the Ottoman Empire into seven main periods:
The formation of the Ottoman Empire (1299-1402) - the period of the reign of the first four sultans of the empire (Osman, Orhan, Murad and Bayezid).
The Ottoman Interregnum (1402-1413) was an eleven-year period that began in 1402 after the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Angora and the tragedy of Sultan Bayezid I and his wife in captivity by Tamerlane. During this period, there was a struggle for power between the sons of Bayezid, from which only in 1413 the youngest son Mehmed I Celebi emerged victorious.
Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1413-1453) - the reign of Sultan Mehmed I, as well as his son Murad II and grandson Mehmed II, which ended with the capture of Constantinople and complete destruction Byzantine Empire Mehmed II, nicknamed "Fatih" (Conqueror).
Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1453-1683) – a period of major expansion of the Ottoman Empire's borders, continuing the reign of Mehmed II, (including the reign of Suleiman I and his son Selim II), and ending with the complete defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna during the reign of Mehmed IV, (son of Ibrahim I Crazy).
Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire (1683-1827) - a period lasting 144 years that began after the Christian victory at the Battle of Vienna ended forever wars of conquest The Ottoman Empire on European soil. The onset of a period of stagnation meant a stop in the territorial and economic development of the empire.
The decline of the Ottoman Empire (1828-1908) is a period that really has its official name the word "decline" is characterized by loss huge amount territory of the Ottoman state, the Tanzimat era also begins, which consists of systematizing and laying down the basic laws of the country.
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922) - the period of reign of the last two monarchs of the Ottoman state, the brothers Mehmed V and Mehmed VI, which began after the change in the form of government of the state to a constitutional monarchy, and lasted until the complete cessation of the existence of the Ottoman Empire (the period also covers the participation of the Ottoman states in the First World War).

Also in the historical literature of each state studying the history of the Ottoman Empire, there is a division into smaller periods that are part of the seven main ones, and often it is somewhat different from each other in different states. But it should immediately be noted that this is an official division of precisely periods of territorial and economic development of the country, and not crisis family relations ruling dynasty. Moreover, the period that lasts throughout the life of Hurrem, as well as all her children and grandchildren, (despite the slight military-technical lag behind European countries, which began in the 17th century), is called the “Growth of the Ottoman Empire,” and in no case not “collapse” or “decline,” which, as noted above, will begin only in the 19th century.

Historians call the main and most serious reason for the collapse of the Ottoman Empire the defeat in the First World War (in which this state participated as part of the Quadruple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria), caused by the superior human and economic resources of the Entente countries.
The Ottoman Empire (officially the “Great Ottoman State”) lasted exactly 623 years, and the collapse of this state occurred 364 years after the death of Haseki Hurrem. She died on April 18, 1558, and the day the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist can be called November 1, 1922, when the Grand National Assembly of Turkey adopted a law on the separation of the sultanate and the caliphate (while the sultanate was abolished). On November 17, Mehmed VI Vahideddin, the last (36th) Ottoman monarch, left Istanbul on a British warship, the battleship Malaya. On July 24, 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed, which recognized the full independence of Turkey. On October 29, 1923, Turkey was proclaimed a republic, and Mustafa Kemal, who later took the name Ataturk, was elected its first president.
How Haseki Hurrem Sultan and her children and grandchildren, who lived three and a half centuries before these events, were involved in this remains a mystery to the authors of the article.

Source VKontakte group: muhtesemyuzyil

The Ottoman Empire (in Europe it was traditionally called Ottoman Empire) - the largest Turkish sultanate state, successor to the Muslim Arab Caliphate and Christian Byzantium.

The Ottomans are a dynasty of Turkish sultans that ruled the state from 1299 to 1923. The Ottoman Empire was formed in the 15th–16th centuries. as a result of Turkish conquests in Asia, Europe and Africa. Over the course of 2 centuries, a small and little-known Ottoman emirate became a huge empire, the pride and strength of the entire Muslim world.

The Turkish Empire lasted for 6 centuries, occupying the period of its greatest prosperity, from the middle of the 16th century. until the last decade of the 18th century, vast lands - Turkey, the Balkan Peninsula, Mesopotamia, North Africa, the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, the Middle East. Within these borders the empire existed for a long time. historical period, posing a tangible threat to everyone neighboring countries and remote territories: the army of the sultans was feared by all of Western Europe and Russia, and the Turkish fleet reigned supreme in the Mediterranean Sea.

Having transformed from a small Turkic principality into a strong military-feudal state, the Ottoman Empire fought fiercely against the “infidels” for almost 600 years. The Ottoman Turks, continuing the work of their Arab predecessors, captured Constantinople and all the territories of Byzantium, turning the former powerful country into Muslim land and linking Europe with Asia.

After 1517, having established his authority over the holy places, the Ottoman sultan became the minister of two ancient shrines - Mecca and Medina. The conferment of this rank gave the Ottoman ruler a special duty - to protect the holy Muslim cities and promote the well-being of the annual pilgrimage to the shrines of devout Muslims. From this period of history, the Ottoman state almost completely merged with Islam and tried in every possible way to expand the territories of its influence.

Ottoman Empire, by the 20th century. Having already lost enough of its former greatness and power, it finally disintegrated after the defeat in the First World War, which became fatal for many states of the world.

The beginning of the existence of Turkish civilization should be attributed to the period of the Great Migration, when in the middle of the 1st millennium, Turkic settlers from Asia Minor found refuge under the rule of the Byzantine emperors.

At the end of the 11th century, when the Seljuk sultans, persecuted by the crusaders, moved to the borders of Byzantium, the Oghuz Turks, being the main people of the sultanate, assimilated with the local Anatolian population - Greeks, Persians, Armenians. Thus a new nation was born - the Turks, representatives of the Turkic-Islamic group, surrounded by a Christian population. The Turkish nation was finally formed in the 15th century.

In the weakened state of the Seljuks, they adhered to traditional Islam, and the central government, which had lost its power, relied on officials consisting of Greeks and Persians. During the XII–XIII centuries. the power of the supreme ruler became less and less noticeable along with the strengthening of the power of local beys. After the Mongol invasion in the middle of the 13th century. The Seljuk state practically ceases to exist, torn apart from within by the unrest of religious sectarians. By the 14th century Of the ten beyliks located on the territory of the state, the western one, which was first ruled by Ertogrul and then by his son Osman, who later became the founder of the huge Turkish power, stands out prominently.

