Development of the culture of the peoples of Russia in the 15th–17th centuries. Strengthening secular elements in Russian culture in the 17th century

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Russian culture XV - XVII centuries.

Slavophile culture capitalism Marxism

At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, Russian culture sums up the results of the outgoing Middle Ages, traditionally looks back at the past century, forms the basis for such innovations that will transform Russian culture in the 17th century and radically change it at the end of the 17th-18th centuries.

The roots of many changes in culture by the 15th-16th centuries should be sought in the decrees of the Stoglavy Council, convened at the beginning of 1551. The volume of his decisions contains 100 chapters. Hence the name of the cathedral, as well as the book itself, “Stoglav”. The cathedral legitimized many innovations that had appeared by that time in medieval traditional Russian culture and announced a tendency towards the unification of culture. The council discussed issues of monastic land ownership, disorder in worship, violation of ethical behavior by clergy and monks in monasteries. The Council raised the problem that “scribes write divine books from incorrect translations,” i.e. imperfections of the handwritten method of reproducing books, which led to distortions of the canonical text. There was a special chapter in it “On book schools in all cities.” By the decision of the council, “Orthodox peasants” were to send “their children to learn to read and write and to learn book writing,” and to “start a school” in the homes of “good priests and clerks.” School education had to take on a broader character. In the chapter “On Divine Books,” the Hundred Head Council emphasized two issues: the malfunction of existing books and the need to revise their content. He examined the cathedral and issues of icon painting, features of church decoration (“On icon painters and honest icons”). The resolutions of the cathedral paid much attention to the unification of church rituals; they resolutely advocated the eradication of pagan “demonic” and “Hellenic” customs: mermaids, caroling, buffoon fun and the humming of the “guselniks”, which in those days accompanied Christian holidays with their music.

The cathedral legitimized all the innovations of artistic culture, and on the other hand, it declared the obligatory adherence of artists and architects to the canons of the previous era: “the icon painters should paint icons from ancient translations... and do nothing from their own plans.”

On the crest of new requirements for liturgical books, the need to “learn to read and write,” the need arises for special printing of books.

In the 50s of the 16th century, the first Russian printing house appeared in Moscow, founded in the house of priest Sylvester, minister of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin and one of the leaders of the “Chosen Rada” - the council under the then young 20-year-old Ivan IV the Terrible. In 1560 - 1561 the question of organizing a state printing house was raised.

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Rus' increased rapidly. Statistics of counting inscriptions on documents of the early 16th century determine the number of literate nobles and boyars - above 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. Priests held primacy; clerks were all literate. There is an interest in foreign languages. In ancient Russian schools of the late 15th - 16th centuries, only primary education was provided: they taught reading, writing, and read the Psalter “and other divine books.” Great importance was attached to singing, which is mentioned along with reading and writing. Mathematical knowledge deepened. The creation of the first arithmetic and manuals on geometry dates back to the second half of the 16th century.

The literature of the late 15th - 16th centuries has a pronounced journalistic character. This is a time of thought, reflection and debate about the future of the country. Tsar Ivan the Terrible himself manifests himself as a passionate publicist. He reveals different sides of literary talent - sarcasm in letters to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and to Vasily Gryazny, who was languishing in captivity, eloquence and intemperance - in letters to Kurbsky and Ostrozhsky.

The narrative nature of literature, interest in factuality, rhetoric, and etiquette of official pomp are increasing. In the general artistic process, centripetal forces begin to dominate the gradual formation of a single literary space. State “discipline” and unification of the “book business” enhance the identification and emergence of national traits Russian literature.

The growth of national self-awareness aroused increased interest in the historical past, as well as the desire to understand the history of the Russian state within the framework of world history. Since the end of the 15th century, a number of new chronicles have appeared in Moscow, socially Russian in nature, the compilers of which sought to historically prove the continuity of power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Kievan Rus. A new rise in Russian chronicle writing began in the 30s of the 16th century, when grandiose multi-volume collections were gradually created one after another. The chronicle is becoming more and more a literary work, losing the meaning of a historical document. She comprehends the events of Russian and world history, gives edifying patriotic reading, educating citizens in the appropriate spirit.

Social movement Russia XIX V.

The tension and severity of ideological quests especially intensified in the 40s. This was an objective reflection of the ever-deepening crisis of the feudal system. The new revolutionary theory, which expressed the interests of the peasantry, contained qualitatively new elements compared to the Decembrist ideology: recognition of the decisive role of the people in historical development, materialism and utopian socialism. Revolutionary thought was formed and strengthened in the struggle against reactionary philosophical systems, in sharp battles with all types of ideological justification of the existing socio-political system. The revolutionary direction also determined the development of philosophical, political, literary and aesthetic thought.

It was led by Belinsky and Herzen, the ideological leaders of this “amazing time of external slavery and internal liberation.”

In the 30-40s of the XIX century. In the circles of the Russian liberal nobility, an ideological movement arose that received the name Slavophilism. The largest representatives of Slavophilism, who developed their views in philosophical, historical and literary critical works, and in journalistic articles, were A.S. Khomyakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, Yu.F. Samarin, A.I. Koshelev and a number of others. In its social essence, it was the ideology of landowners who sought to find a way out of the growing crisis of serfdom by combining the unshakable landowner's right to land with some elements of bourgeois development.