Osman I, the Turkish Bey of the Ottoman dynasty, is the founder of the Ottoman dynasty.

Having become the ruler of the mountainous region, Osman in 1289 received the title of bey from the Seljuk Sultan. Having come to power, Osman immediately set out to conquer Byzantine lands and made the first Byzantine town of Melangia his residence.

Osman was born in a small mountain town of the Seljuk Sultanate. Osman's father, Ertogrul, received lands adjacent to the Byzantine ones from Sultan Ala ad-Din. The Turkic tribe to which Osman belonged considered the seizure of neighboring territories a sacred matter.

After the escape of the deposed Seljuk Sultan in 1299, Osman created independent state based on its own beylik. In the first years of the 14th century. the founder of the Ottoman Empire managed to significantly expand the territory of the new state and moved his headquarters to the fortified city of Episehir. Immediately after this, the Ottoman army began to raid Byzantine cities located on Black Sea coast, and to the Byzantine areas in the Dardanelles region.

The Ottoman dynasty was continued by Osman's son Orhan, who began his military career with the successful capture of Bursa, a powerful fortress in Asia Minor. Orhan declared the prosperous fortified city the capital of the state and ordered the minting of the first coin of the Ottoman Empire, the silver akçe, to begin. In 1337, the Turks won several brilliant victories and occupied territories up to the Bosphorus, making the conquered Ismit the main shipyard of the state. At the same time, Orhan annexed the neighboring Turkish lands, and by 1354, under his rule were the northwestern part of Asia Minor to the eastern shores of the Dardanelles, part of its European coast, including the city of Galliopolis, and Ankara, recaptured from the Mongols.

Orhan's son Murad I (Fig. 8) became the third ruler of the Ottoman Empire, adding territories near Ankara to its possessions and setting off on a military campaign to Europe.

Rice. 8. Ruler Murad I

Murad was the first sultan of the Ottoman dynasty and a true champion of Islam. The first schools in Turkish history began to be built in the cities of the country.

After the first victories in Europe (the conquest of Thrace and Plovdiv), a stream of Turkic settlers poured onto the European coast.

The sultans sealed their firman decrees with their own imperial monogram - tughra. The complex oriental design included the sultan's name, his father's name, title, motto and the epithet "always victorious".

Murad paid great attention to improving and strengthening the army. For the first time in history, a professional army was created. In 1336, the ruler formed a corps of Janissaries, which later turned into the Sultan’s personal guard. In addition to the Janissaries, a mounted army of the Sipahis was created, and as a result of these fundamental changes, the Turkish army became not only numerous, but also unusually disciplined and powerful.

In 1371, on the Maritsa River, the Turks defeated the united army of the southern European states and captured Bulgaria and part of Serbia.

The next brilliant victory was won by the Turks in 1389, when the Janissaries first took control firearms. That year it took place historical battle on the Kossovo field, when, having defeated the crusaders, the Ottoman Turks annexed a significant part of the Balkans to their lands.

Murad's son Bayazid continued his father's policies in everything, but unlike him, he was distinguished by cruelty and indulged in debauchery. Bayazid completed the defeat of Serbia and turned it into a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, becoming the absolute master of the Balkans.

For the rapid movements of the army and energetic actions, Sultan Bayazid received the nickname Ilderim (Lightning). During the lightning campaign in 1389–1390. he subjugated Anatolia, after which the Turks captured almost the entire territory of Asia Minor.

Bayazid had to fight simultaneously on two fronts - with the Byzantines and the crusaders. On September 25, 1396, the Turkish army defeated a huge army of crusaders, taking all Bulgarian lands into submission. According to contemporaries, more than 100,000 people fought on the side of the Turks. Many noble European crusaders were captured and later ransomed for huge sums of money. Caravans of pack animals with gifts from Emperor Charles VI of France reached the capital of the Ottoman Sultan: gold and silver coins, silk fabrics, carpets from Arras with paintings from the life of Alexander the Great woven on them, hunting falcons from Norway and much more. True, Bayazid did not make further trips to Europe, distracted by the eastern danger from the Mongols.

After the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 1400, the Turks had to fight Timur's Tatar army. On July 25, 1402, one of the greatest battles of the Middle Ages took place, during which the army of the Turks (about 150,000 people) and the army of the Tatars (about 200,000 people) met near Ankara. Timur's army, in addition to well-trained warriors, was armed with more than 30 war elephants - quite powerful weapon when advancing. The Janissaries, showing extraordinary courage and strength, were nevertheless defeated, and Bayazid was captured. Timur's army plundered the entire Ottoman Empire, exterminated or captured thousands of people, and burned the most beautiful cities and towns.

Muhammad I ruled the empire from 1413 to 1421. Throughout his reign, Muhammad was on good terms with Byzantium, turning his main attention to the situation in Asia Minor and making the first trip to Venice in the history of the Turks, which ended in failure.

Murad II, the son of Muhammad I, ascended the throne in 1421. He was a fair and energetic ruler who devoted much time to the development of the arts and urban planning. Murad, coping with internal strife, made a successful campaign, taking possession Byzantine city Thessalonica. The battles of the Turks against the Serbian, Hungarian and Albanian armies were no less successful. In 1448, after Murad's victory over the united army of the crusaders, the fate of all the peoples of the Balkans was sealed - Turkish rule hung over them for several centuries.

Before we start historical battle in 1448, between the united European army and the Turks, a letter with a truce agreement was carried through the ranks of the Ottoman army on the tip of a spear, which was violated once again. Thus, the Ottomans showed that peace treaties they are not interested - only battles and only the offensive.

From 1444 to 1446, the empire was ruled by the Turkish Sultan Muhammad II, son of Murad II.

The reign of this sultan for 30 years turned the power into a world empire. Having started his reign with the already traditional execution of relatives who potentially claimed the throne, the ambitious young man showed his strength. Muhammad, nicknamed the Conqueror, became a tough and even cruel ruler, but at the same time had an excellent education and spoke four languages. The Sultan invited scientists and poets from Greece and Italy to his court, and allocated a lot of funds for the construction of new buildings and the development of art. The Sultan set his main task to the conquest of Constantinople, and at the same time treated its implementation very carefully. Opposite the Byzantine capital, in March 1452, the Rumelihisar fortress was founded, in which the latest cannons were installed and a strong garrison was stationed.

As a result, Constantinople found itself cut off from the Black Sea region, with which it was connected by trade. In the spring of 1453, a huge Turkish land army approached the Byzantine capital and powerful fleet. The first assault on the city was unsuccessful, but the Sultan ordered not to retreat and organize preparations for a new assault. After dragging some of the ships into the bay of Constantinople along a specially constructed deck over iron barrier chains, the city found itself surrounded by Turkish troops. Battles raged daily, but the Greek defenders of the city showed examples of courage and perseverance.

The siege was not a strong point for the Ottoman army, and the Turks won only due to the careful encirclement of the city, a numerical superiority of forces by approximately 3.5 times and due to the presence of siege weapons, cannons and a powerful mortar with cannonballs weighing 30 kg. Before the main assault on Constantinople, Muhammad invited the residents to surrender, promising to spare them, but they, to his great amazement, refused.

The general assault was launched on May 29, 1453, and selected Janissaries, supported by artillery, burst into the gates of Constantinople. For 3 days the Turks plundered the city and killed Christians, and the Church of Hagia Sophia was subsequently turned into a mosque. Türkiye became a real world power, proclaiming the ancient city as its capital.

In subsequent years, Muhammad made conquered Serbia his province, conquered Moldova, Bosnia, and a little later Albania and captured all of Greece. At the same time, the Turkish Sultan conquered vast territories in Asia Minor and became the ruler of the entire Asia Minor Peninsula. But he did not stop there either: in 1475 the Turks captured many Crimean cities and the city of Tana at the mouth of the Don on the Sea of ​​Azov. The Crimean Khan officially recognized the power of the Ottoman Empire. Following this, the territories of Safavid Iran were conquered, and in 1516 Syria, Egypt and the Hijaz with Medina and Mecca came under the rule of the Sultan.

At the beginning of the 16th century. The empire's conquests were directed to the east, south and west. In the east, Selim I the Terrible defeated the Safavids and annexed the eastern part of Anatolia and Azerbaijan to his state. In the south, the Ottomans suppressed the warlike Mamluks and took control of trade routes along the Red Sea coast to Indian Ocean, V North Africa reached Morocco. In the west, Suleiman the Magnificent in the 1520s. captured Belgrade, Rhodes, and Hungarian lands.

The Ottoman Empire entered the stage of its greatest prosperity at the very end of the 15th century. under Sultan Selim I and his successor Suleiman the Magnificent, who achieved a significant expansion of territories and established reliable centralized governance of the country. The reign of Suleiman went down in history as the “golden age” of the Ottoman Empire.

Starting from the first years of the 16th century, the Turkish Empire became the most powerful power in the Old World. Contemporaries who visited the lands of the empire enthusiastically described the wealth and luxury of this country in their notes and memoirs.

Sultan Suleiman is the legendary ruler of the Ottoman Empire. During his reign (1520–1566), the huge power became even larger, the cities more beautiful, the palaces more luxurious. Suleiman (Fig. 9) also went down in history under the nickname Lawgiver.

Rice. 9. Sultan Suleiman

Having become a sultan at the age of 25, Suleiman significantly expanded the borders of the state, capturing Rhodes in 1522, Mesopotamia in 1534, and Hungary in 1541.

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire was traditionally called Sultan, a title of Arabic origin. Counts correct use terms such as “shah”, “padishah”, “khan”, “Caesar”, which came from different peoples under the rule of the Turks.

Suleiman contributed to the cultural prosperity of the country; under him, beautiful mosques and luxurious palaces were built in many cities of the empire. The famous emperor was a good poet, leaving his works under the pseudonym Muhibbi (In Love with God). During the reign of Suleiman, the wonderful Turkish poet Fuzuli lived and worked in Baghdad, who wrote the poem “Leila and Mejun”. The nickname Sultan Among Poets was given to Mahmud Abd al-Baki, who served at the court of Suleiman, who reflected in his poems the life of the high society of the state.

The Sultan entered into a legal marriage with the legendary Roksolana, nicknamed the Laughing One, one of the slaves of Slavic origin in the harem. Such an act was, at that time and according to Sharia, an exceptional phenomenon. Roksolana gave birth to an heir to the Sultan, the future Emperor Suleiman II, and devoted a lot of time to philanthropy. The Sultan's wife also had great influence over him in diplomatic affairs, especially in relations with Western countries.

In order to leave his memory in stone, Suleiman invited the famous architect Sinan to create mosques in Istanbul. Those close to the emperor also erected large religious buildings with the help of the famous architect, as a result of which the capital was noticeably transformed.

Harems with several wives and concubines, permitted by Islam, could only be afforded by wealthy people. The Sultan's harems became an integral part of the empire, its calling card.

In addition to sultans, viziers, beys, and emirs had harems. The vast majority of the empire's population had one wife, as was customary in everything Christendom. Islam officially allowed a Muslim to have four wives and several slaves.

The Sultan's harem, which gave rise to many legends and traditions, was in fact a complex organization with strict internal orders. This system was controlled by the Sultan’s mother, “Valide Sultan”. Her main assistants were eunuchs and slaves. It is clear that the life and power of the Sultan’s ruler directly depended on the fate of her high-ranking son.

The harem housed girls captured during wars or purchased at slave markets. Regardless of their nationality and religion, before entering the harem, all girls became Muslims and studied traditional Islamic arts - embroidery, singing, conversation skills, music, dancing, and literature.

While in the harem for a long time, its inhabitants passed through several levels and ranks. At first they were called jariye (newcomers), then quite soon they were renamed shagirt (students), over time they became gedikli (companions) and usta (masters).

There have been isolated cases in history when the Sultan recognized a concubine as his legal wife. This happened more often when the concubine gave birth to the ruler’s long-awaited son-heir. A striking example is Suleiman the Magnificent, who married Roksolana.

Only girls who had reached the level of craftswomen could gain the attention of the Sultan. From among them, the ruler chose his permanent mistresses, favorites and concubines. Many representatives of the harem, who became the Sultan's mistresses, were awarded their own housing, jewelry and even slaves.