The ideology of the Slavophiles most consistently expressed the timidity of nascent Russian liberalism before the revolutionary path of development of the West. From the position of a bourgeois landowner, the Slavophiles sought to find a solution to the social problems facing Russia in the historically developed specific conditions of Russian life. It was a kind of conservative liberalism, directed towards an idealized past.

Slavophiles believed that the foundations of the Christian religion were preserved in their true form only by the Orthodox Church. The combination of true Christianity, which, in their opinion, had deeply entered the consciousness of the Russian people with the “natural development of national life,” determined the originality of Russian life, the nature of its historical development, directly opposite to the West. The Slavophiles saw the fundamental principles of Russian folk life in communal land use and self-government. Denying the class antagonism between the interests of peasants and landowners, they defended the idea of the patriarchal nature of landowner power over the peasants. The entire concept of Slavophilism was subordinated to the denial of the general historical pattern and the affirmation of the originality of the Russian historical process, in which “the law of revolutions, instead of being a condition for improvements in life, is a condition of decay and death...”. The development of Russia has been and should be carried out “harmoniously and inconspicuously,” i.e. through gradual transformations carried out from above. The Slavophiles recognized the need to abolish serfdom, but wanted to preserve the landowner's right to land, the feudal duties of the peasants and the supreme power of the landowner over the community.

Slavophiles advocated the expansion of principles local government, convocation Zemsky Sobor with the preservation of the supreme power of the tsar, the introduction of publicity, open proceedings, the abolition corporal punishment. Both social and political program Slavophiles bore the mark of a contradictory tendency to combine the ideology of a conservative landowner with the imperative demands of the time. The extensive and fruitful work begun by the Slavophiles on the study of Russian national culture, folk life and creativity objectively contributed to the deepening of the democratic tendency in the development of cultural life.

There was a dispute between Slavophiles and Westerners about the solution to the same cardinal issue Russian life - the issue of serfdom, which only due to the impossibility of its open formulation was debated in the plane of the “originality” of the Russian historical process or the recognition of its commonality with the Western one with all the conclusions that follow from this. Westernism, an essentially anti-serfdom ideological trend, united wide circles of the advanced intelligentsia at the first stage in the common struggle against the Slavophiles. Belinsky and Herzen, who led the fight against the Slavophiles, were joined in the first half of the 40s by the outstanding educational historian T.N. Granovsky, art critic and publicist V.P. Botkin, young legal scholar K.D. Kavelin, journalist E.F. Korsh, famous actor M.S. Shchepkin, Granovsky’s colleagues at Moscow University D.L. Kryukov, P.G. Radiy, P.N. Kudryavtsev and a number of other prominent figures. Fierce verbal tournaments between Westerners and Slavophiles, according to the memoirs of contemporaries, were one of the most characteristic and striking phenomena of the literary and social life of Moscow in the 40s. In the salon of A.P. Elagina (Kireevsky’s mother), at Chaadaev’s, in the house of the writer N.F. Pavlov, literary and scientific society. These conversations attracted numerous listeners as fashionable and original entertainment. Speeches were prepared in advance, specially prepared articles, abstracts, and reports were read out. Herzen's polemical talent unfolded with particular force and brilliance in these debates.

The political face of the Slavophile party was clear to Herzen. In a diary entry dated November 6, 1842, he records the idea of a direct connection between the Slavophiles’ hatred of the West with their hatred “for the entire process of development of the human race,” “for freedom of thought, for law, for all guarantees, for all civilization.” Considering the Slavophile party “retrograde, inhumane, narrow,” Herzen recognized for its individual representatives nobility of motives. But the “wild intolerance of the Slavophiles,” their methods of literary struggle, sometimes in the form of direct denunciations, such as Yazykov’s poetic messages “To Not Ours” (1844), convinced Herzen that Belinsky was right, who rebelled against any compromises with the Slavophiles. On the pages of “Domestic Notes,” Belinsky fought a battle with the party of “mystics, hypocrites, hypocrites, obscurantists...”, unleashing the full force of his merciless sarcasm on “Moskvityanin” (in which the Slavophiles spoke together on many issues with Shevyrev and Pogodin). Belinsky debunked the Slavophiles for their “mystical premonitions of the victory of the East over the West,” for conservative socio-historical ideas, for searching for an ideal not in the future, but in the past of Russia.

Against historical concept Slavophiles was sharpened and the activities of the outstanding Russian scientist and educator T.N. Granovsky. Having started giving lectures on the history of the Middle Ages at Moscow University in the fall of 1839, he immediately encountered the influence of Slavophile ideas on student youth. In a letter to N. Stankevich on November 27, 1839, he wrote with indignation about the Slavophiles, who saw in the reforms of Peter I the source of all the evils of Russia. Being a convinced Westerner, Granovsky rebelled from the university department against the Slavophil falsification of the history of Europe and Russia.