Legal marriage was not provided for by Sharia, but the Sultan chose four wives who were in a privileged position from all the inhabitants of the harem. Of these, the main one became the one who gave birth to the Sultan’s son.

After the death of the Sultan, all his wives and concubines were sent to the Old Palace, which was located outside the city. The new ruler of the state could allow retired beauties to marry or join him in his harem.

Great city Istanbul, or Istanbul (formerly Bizans and then Constantinople), was the heart of the Ottoman Empire, its pride.

Strabo reported that the city of Byzans was founded by Greek colonists in the 7th century. BC e. And named after their leader Visas. In 330 the city, which became a major trading and cultural center, by Emperor Constantine it was turned into the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. New Rome was renamed Constantinople. The Turks named the city for the third time, having captured the long-desired capital of Byzantium. The name Istanbul literally means “to the city.”

Having captured Constantinople in 1453, the Turks did this ancient city, which they called the “threshold of happiness,” a new Muslim center, they erected several majestic mosques, mausoleums and madrassas, and in every possible way contributed to the further flourishing of the capital. Majority Christian churches were converted into mosques, a large oriental bazaar was built in the city center, with caravanserais, fountains, and hospitals around it. The Islamization of the city, begun by Sultan Mehmed II, continued under his successors, who sought to radically change the former Christian capital.

For grandiose construction workers were needed, and the sultans did their best to facilitate the resettlement of both Muslim and non-Muslim populations to the capital. Muslim, Jewish, Armenian, Greek, and Persian quarters appeared in the city, in which crafts and trade developed rapidly. A church, mosque or synagogue was built in the center of each block. The cosmopolitan city respected any religion. True, the permitted height of a house for Muslims was slightly higher than for representatives of other religions.

At the end of the 16th century. more than 600,000 inhabitants lived in the Ottoman capital - it was the most big city peace. It should be noted that all other cities of the Ottoman Empire, except Istanbul, Cairo, Aleppo and Damascus, could rather be called large rural settlements, the number of inhabitants in which rarely exceeded 8,000 people.

The social system of the Ottoman Empire was completely subordinated to military discipline. As soon as a new territory was captured, it was divided into fiefs between military leaders without the right to transfer the land by inheritance. With such land use, the institution of nobility did not appear in Turkey; there was no one to claim the division of supreme power.

Every man in the empire was a warrior and began his service as a common soldier. Each owner of an earthly plot (timara) was obliged to abandon all peaceful affairs and join the army at the outbreak of war.

The Sultan's orders were accurately transmitted to two beys of the same berlik, as a rule, a European and a Turk, they transmitted the order to the governors of the districts (sanjaks), and they, in turn, conveyed information to the minor rulers (aliybeys), from whom the orders were passed on to the leaders of the small military detachments and to the leaders of a group of detachments (timarlits). After receiving orders, everyone got ready for war, mounted their horses, and the army was immediately ready for new conquests and battles.

The army was supplemented by mercenary detachments and Janissary guards, recruited from among captured youths from other countries of the world. In the first years of the state's existence, the entire territory was divided into sanjaks (banners), headed by the sanjak bey. Bey was not only a manager, but also the leader of his own small army, consisting of relatives. Over time, having turned from nomads into a settled population of the empire, the Turks created a regular army of Sipahi horsemen.

Each Sipah warrior received a land plot for his service, for which he paid a certain tax to the treasury and which could be inherited only by one of his successors who enlisted in the army.

In the 16th century In addition to the land army, the Sultan created a large modern fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, which mainly consisted of large galleys, frigates, galliots and rowing boats. From 1682 there was a transition from sailing ships to the oars. Both prisoners of war and criminals served as rowers in the fleet. The striking force on the rivers were special gunboats, which took part not only in major military battles, but also in suppressing uprisings.

Over the 6 centuries of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, its powerful army changed radically 3 times. At the first stage (from the 14th to the 16th centuries), the Turkish army was considered one of the most combat-ready in the whole world. His power was based on the strong authority of the Sultan, supported by local rulers, and on the most severe discipline. The Sultan's guard, consisting of Janissaries, and well-organized cavalry also significantly strengthened the army. In addition, it was, of course, a well-armed army with numerous artillery pieces.

At the second stage (in the 17th century), the Turkish army was experiencing a crisis due to a significant reduction in aggressive campaigns and, consequently, a decrease in military production. The Janissaries, from a combat-ready unit of a large army, turned into the personal guard of the Sultan and took part in all internal strife. New mercenary troops, supplied worse than before, constantly rebelled.

The third stage, which began in early XVIII c., is closely connected with attempts to rebuild the weakened army in order to return it to its former power and strength. The Turkish sultans were forced to invite Western instructors, which caused a sharp reaction from the Janissaries. In 1826, the Sultan had to disband the Janissary corps.

Main role Agriculture, husbandry and livestock husbandry played a major role in the economy of the vast empire.

All lands of the empire were in state ownership. The warriors - the commanders of the sipahis - became the owners of large plots of land (zeamet), on which hired raya peasants worked. The Zaims and the Timariots under their leadership were the basis of the huge Turkish army. In addition, militia and Janissary guards served in the army. The military schools in which future warriors were trained were subordinate to the monks of the Bektashi Sufi order.

The state treasury was constantly replenished from military spoils and taxes, as well as as a result of the development of trade. Gradually, in the militarized state, a layer of bureaucrats emerged that had the right to own land plots such as timars. Around the Sultan were people close to him, large landowners from among the ruler’s relatives. All management positions in state apparatus management was also occupied by representatives of the clan to which the Sultan belonged; Later, it was this state of affairs that served as one of the reasons for the weakening of the empire. The Sultan had a huge harem, and after his death many heirs laid claim to the throne, which caused constant disputes and strife within the Sultan's circle. During the heyday of the state, a system of killing all potential rivals to the throne was almost officially developed by one of the heirs.

The supreme body of the state, completely subordinate to the Sultan, was the Highest Council (Diwan-i-Khumayun), consisting of viziers. The legislation of the empire was subject to Islamic law, Sharia and adopted in the middle of the 15th century. code of laws. All power was divided into three large parts - military-administrative, financial and judicial-religious.