Culture of Russia 18th - early 19th centuries

The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were designed to bridge the gap in the level of development of Russia and Europe. The reforms affected almost all spheres of society. Their content was a decisive shift from the Middle Ages to modern times and the Europeanization of all areas of life. The old ones were being broken down government agencies, replacing them with new ones, a modern administrative and bureaucratic apparatus was taking shape. An important place in the transformations of Peter I was occupied by church reform, as a result of which the previously relatively independent church came under the power of the state. As a result of all the transformations in the political system of the Russian state, the formalization of absolute monarchy. The absolutist state needed secular culture. An important feature of the culture of modern times has been its openness and ability to contact the cultures of other peoples, which was the result of a policy aimed at undermining national and religious isolation. Relations with Western countries are expanding. Contacts with Europe contributed to the penetration of humanistic and rationalistic teachings into Russia. The process of differentiation begins, the emergence of new branches of culture: science, theater, portraiture, poetry, journalism.

The most decisive turn towards the Europeanization of Russian culture occurred during the reign of Catherine II. Her reign marked the beginning of the era of enlightened absolutism, which lasted until 1815. The era was characterized by an attempt to carry out liberal reforms while maintaining unlimited autocracy. Catherine decided to pay special attention to the education of “new people”, morally perfect, who would raise their children in the same spirit, which would lead to changes in society. It was assumed that new person will be brought up in an exclusively Western spirit. Much attention was paid to humanitarian education and cultural transformations.

Literature. In the 18th century, the prerequisites for the formation of the Russian national language were created, a rapprochement took place literary language with colloquial, the process of formation of new dialects stops. The Russian colloquial language is being formed. The Moscow dialect serves as a model. In the 90s, N. Karamzin carried out a reform of the literary language. This made it possible to attract a wide range of people to reading.

In the middle of the 18th century, classicism became the dominant trend in all artistic culture. It arose under the influence of Western European, earlier in time, but acquired its own characteristic features- the pathos of national statehood, absolute monarchy. The founder of classicism in Russia is A.D. Cantemir, the son of the Moldavian ruler, who went into the service of Peter the Great. This trend reached its pinnacle in the solemn, philosophical odes of Lomonosov with their ideas of a wise monarch and national cultural progress. Russian classicism is represented by the names of A.P. Sumarokova, M.M. Kheraskova, V.I. Maykova, Ya.B. Knyazhnina and others. Preaching high civic feelings and noble deeds, they proceeded from the idea of the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and autocratic statehood. The first ones appear national tragedies and comedy (A. Sumarokov, D. Fonvizin). The most striking poetic works were created by G. Derzhavin.

Spread of Marxism in Russia

The period of establishment of capitalism, which Soviet historians date back to approximately 1861-1882, was ending: as a result of the industrial revolution, capitalism strengthened in the city and, destroying the community, penetrated into the countryside. Together with him, the proletariat grew, mainly at the expense of the peasantry, which was increasingly “de-peasantized.” It was by the beginning of the 80s. The industrial proletariat basically emerged as a class. The labor movement acquired scope and organization sufficient to stand out from the general democratic stream as an independent proletarian stream: the first political organizations of the proletariat had already emerged: the “South Russian Union of Workers” in 1875 and the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” in 1878-1880. Relatively massive strikes began (for example, in St. Petersburg at the New Paper Spinning Mill in 1878 and 1879 with the participation of thousands of workers), which can be considered the harbingers of the Morozov strike of 1885.

The emergence of Russian Social Democracy was greatly facilitated by the victory of Marxism in the Western European labor movement and the opportunity to use the fruits of this victory, especially since Marxism had long been penetrating Russia, although at first it was not grafted onto Russian soil as a worldview system. Advanced Russian people back in the 40s. met with early works K. Marx and F. Engels (V. G. Belinsky and, possibly, A. I. Herzen). In post-reform Russia, especially from the late 60s, interest in Marxism began to grow rapidly. The populists no longer just became acquainted with the works of Marx and Engels, but also translated them.

The first translation of the classics of Marxism into Russian was carried out by P. N. Tkachev. In 1868, he translated and managed to publish in St. Petersburg the “Charter of the International Workers' Association” written by Marx. It was followed by the Geneva 1869 edition of the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” translated by M. A. Bakunin. Two years later, an active participant in the Great Propaganda Society, S. L. Klyachko, translated “The Civil War in France” by K. Marx (Zurich, 1871), and in 1872, in St. Petersburg, a “wonderful”, in Marx’s own assessment, Russian translation was published 1st volume of “Capital” (translators - G. A. Lopatin and N. F. Danielson).

All these translations (especially “Capital”) were used by the populists in the 70s as a weapon of revolutionary propaganda. By the beginning of the new decade, K. Marx had already stated: “In Russia, Capital is read and appreciated more than anywhere else.”

True, the populists of the 70s. They perceived only the economic side of Marxism, its interpretation of the conflict between labor and capital, Marx’s striking criticism of capitalism, but they considered Marx’s general idea that it is capitalism that creates the material prerequisites for the socialist revolution and itself generates its own gravedigger in the person of the proletariat not applicable to Russia. The very interest of the populists in “Capital” (and in Marxism in general) was explained by their need to understand as thoroughly as possible the genesis, essence and mechanism of capitalist production, in order to no less thoroughly contrast it with the Russian “special way of life”

On September 25, 1883, in a modest cafe on the banks of the Rhone in Geneva, five Russian emigrant revolutionaries, members of the populist society “Black Redistribution” adopted a statement that they were breaking with populism and forming new organization- the “Emancipation of Labor” group with the goal of ideologically rearming the Russian revolutionary movement, turning it away from the populist path, utopian socialism on the path of scientific socialism, under the banner of K. Marx and F. Engels. This is how the first organization of Russian Marxists arose, which marked the beginning of the spread of Marxism in Russia, the beginning of Russian Social Democracy. Having been born in the year of Marx’s death, she thereby seemed to testify to the immortality of Marxism.

The founders of the “Emancipation of Labor” group were G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, P. B. Akselrod, L. G. Deich, V. N. Ignatov. Each of them went a long and difficult path from populism to Marxism and along this path showed outstanding qualities, especially their generally recognized leader Georgy Valentinovich Plekhanov (1856-1918).

G. V. Plekhanov was the eighth child of fourteen children (from two wives) of the hussar headquarters captain Valentin Petrovich Plekhanov and a student of the Institute of Noble Maidens Maria Fedorovna Belinskaya (niece of V. G. Belinsky). He inherited from his hot-tempered, tough-tempered, but hardworking father directness, courage and the life rule “You must always work. If we die, we will rest,” and from a kind, gentle, caring mother - spiritual sensitivity, rejection of evil, compassion for the common people. Forced to emigrate at the beginning of 1880, Plekhanov temporarily withdrew from practical affairs, concentrating on theory.

Plekhanov's closest ally and most devoted friend was Vera Ivanovna Zasulich (1849 - 1919). This “heroic citizen,” as F. Engels called her, was the first Russian female terrorist, whose shot at the powerful tsarist satrap F. F. Trepov on January 24, 1878 caused not only an all-Russian, but also an international resonance, which, by the will of history, became the first Russian Marxist woman, went through all stages of the populist movement from the late 60s to the early 80s, experienced prison and exile, the dock and emigration. At the same time, she managed to stand out for her rare learning, master several foreign languages and become perhaps the most knowledgeable of Russian women in the field of the history of the world revolutionary process. Even her enemies recognized her personal charm. “I don’t really remember any shortcomings in her,” recalled L. A. Tikhomirov. - She was very smart, well read, her opinions were thought out and well defended. But she was in highest degree modest, even as if she didn’t notice her intelligence and didn’t have a single spark of conceit.”

Soft, delicate, Zasulich knew how to smooth out Plekhanov’s polemical harshness, but when she failed, she meekly, “with the heroism of a slave,” bore, in the words of V.I. Lenin, “the yoke of Plekhanovism.”

Pavel Borisovich Axelrod (1850-1928) was also a prominent figure in revolutionary populism. Already in 1873-1874. He carried out propaganda among the workers, but mainly emerged as a publicist: he collaborated in the newspaper “Rabotnik”, edited the magazine “Community”, and was Plekhanov’s right hand in the “Black Redistribution”. A widely educated writer, propagandist and popularizer, he, thanks to his natural intelligence and versatile knowledge, could have become an original thinker, but for decades he was accustomed to predominantly echoing Plekhanov, because, according to the observation of A.V. Lunacharsky, “he was filled with awe and amazement before Plekhanov.” .

The fourth member of the “Emancipation of Labor” group, Lev Grigorievich Deitch (1855-1941), had no less revolutionary-populist experience. All of Russia knew about his participation in the famous Chigirin conspiracy of 1877 and about his two escapes - from a Kyiv prison and Siberian exile, through Japan and America to Europe. But, unlike other members of the group, Deutsch gravitated not so much to theory as to the practice of revolutionary affairs: he was enterprising, inventive, energetic in everyday life, and thus very usefully complemented his less practical comrades.

Finally, Vasily Nikolaevich Ignatov (1854-1885), although he did not have such a loud revolutionary name as his four comrades, also established himself as an experienced and persistent fighter: he participated in the Kazan demonstration of 1876, was arrested three times and exiled twice before emigrated from Russia. Wealthier than all the other members of the group combined, he provided the material side of their activities.

The “Emancipation of Labor” group set itself two main tasks: 1) translation into Russian of the works of K. Marx and F. Engels to disseminate the ideas of scientific socialism in Russia; 2) criticism of populism and development of problems of Russian social life from the point of view of Marxism. Plekhanov himself began to solve the first problem even before the group arose: in 1882 he translated the “Manifesto of the Communist Party.” Other members of the Liberation of Labor group helped him in solving this problem.

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I.Org moment.(slides 1,2)

II. Preparation for the main stage of mastering educational material.

State the topic and purpose of the lesson.

III. Learning new knowledge.

Teacher: (slide 3) The historical monuments are silent. For centuries they have kept their secrets from those who do not know how to listen and peer into the past. But they will tell a lot to the curious and thoughtful. Today's lesson we will conduct in a virtual cultural museum. Welcome to the first room called “Architecture”.

Speech by the first group of student guides “Architecture”

Tour guide 1. (slide 4) Architecture in Rus' was temple, serf and civil. History has preserved to this day some religious monuments of the late XV-XVII centuries. One of the outstanding monuments serf architecture (slide 5) This period was built by the Kremlin, which turned the city into an impregnable fortress. By the 17th century, there were already hundreds of buildings in the Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin was turning into a world-famous, unique architectural ensemble, a symbol of strength and unity of the Russian land. So let's take a look there!