Suleiman I the Magnificent, who ruled mid-16th century c., received a second nickname - Kanuni (Legislator) thanks to several of his successful bills that strengthened the central government.

At the beginning of the 16th century. There were 16 large regions in the country, each of which was headed by a beylerbey governor. In turn, large regions were divided into small districts-sanjaks. All local rulers were subordinate to the Grand Vizier.

A characteristic feature of the Ottoman Empire was the unequal position of people of other faiths - Greeks, Armenians, Slavs, Jews. The Turks, who were in the minority, and the few Muslim Arabs were exempt from additional taxes and occupied all leading positions in the state.

According to rough estimates, the entire population of the empire during the heyday of the state was about 22 million people.

Muslims and non-Muslims are the two large groups in the population of the Ottoman Empire.

Muslims, in turn, were divided into askers (all military personnel and state officials) and rayas (literally “flocked”, rural residents-farmers and ordinary townspeople, and in some periods of history – merchants). Unlike the peasants medieval Europe Raya were not attached to the land and in most cases could move to another place or become artisans.

Non-Muslims made up three large religious parts, which included Orthodox Christians (Rum, or Romans) - Balkan Slavs, Greeks, Orthodox Arabs, Georgians; Eastern Christians (ermeni) - Armenians; Jews (Yahudi) - Karaites, Romaniots, Sephardim, Ashkenazi.

The position of Christians and Jews, i.e. non-Muslims, was determined by Islamic law (Sharia), which allowed representatives of other peoples and religions to live on the territory of the empire, adhere to their beliefs, but obliged them to pay a poll tax as subjects who were one step lower than everyone else. Muslims.

All representatives of other religions had to differ in appearance, wear different clothes, refraining from bright colors in them. The Koran forbade a non-Muslim to marry a Muslim girl, and in court, priority was given to Muslims in resolving any issues and disputes.

The Greeks were mainly engaged in small trade, crafts, kept taverns or devoted themselves to maritime affairs. The Armenians controlled the silk trade between Persia and Istanbul. Jews found themselves in the smelting of metals, jewelry, usury. The Slavs were engaged in crafts or served in Christian military units.

According to Muslim tradition, a person who mastered a profession and brought benefit to people was considered a happy and worthy member of society. All residents of the huge power received some kind of profession, supported in this by the example of the great sultans. Thus, the ruler of the empire, Mehmed II, mastered gardening, and Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent were high-class jewelers. Many sultans wrote poetry, being fluent in this art.

This state of affairs remained until 1839, when all subjects of the empire, according to the adopted law, during the period of reforms (tanzimat) that began, received equal rights.

The position of the slave in Ottoman society was much better than in the ancient world. Special articles of the Koran prescribed to provide the slave medical care, feed him well and help him in his old age. For cruel treatment of a slave, a Muslim faced serious punishment.

A special category of the empire's population were slaves (kele), people without rights, as in the rest of the slave-owning world. In the Ottoman Empire, a slave could not have a house, property, or have the right to inheritance. A slave could only marry with the permission of the owner. A slave-concubine who gave birth to a child for her master became free after his death.

Slaves in the Ottoman Empire helped run the household, served as guards in mausoleums, madrassas and mosques, and as eunuchs who guarded the harem and their master. Most female slaves became concubines and maids. In the army and agriculture slaves were used much less.

Baghdad, which flourished during the Abbasid era, fell into complete decline after the invasion of Timur's army. The rich Mesopotamia was also deserted, first turning into a sparsely populated region of Safavid Iran, and in the middle of the 18th century. became a distant part of the Ottoman Empire.

Türkiye has gradually strengthened political influence over the territories of Iraq and in every possible way developed colonial trade.

Arabia, inhabited by Arabs, formally submitted to the authority of the sultans, retained significant independence in internal affairs. In Central Arabia during the 16th–17th centuries. Bedouins, led by sheikhs, were in charge, and in the middle of the 18th century. A Wahhabi emirate was created on its territory, which extended its influence to almost the entire territory of Arabia, including Mecca.

In 1517, having conquered Egypt, the Turks almost did not interfere in the internal affairs of this state. Egypt was governed by a pasha appointed by the sultan, and locally the Mamluk beys still had significant influence. During the crisis period of the 18th century. Egypt moved away from the empire and the Mamluk rulers pursued an independent policy, as a result of which Napoleon easily captured the country. Only pressure from Great Britain forced the ruler of Egypt, Mahummed Ali, to recognize the sovereignty of the Sultan and return to Turkey the territories of Syria, Arabia and Crete captured by the Mamluks.

An important part of the empire was Syria, which submitted to the Sultan almost completely with the exception of the mountainous regions of the country.

Having captured Constantinople in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire established power over European lands for several centuries. The Eastern question has once again appeared on the agenda for Europe. Now it sounded like this: how far can Turkish expansion penetrate and how long can it last?

It was about organizing a new Crusade against the Turks, but the church and the imperial government, weakened by this time, were unable to gather the forces to organize it. Islam was at the stage of its prosperity and had a huge moral superiority in the Muslim world, which, thanks to the cementing property of Islam, strong military organization state and the authority of the power of the sultans allowed the Ottoman Empire to strengthen itself in southeastern Europe.

Over the next 2 centuries, the Turks managed to annex even more vast territories to their possessions, which greatly frightened the Christian world.

Pope Pius II made an attempt to curb the Turks and convert them to Christianity. He composed a message to the Turkish Sultan, in which he invited him to accept Christianity, arguing that baptism would glorify the Ottoman ruler. The Turks did not even bother to send a reply, starting new conquests.

For many years, European powers were forced to reckon with the policies of the Ottoman Empire in territories inhabited by Christians.

The crisis of the empire began from within, along with the accelerated growth of its population in the second half of the 16th century. A large number of landless peasants appeared in the country, and the timars, decreasing in size, brought in income that decreased every year.

Fire broke out in Syria popular riots, and in Anatolia the peasants rebelled against exorbitant taxes.

Researchers believe that the decline of the Ottoman state dates back to the reign of Ahmed I (1603–1617). His successor, Sultan Osman II (1618–1622), was dethroned and executed for the first time in the history of the Ottoman state.

After the defeat Turkish fleet under Lepanto in 1571, the undivided naval dominance of the empire ends. Added to this were failures in battles with the Habsburg army and battles lost to the Persians in Georgia and Azerbaijan.