Tour guide 2. The main square of the Kremlin is Sobornaya. (slide 6) Its ideological and architectural center was Uspensky The cathedral, built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti, “is remarkable for its majesty and height and lordship. And ringing. And space,” the chronicler tells us. The cathedral became the center of Russian statehood and church life, here Russian tsars and emperors were crowned kings, the most important state acts were proclaimed, and metropolitans and patriarchs were ordained.

Annunciation Cathedral At first they crowned 3 domes, then single-domed chapels were added at the corners of the cathedral. The pointed 9 chapters were richly gilded. Why was the cathedral nicknamed “Golden-Domed”. Church Robes of position, which became the home church of the Metropolitan, and then the Patriarch of All Rus'.

Built by Italian Aleviz Fryazin Arkhangelsk the cathedral, which became the family tomb of the family of great princes. In the 17th century, the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles was built.

And between the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals, Bon Fryazin created a new bell tower. Clearly visible from all over the city and famous for its ringing, the Ivanovo Bell Tower received the name Ivan the Great. Architects Petrok Maly Bazhen Ogurtsov added a belfry to the bell tower. All three belfries formed an unusually expressive architectural complex and gave Cathedral Square a special solemnity.

Tour guide 3. (slide 7) The French composer Hector Berlioz, who visited Kolomenskoye in the middle of the 19th century, wrote: “I saw a lot, admired a lot, a lot amazed me, but time, ancient times in Russia, which left its mark in this village, was for me a miracle of miracles... I saw some new type of architecture. I saw a striving upward, and I stood stunned for a long time.” So he spoke about the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye in honor of the birth of Ivan IV. And the new type of architecture that he admires tent The multifaceted pointed base of the temple ends with triple pointed kokoshniks. And above them rises a stone tent, crowning the entire building. The edges of the tent are intertwined with narrow stone garlands, similar to strings of precious pearls. And its top is covered with a small neat cupola with a gilded cross.

And the oldest surviving tent-roofed temple of wooden architecture is St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavlya, Arkhangelskaya areas. The tent style was recognized by Russian architects. The architects achieved extraordinary diversity, and not a single tented temple was the same as another.

Tour guide 4. (slide 8) The central temple of the Intercession Cathedral - the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on Red Square in memory of the capture of Kazan - is completed with a tent with a small dome. Consists of 8 asymmetrical pillar-shaped temples of different sizes. Each is dedicated to eight days in which the most important events of the campaign against Kazan took place.

Four decorative tents were used in the decoration of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki. By the way, this church became the last monument of hipped-roof architecture in Moscow, because in 1652, Patriarch Nikon “tent churches should not be built at all.”

Guide 1. 17th century brought with him new artistic trends. The architecture became more and more elegant, churches sometimes resembled fairy-tale towers. (slide 9) Appeared tiered, boxy And multi-headed temples. This is how the decorative, picturesque style came into architecture. The shapes of the buildings became more complex, their walls were covered with multi-colored ornaments and white stone carvings.

Tour guide 2. By the end of the century, the style of the Moscow, or Naryshkin, baroque, lush and majestic, ceremonial and exceptionally elegant. (slide 10) The most famous building of the late 17th century is the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary in Fili - the estate church of L.K. Naryshkin.

Tour guide 3. There is a rise civil architecture. (slide 11) A true masterpiece of Russian architecture - Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin. The architects used tiered-step alternation of volumes, picturesque asymmetry of extensions, and pointed roofs. The façades were given splendor and elegance by window frames decorated with floral patterns, as well as relief blades and cornices with tiles.

A unique creation of Russian architecture of the 17th century. was woodenpalace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. Seven mansions on two or three floors. They were crowned with roofs of different shapes. The palace had 3 thousand windows, decorated with different frames. A projecting carved porch led to each entrance.

Tour guide 4. (slide 12) Palaces, administrative buildings, towers, residential buildings, and guest courtyards were erected. The picturesque composition of the log houses with numerous protruding porches and bright tint produced a festive impression.

So, (slide 13) At the end of the 15th-17th centuries, the following directions began to develop: temple, serf, and civil. Features of the development of architecture: architectural styles - tented, baroque.

Teacher: (slide 3) The talents of Russian people extend not only to wooden or white stone architecture. Painting was no exception. The exhibition presents to your attention a collection of paintings from the 15th-17th centuries.

Presentation by the second group of student guides

Tour guide 1. (slide 14) The main idea of art was service to the Lord. The leading direction in painting, of course, church. The heyday of icon painting was the 15th century, the peaks of its creation are associated with the names of Andrei Rublev and Dainil Cherny. Russian painting of the mid-15th century ceased to be the specialty of monks alone, and the artist-monk was replaced by the artist-layman. The most outstanding representative of the Rublev movement in the art of the second half of the 15th – early 16th centuries was Dionysius. The peculiarity of his style is the painting of hagiographic icons, consisting of a centerpiece with a figure and a number of marks, which tell about their lives. Dionysius’s icons are light and spacious, he decorated them with architectural and landscape sketches

Tour guide 2. (slide 15) The pinnacle of Dionysius's creativity is frescoes in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery. They have their own uniqueness: they depicted martyrs, angels, Christ, evangelists, and the “Last Judgment.” Dionysius creates a painting glorifying the Mother of God. Mary is glorified as the intercessor of the human race. The entire painting is permeated by a mood of festivity, elegance, and bright joy. The works are distinguished by their sophisticated designs, refined and delicate colors.