At the turn of the XVII–XVIII centuries. For the first time in the history of the empire, Türkiye lost several battles in a row. It was no longer possible to hide the noticeable weakening of the state's military power and its political power.

WITH mid-18th century V. The Ottoman Empire had to hand out so-called capitulations for supporting it in military clashes.

Capitulations are special benefits first granted by the Turks to the French for their assistance in the war with the Habsburgs in 1535. In the 18th century. Several European powers, including powerful Austria, achieved similar benefits. From that time on, capitulations began to turn into unequal trade agreements, which provided Europeans with advantages in the Turkish market.

According to the Treaty of Bakhchisarai in 1681, Türkiye was forced to renounce the territory of Ukraine in favor of Russia. In 1696, the army of Peter I recaptured the Azak (Azov) fortress from the Turks, as a result of which the Ottoman Empire lost lands on the coast of the Azov Sea. In 1718, the Ottoman Empire left Western Wallachia and Serbia.

Began at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. the weakening of the empire led to a gradual loss of its former power. In the 18th century Turkey, as a result of battles lost to Austria, Russia and Iran, lost part of Bosnia, the coast of the Azov Sea with the Azov fortress, and Zaporozhye lands. The Ottoman sultans could no longer exert political influence on neighboring Georgia, Moldova, and Wallachia, as had been the case before.

In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaty with Russia was signed, according to which the Turks lost a significant part of the northern and east coast Black Sea. The Crimean Khanate gained independence - for the first time the Ottoman Empire lost Muslim territories.

By the 19th century The territories of Egypt, the Maghreb, Arabia and Iraq came out of the influence of the sultanate. Napoleon dealt a serious blow to the prestige of the empire, making a successful French army Egyptian military expedition. Armed Wahhabis recaptured most of Arabia from the empire, which came under the rule of the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali.

At the beginning of the 19th century. Greece fell away from the Ottoman Sultanate (in 1829), then the French captured Algeria in 1830 and made it their colony. In 1824, there was a conflict between the Turkish Sultan and Mehmed Ali, the Egyptian Pasha, as a result of which Egypt achieved autonomy. Lands and countries fell away from the once great empire with incredible speed.

The decline of military power and the collapse of the land tenure system led to a cultural, economic and political slowdown in the country's development. The European powers did not fail to take advantage of this circumstance, putting on the agenda the question of what to do with a huge power that had lost most of its power and independence.

The Ottoman sultans who ruled throughout the 19th century tried to strengthen the military-agricultural system through a series of reforms. Selim III and Mahmud II made attempts to improve the old Timar system, but realized that this could not return the empire to its former power.

Administrative reforms were aimed mainly at creating a new type of Turkish army, an army that included artillery, a strong navy, guards units, and specialized engineering units. Consultants were brought from Europe to help rebuild the army and minimize old wear in the troops. In 1826, by a special decree of Mahmud, the Janissary corps was disbanded, since the latter rebelled against innovations. Along with the former greatness of the corps, the influential Sufi order, which occupied a reactionary position during this period of history, also lost its power. In addition to fundamental changes in the army, reforms were carried out that changed the system of government and introduced European borrowings into it. The entire period of reforms in the empire was called Tanzimat.

Tanzimat (translated from Arabic as “ordering”) was a series of progressive reforms in the Ottoman Empire from 1839 to 1872. Reforms contributed to development in the state capitalist relations and a complete restructuring of the army.

In 1876, as a result of the reform movement of the “new Ottomans,” the first Turkish Constitution was adopted, although it was suspended by the despotic ruler Abdul Hamid. Reforms of the 19th century turned Turkey from a backward eastern power by that time into a self-sufficient European country with modern system taxation, education and culture. But Türkiye could no longer exist as a powerful empire.

The Russian-Turkish wars and the struggle of numerous enslaved peoples against the Muslim Turks significantly weakened the huge empire and led to the creation of new independent states in Europe.

According to the San Stefano Peace Agreement of 1878, which consolidated the results Russian-Turkish War 1877–1878, the Berlin Congress was held with the participation of representatives of all major European powers, as well as Iran, Romania, Montenegro, and Serbia.

According to this treaty, Transcaucasia went to Russia, Bulgaria was declared an autonomous principality, and in Thrace, Macedonia and Albania the Turkish Sultan had to carry out reforms aimed at improving the situation of the local population.

Montenegro and Serbia gained independence and became kingdoms.

At the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire turned into a country dependent on several Western European states, which dictated their terms of development to it. A movement of Young Turks formed in the country, striving for political freedom of the country and liberation from the despotic power of the sultans. As a result of the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, nicknamed the Bloody for his cruelty, was overthrown, and a constitutional monarchy was established in the country.

In the same year, Bulgaria declared itself a state independent from Turkey, proclaiming the Third Bulgarian Kingdom (Bulgaria was under Turkish rule for almost 500 years).

In 1912–1913 Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro in the united Balkan Union defeated Turkey, which lost all European possessions except Istanbul. New independent kingdom states were created on the territory of the former majestic power.

The last Ottoman Sultan was Mehmed VI Vahideddin (1918–1922). After him, Abdulmecid II ascended the throne, changing the title of Sultan to the title of Caliph. The era of the huge Turkish Muslim power was over.

The Ottoman Empire, which spanned three continents and wielded enormous power over hundreds of nations, left behind a great legacy. On its main territory, Turkey, in 1923, supporters of the revolutionary Kemal (Ataturk) proclaimed Republic of Turkey. The Sultanate and Caliphate were officially liquidated, the regime of capitulations and foreign investment privileges were abolished.

Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), nicknamed Atatürk (literally, “father of the Turks”), was a major Turkish political figure, leader of the national liberation struggle in Turkey at the end of the First World War. After the victory of the revolution in 1923, Kemal became the first president in the history of the state.

On the ruins of the former sultanate, a new state was born, turning from a Muslim country into a secular power. Ankara, the center of the Turkish national liberation movement in 1918–1923, became its capital on October 13, 1923.

Istanbul remains legendary historical city With unique monuments architecture, national treasure countries.

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Having become the ruler of the mountainous region, Osman in 1289 received the title of bey from the Seljuk Sultan. Having come to power, Osman immediately set out to conquer Byzantine lands and made the first Byzantine town of Melangia his residence.

Osman was born in a small mountain town of the Seljuk Sultanate. Osman's father, Ertogrul, received lands adjacent to the Byzantine ones from Sultan Ala ad-Din. The Turkic tribe to which Osman belonged considered the seizure of neighboring territories a sacred matter.

After the escape of the deposed Seljuk Sultan in 1299, Osman created an independent state based on his own beylik. In the first years of the 14th century. the founder of the Ottoman Empire managed to significantly expand the territory of the new state and moved his headquarters to the fortified city of Episehir. Immediately after this, the Ottoman army began to raid Byzantine cities located on the Black Sea coast and the Byzantine regions in the Dardanelles Strait region.

The Ottoman dynasty was continued by Osman's son Orhan, who began his military career with the successful capture of Bursa, a powerful fortress in Asia Minor. Orhan declared the prosperous fortified city the capital of the state and ordered the minting of the first coin of the Ottoman Empire, the silver akçe, to begin. In 1337, the Turks won several brilliant victories and occupied territories up to the Bosphorus, making the conquered Ismit the main shipyard of the state. At the same time, Orhan annexed the neighboring Turkish lands, and by 1354, under his rule were the northwestern part of Asia Minor to the eastern shores of the Dardanelles, part of its European coast, including the city of Galliopolis, and Ankara, recaptured from the Mongols.

Orhan's son Murad I became the third ruler of the Ottoman Empire, adding territories near Ankara to its possessions and setting off on a military campaign to Europe.

Murad was the first sultan of the Ottoman dynasty and a true champion of Islam. The first schools in Turkish history began to be built in the cities of the country.

After the first victories in Europe (the conquest of Thrace and Plovdiv), a stream of Turkic settlers poured onto the European coast.

The sultans sealed their firman decrees with their own imperial monogram - tughra. The complex oriental design included the sultan's name, his father's name, title, motto and the epithet "always victorious".

New conquests

Murad paid great attention to improving and strengthening the army. For the first time in history, a professional army was created. In 1336, the ruler formed a corps of Janissaries, which later turned into the Sultan’s personal guard. In addition to the Janissaries, a mounted army of the Sipahis was created, and as a result of these fundamental changes, the Turkish army became not only numerous, but also unusually disciplined and powerful.

In 1371, on the Maritsa River, the Turks defeated the united army of the southern European states and captured Bulgaria and part of Serbia.

The next brilliant victory was won by the Turks in 1389, when the Janissaries first took up firearms. That year, the historical battle of Kossovo took place, when, having defeated the crusaders, the Ottoman Turks annexed a significant part of the Balkans to their lands.

Murad's son Bayazid continued his father's policies in everything, but unlike him, he was distinguished by cruelty and indulged in debauchery. Bayazid completed the defeat of Serbia and turned it into a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, becoming the absolute master of the Balkans.

For the rapid movements of the army and energetic actions, Sultan Bayazid received the nickname Ilderim (Lightning). During the lightning campaign in 1389–1390. he subjugated Anatolia, after which the Turks captured almost the entire territory of Asia Minor.

Bayazid had to fight simultaneously on two fronts - with the Byzantines and the crusaders. On September 25, 1396, the Turkish army defeated a huge army of crusaders, taking all Bulgarian lands into submission. According to contemporaries, more than 100,000 people fought on the side of the Turks. Many noble European crusaders were captured and later ransomed for huge sums of money. Caravans of pack animals with gifts from Emperor Charles VI of France reached the capital of the Ottoman Sultan: gold and silver coins, silk fabrics, carpets from Arras with paintings from the life of Alexander the Great woven on them, hunting falcons from Norway and much more. True, Bayazid did not make further trips to Europe, distracted by the eastern danger from the Mongols.

After the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 1400, the Turks had to fight Timur's Tatar army. On July 25, 1402, one of the greatest battles of the Middle Ages took place, during which the army of the Turks (about 150,000 people) and the army of the Tatars (about 200,000 people) met near Ankara. Timur's army, in addition to well-trained warriors, was armed with more than 30 war elephants - quite a powerful weapon during the offensive. The Janissaries, showing extraordinary courage and strength, were nevertheless defeated, and Bayazid was captured. Timur's army plundered the entire Ottoman Empire, exterminated or captured thousands of people, and burned the most beautiful cities and towns.

Muhammad I ruled the empire from 1413 to 1421. Throughout his reign, Muhammad was on good terms with Byzantium, turning his main attention to the situation in Asia Minor and making the first trip to Venice in the history of the Turks, which ended in failure.

Murad II, the son of Muhammad I, ascended the throne in 1421. He was a fair and energetic ruler who devoted much time to the development of the arts and urban planning. Murad, coping with internal strife, made a successful campaign, capturing the Byzantine city of Thessalonica. The battles of the Turks against the Serbian, Hungarian and Albanian armies were no less successful. In 1448, after Murad's victory over the united army of the crusaders, the fate of all the peoples of the Balkans was sealed - Turkish rule hung over them for several centuries.

Before the start of the historical battle in 1448 between the united European army and the Turks, a letter with a truce agreement was carried through the ranks of the Ottoman army on the tip of a spear, which was violated once again. Thus, the Ottomans showed that they were not interested in peace treaties - only battles and only an offensive.

From 1444 to 1446, the empire was ruled by the Turkish Sultan Muhammad II, son of Murad II.

The reign of this sultan for 30 years turned the power into a world empire. Having started his reign with the already traditional execution of relatives who potentially claimed the throne, the ambitious young man showed his strength. Muhammad, nicknamed the Conqueror, became a tough and even cruel ruler, but at the same time had an excellent education and spoke four languages. The Sultan invited scientists and poets from Greece and Italy to his court, and allocated a lot of funds for the construction of new buildings and the development of art. The Sultan set his main task to the conquest of Constantinople, and at the same time treated its implementation very carefully. Opposite the Byzantine capital, in March 1452, the Rumelihisar fortress was founded, in which the latest cannons were installed and a strong garrison was stationed.