Tour guide 3. (slide 16) In the 16th century The subject matter of painting began to expand. Artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the legendary-historical genre. The government of Ivan the Terrible gave great importance exaltation in art of their political ideas. This is evidenced by the icon - a 4-meter painting “Blessed is the army of the heavenly king,” dedicated to the capture of Kazan. It depicts the solemn procession of the victorious Russian army led by Ivan the Terrible from the city engulfed in flames.

Tour guide 4. 17th century... Painting loses its integrity. Artists show interest in the real, earthly world. The paintings of that time resemble elegant carpets. They have a lot real characters and household details. Unlike ancient icons, they do not contain the artist’s deep thoughts about good and evil, about the destinies of people and the meaning of life.

Two directions have emerged. (slide 17) Godunovskaya school (icon painters worked on orders from Tsar Boris and his relatives. They were opponents of all innovations and imitated the style of the great Rublev and Dionysius). Second direction - Stroganovskaya school. (according to orders from the Stroganov merchants, lovers of icon miniatures). Artists diligently decorated iconographic images with small decorative details, rich ornamentation, and exquisite calligraphy. One of the most famous masters Procopius Chirinus was of this school. (“Nikita the Warrior”). The Stroganovites had no equal in their ability to convey landscape panoramas that had not previously been seen in Russian icon painting (the icon “John the Baptist in the Desert”).

Tour guide 1. The painter and graphic artist Simon Ushakov also strived for a truthful representation of real things; among Ushakov’s works there are icons of a special kind - political paintings- “Planting the Tree of the Russian State”: the Moscow Kremlin is depicted, with the Assumption Cathedral in the center. Near it, Ivan Kalita is planting a tree. Against the background of the tree’s foliage is an icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, and on the branches are medallions with portraits of Moscow saints and sovereigns. Simon Ushakov is one of the founders of Russian portraiture. In the 17th century they were called parsuns.

Mural painter Guriy Nikitin. He painted the walls of the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl. In the frescoes, minor vital details of the biblical text are emphasized, religious spirituality disappears, giving way to a masterfully written colorful “story”. (harvest scene from the Acts of Elisha). Thus, from the 17th century, Old Russian icon painting ceased to exist as a dominant artistic system.

Tour guide 2. Features of realism are also noticeable in the portrait genre. If parsuns (portraits) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky are made in the usual manner, then the images of the middle and second half XVII V. They talk about the desire for portrait likeness and realistic writing. These are the portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich (S. Loputsky), Fyodor Alekseevich (I. Bogdanov), Patriarch Nikon (I. Deterson and D. Wouters). Realistic landscapes appear on the icons.

Tour guide 3. (slide 18) The art of decorating a book played no less a role and was no less original than icon painting. The main elements of the artistic design of books are miniatures, headpieces and initials. Painters mainly created miniatures related to spiritual and religious themes. Screensaver: in the XV-XVI centuries. screensavers are becoming widespread - book ornament. These are the Balkan and New Byzantine styles, then the Old Printed style. Initials often turned into complex drawings depicting strange animals, birds, monsters, fighting warriors, buffoons.

Tour guide 4. (slide 19) Thus, at the end of the 15th to the 17th century, the main directions in painting were church and book decoration. And also the features of painting. ( slide)

Teacher: (slide 3) The 16th century is the era of the formation of a new state, reforms of local and central control. They demanded more and more literate people. Welcome to the next room.

Tour guide 1. (slide 20) In 1563, Emperor Ivan IV ordered “set up a house from your royal treasury, let’s start building a printing business,” to "henceforth the holy books were set forth righteous". This house, later called the Printing Yard, was founded near the St. Nicholas Monastery. We found our own on the land of Moscow "some cunning masters of printing"- Ivana Fedorov and Pyotr Timofeev Mstislavets. WITH "Acts and Epistles of the Apostles, " published on March 1, 1564, the book publishing activities of the Russian state began. The second book of the Printing House was Hourbook(1565): This is both a prayer book and a book for teaching literacy. The publication format is an eighth of a sheet. The pages are decorated with elegant headpieces. IN 1568 g. The printing house released Psalter. It was prepared by Nikifor Tarasiev and Nevezha Timofeev.

Tour guide 2. In 1649, the first book with illustrations made by intaglio engraving appeared in Moscow. It was "The doctrine and cunning of the military formation of infantry people." It contained 35 engraved tables.

Tour guide 3. The first library appeared in 1679, called the Printing House, to which books and manuscripts were handed over. Standard editions with amendments and notes from reference workers for future editions were also stored there. Gradually, the library grew so large that in 1670 a special position of book guardian was introduced.

(slide 24) So, the genres of secular literature: stories, legends, journalism, travel notes, “Chronograph”. Features: satirical stories and legends, new genres are born - secular story-drama, poems with their everyday, satirical, love motives

Tour guide 1. . (slide 25) The origins of the theater go back to folk art, and above all to rituals. The rituals were a kind of performance game. This playful element was picked up and developed by the first professional artists in Rus' - buffoons . Civil authorities (and especially church authorities) fought against buffoons. By decree of 1648, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich banned the performances of buffoons.

A special form of theater was onnative drama ( dramas “Tsar Maximilian”, “Boat”. "Comedy about a master"). Another form - church theater, performances of which took place on church holidays. (Christmas dramatization “Cave Act”).

Tour guide 2. . Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich became interested in theatrical art.

There is reason to believe that final decision Alexei Mikhailovich created the theater on May 30, 1672, during a feast in honor of the birth of his son Peter. The decree “commit comedy” was dated June 4 of the same year. A person capable of writing a play and staging a performance in Moscow was found in German settlement, where foreigners who worked in Russia lived - Johann Gottfried Gregory, pastor of the local Lutheran church, and a corpse of 60 foreigners. They took the matter seriously: a play was being written and the theater building was being built at the same time.

Tour guide 3. . The first play of the Russian theater was called “Artaxerxes Action”, after the name of the king about whom the biblical legend tells. The premiere was played on October 17, 1672 in the “comedy house” in the village of Preobrazhenskoye in one of the royal summer palaces. The king was very pleased with the “fun” and generously rewarded its author. Theatrical performances became regular at court. A stage was also built in the Kremlin and, in addition to the “Artaxerxes Action,” they performed the plays “Judith,” “Temir-Aksakov Action,” “Malaya Cool (entertainment) Comedy about Joseph”, “Plainful Comedy about Adam and Eve”. Soon Russian people were also sent to study with Gregory.

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, performances in the royal chambers stopped, because the new tsar, Fyodor Alekseevich, did not like this kind of spectacle. But the idea of theater did not die. A long process of development of the Russian scene began.

Teacher: Our Nizhny Novgorod region is rich in cultural monuments of this period. We invite you to the hall “Culture of the Nizhny Novgorod region 15-17 centuries”.

Penetration of ideas and forms of European culture, ideological disputes,

which led to a schism, church art, which lost its craving for depth and comprehension of the essence, are very characteristic of the new century. An uncontrollable desire for descriptiveness and decorativeness appears.

Artistic creativity is turning from a sacred activity into a craft. The connections connecting art with other spheres are weakening

culture, i.e. The unity of the medieval spiritual sphere is lost.

The peak of the crisis of medieval ideology was the reform of the patriarch

Nikon and the emergence of the Old Believers. Church reform came

a departure not only from medieval culture, but also from domestic,

traditional: the country did not abandon its original type of culture,

but more carefully took into account Western trends.

The seventeenth century occupies special place in the history of Russia of the feudal period. The feudal-serf system that dominated for centuries

strengthened even more in the 17th century. Around the 17th century. dates back to the initial stage of the emergence of bourgeois ties in the depths of the feudal-serf system. The development of urban gardens, the progress of the social division of labor, the growth of commodity production and circulation were

conditions and manifestations of the beginning changes in the socio-economic life of Russia. New phenomena in the field of culture have affected

above all cities. Concentration of large masses of the population in large

at that time, cities, the development of trade, communication with other countries

We undermined the age-old isolation and led to broadening people’s horizons.

The active role of man was manifested in trade. The beginning of industrial production, searches for minerals, long hikes

to Siberia and other areas significantly expanded the horizons of Russians

people in the 17th century. Secular elements in the culture of the 17th century become

noticeable, they penetrate both church architecture and painting, and

applied art.

Events of the first decade of the 17th century. led to the devastation of a significant territory of the Russian state and the undermining of its material culture. The hostilities of that time had a heavy impact on

the situation of many cities and villages. The main branch of the national economy

Agriculture remained. The tools of agricultural labor were also

the same - plows, harrows, scythes, sickles, plows.

There have been significant developments in the craft industry. As before, there was domestic industry in the peasantry.

farm, producing canvas, ropes, homespun cloth, shoes,

clothes, dishes, matting, tar and other items. But in cities, especially the largest, the process of mass

transforming crafts into small-scale commodity production. Moreover, in

XVII century The first Russian manufactories arose, which led to a significant enrichment of material culture.

Metal processing has become widespread - in Moscow,

Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya, Tikhvin. Blacksmiths and other craftsmen

iron was produced in mass quantities for axes and door hinges,

horseshoes and sabers, knives and checkers and other products. Complex and ingenious locks were made with great skill. The production of many types of firearms, as well as bladed weapons, was established.

Russian peasant masters summoned from the Ustyug district, Zhdan,

his son Shumilo Zhdanov and Alexey Shulilov in the 20s of the 17th century. done

tower clock for the new Spasskaya Tower of the Kremlin (designed by the Englishman Christopher Galovey). Various influencing agents were increasingly used

mechanisms. In 1615, the first cannon with a screw thread was made.

The processing of precious metals - gold and silver - has reached a high technical level, especially in special workshops - the gold and silver chambers of the Armory Order. In these workshops various royal household items and other precious items were produced.

things - silver ladles, brothers, rings, earrings, crosses and more.

The minting of coins was important.