As a result, Constantinople found itself cut off from the Black Sea region, with which it was connected by trade. In the spring of 1453, a huge Turkish land army and a powerful fleet approached the Byzantine capital. The first assault on the city was unsuccessful, but the Sultan ordered not to retreat and organize preparations for a new assault. After dragging some of the ships into the bay of Constantinople along a specially constructed deck over iron barrier chains, the city found itself surrounded by Turkish troops. Battles raged daily, but the Greek defenders of the city showed examples of courage and perseverance.

The siege was not a strong point for the Ottoman army, and the Turks won only due to the careful encirclement of the city, a numerical superiority of forces by approximately 3.5 times and due to the presence of siege weapons, cannons and a powerful mortar with cannonballs weighing 30 kg. Before the main assault on Constantinople, Muhammad invited the residents to surrender, promising to spare them, but they, to his great amazement, refused.

The general assault was launched on May 29, 1453, and selected Janissaries, supported by artillery, burst into the gates of Constantinople. For 3 days the Turks plundered the city and killed Christians, and the Church of Hagia Sophia was subsequently turned into a mosque. Türkiye became a real world power, proclaiming the ancient city as its capital.

In subsequent years, Muhammad made conquered Serbia his province, conquered Moldova, Bosnia, and a little later Albania and captured all of Greece. At the same time, the Turkish Sultan conquered vast territories in Asia Minor and became the ruler of the entire Asia Minor Peninsula. But he did not stop there either: in 1475 the Turks captured many Crimean cities and the city of Tana at the mouth of the Don on the Sea of ​​Azov. The Crimean Khan officially recognized the power of the Ottoman Empire. Following this, the territories of Safavid Iran were conquered, and in 1516 Syria, Egypt and the Hijaz with Medina and Mecca came under the rule of the Sultan.

At the beginning of the 16th century. The empire's conquests were directed to the east, south and west. In the east, Selim I the Terrible defeated the Safavids and annexed the eastern part of Anatolia and Azerbaijan to his state. In the south, the Ottomans suppressed the warlike Mamluks and took control of trade routes along the Red Sea coast to the Indian Ocean, and in North Africa they reached Morocco. In the west, Suleiman the Magnificent in the 1520s. captured Belgrade, Rhodes, and Hungarian lands.

At the peak of power

The Ottoman Empire entered the stage of its greatest prosperity at the very end of the 15th century. under Sultan Selim I and his successor Suleiman the Magnificent, who achieved a significant expansion of territories and established reliable centralized governance of the country. The reign of Suleiman went down in history as the “golden age” of the Ottoman Empire.

Starting from the first years of the 16th century, the Turkish Empire became the most powerful power in the Old World. Contemporaries who visited the lands of the empire enthusiastically described the wealth and luxury of this country in their notes and memoirs.

Suleiman the Magnificent
Sultan Suleiman is the legendary ruler of the Ottoman Empire. During his reign (1520–1566), the huge power became even larger, the cities more beautiful, the palaces more luxurious. Suleiman (Fig. 9) also went down in history under the nickname Lawgiver.

Having become a sultan at the age of 25, Suleiman significantly expanded the borders of the state, capturing Rhodes in 1522, Mesopotamia in 1534, and Hungary in 1541.

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire was traditionally called Sultan, a title of Arabic origin. It is considered correct to use such terms as “shah”, “padishah”, “khan”, “Caesar”, which came from different peoples who were under the rule of the Turks.

Suleiman contributed to the cultural prosperity of the country; under him, beautiful mosques and luxurious palaces were built in many cities of the empire. The famous emperor was a good poet, leaving his works under the pseudonym Muhibbi (In Love with God). During the reign of Suleiman, the wonderful Turkish poet Fuzuli lived and worked in Baghdad, who wrote the poem “Leila and Mejun”. The nickname Sultan Among Poets was given to Mahmud Abd al-Baki, who served at the court of Suleiman, who reflected in his poems the life of the high society of the state.

The Sultan entered into a legal marriage with the legendary Roksolana, nicknamed the Laughing One, one of the slaves of Slavic origin in the harem. Such an act was, at that time and according to Sharia, an exceptional phenomenon. Roksolana gave birth to an heir to the Sultan, the future Emperor Suleiman II, and devoted a lot of time to philanthropy. The Sultan's wife also had great influence over him in diplomatic affairs, especially in relations with Western countries.

In order to leave his memory in stone, Suleiman invited the famous architect Sinan to create mosques in Istanbul. Those close to the emperor also erected large religious buildings with the help of the famous architect, as a result of which the capital was noticeably transformed.

Harems
Harems with several wives and concubines, permitted by Islam, could only be afforded by wealthy people. The Sultan's harems became an integral part of the empire, its calling card.

In addition to sultans, viziers, beys, and emirs had harems. The vast majority of the empire's population had one wife, as was customary throughout the Christian world. Islam officially allowed a Muslim to have four wives and several slaves.

The Sultan's harem, which gave rise to many legends and traditions, was in fact a complex organization with strict internal orders. This system was controlled by the Sultan’s mother, “Valide Sultan”. Her main assistants were eunuchs and slaves. It is clear that the life and power of the Sultan’s ruler directly depended on the fate of her high-ranking son.

The harem housed girls captured during wars or purchased at slave markets. Regardless of their nationality and religion, before entering the harem, all girls became Muslims and studied traditional Islamic arts - embroidery, singing, conversation skills, music, dancing, and literature.

While in the harem for a long time, its inhabitants passed through several levels and ranks. At first they were called jariye (newcomers), then quite soon they were renamed shagirt (students), over time they became gedikli (companions) and usta (masters).

There have been isolated cases in history when the Sultan recognized a concubine as his legal wife. This happened more often when the concubine gave birth to the ruler’s long-awaited son-heir. A striking example is Suleiman the Magnificent, who married Roksolana.

Only girls who had reached the level of craftswomen could gain the attention of the Sultan. From among them, the ruler chose his permanent mistresses, favorites and concubines. Many representatives of the harem, who became the Sultan's mistresses, were awarded their own housing, jewelry and even slaves.

Legal marriage was not provided for by Sharia, but the Sultan chose four wives who were in a privileged position from all the inhabitants of the harem. Of these, the main one became the one who gave birth to the Sultan’s son.

After the death of the Sultan, all his wives and concubines were sent to the Old Palace, which was located outside the city. The new ruler of the state could allow retired beauties to marry or join him in his harem.