In the middle of the 17th century. by royal order for one year was

a bell weighing 12,500 pounds was cast. Wonderful bells were cast

at the end of the 17th century. masters Frol Terentyevich and Philip Andreev with

son for the metropolitan court in Rostov.

Wood processing had a centuries-old tradition by the 17th century. Masters in the northern, rich regions achieved especially great skill in this.

forested areas. Wonderful buildings were erected there. Pomeranians

carpenters knew how to build strong and comfortable ships - not only river ones, but

and sea. Reached great development in the 17th century. resin industry, and

also potash production. Mass production centers emerged

products made of flax and hemp, canvas, ropes in Pskov and Novgorod,

Yaroslavl and Rzhev, Vologda and Nizhny Novgorod. Furriers worked in many cities, making various fur items. It also developed

wool processing industry, such as dried wool

shoes, the major center of which was Uglich.

Stone construction has developed significantly more than in previous times. In the 17th century high-quality bricks were produced in Russia, providing greater

strength of lime solutions. Techniques for constructing large structures

reached a high level.

In the 30s of the 17th century, the first glass factory appeared in Russia.

Material culture received great development in the 17th century. Her

The creators and creators were many thousands of folk craftsmen who embodied the creative power of the people in their creations.

During this period, stable groups of highly qualified craftsmen were formed at various enterprises. Although in a number of cases production at these enterprises began with the invitation of foreign

masters, Russian people quickly mastered the necessary skills and

performed complex technical work with great skill.

Briefly on the topic

The political and economic changes that took place in Russia were marked by the flourishing of culture. The main feature of the new culture is a departure from religious canons and an appeal to the values of human existence and the human personality.

In 1533, Russian printing began. Clerk Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets publish the first printed book “Apostle” with imprint.

In 1634, the first printed Russian primer by Vasily Burtsev was published, in 1648, “Grammar” by Meletiy Smotritsky. In 1679, a new printed alphabet appeared.

In 1665, a school was opened at the Zaikonospassky Monastery in Moscow to train clerks for government institutions, and in 1680, a school was opened at the Printing Yard.

In 1687, on the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School (from 1701 - the Academy) was created, which became the first higher educational institution in Russia. The spread of literacy among the townspeople was encouraged in every possible way by the government. Scientists and monks began to be invited to Moscow to teach both secular and spiritual sciences.

In the 17th century new literary genres appear. Satirical everyday stories are created: “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”, in which land orders are criticized. The debauchery and sinful existence of the monks of the Kalyazin monastery is ridiculed in the story “Kapyazin Petition.”

Simeon of Polotsk founded two new genres - poetry and drama. He is the author of the first poetic works and plays, which were staged in the first Russian court theater, founded in 1670 under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

One of the literary trends of that time was popular accusatory. Its representative is Archpriest Avvakum, the founder of the biographical genre. In his polemical work “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum,” he spoke in simple colloquial language about dramatic story of your life.

In the 2nd half of the 17th century. the first portrait images with elements of real resemblance appear. Secular portraiture is born.

The founder of portrait painting in Russia, S. Ushakov, worked in the art center at the Kremlin Armory. In 1668, he painted the icon “Our Lady of Vladimir” or “Planting the Tree of the Russian State,” which depicts the most prominent figures of his era.

Significant changes have occurred in architecture and urban planning. Along with the creation of masterpieces of wooden architecture and religious buildings in Kolomenskoye and the Russian north, the number of buildings erected from stone is significantly increasing.

In the architecture of the 17th century. a rapprochement of the cult style with the civilian one is planned. A style appears that arose from the fusion of Russian architecture and Western European baroque - Moscow or Naryshkin baroque.

Characteristic features of Russian architecture of this period are multi-tiered, symmetrical compositions, colored decor. Examples of this style are the Church of the Intercession in Fili (1693) and the Church of the Savior Not Made by Hands in Ubory (1697).

In civil architecture, the main direction was the construction of the first stone buildings for domestic purposes - gostiny dvors in Moscow and Arkhangelsk, the Sukharev Tower in Moscow, the Pogankin Chambers in Pskov.

The economic and military needs of a centralized state determined the development of science and technology.

Russian craftsmen are mastering science and technology. They are characterized by extensive theoretical knowledge. Proof of this is the “Charter of Military, Cannon and Other Affairs” created in 1621 by Anisiy Mikhailov, which sets out knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry.

Actively developing geographical science. In 1643-1653 expeditions of V. Poyarkov, S. Dezhnev and E. Khabarov to develop new territories took place

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality was completed. As a result of complex ethnic and linguistic processes, the Russian language emerged, which differed significantly not only from Ukrainian and Belarusian, but also from Church Slavonic, which was preserved in book writing. In colloquial and close to it the so-called order, business language The dominant influence was exerted by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, in which there was a Moscow dialect. Many words that originally appeared in Moscow writing have become widespread throughout Russia, and among them are such as “khrestyanin” (peasant), “money,” “village,” etc. The ancient forms of past tenses have been lost, and the form of the verb has received a new development. The system of declensions and conjugations began to approach the modern one. IN spoken language The old “vocal” (Ivan, father, wife, etc.) form of nouns has died out.

Dwellings and settlements

The formation of the Great Russian nationality was also reflected in the features of life and material culture characteristic of the 16th and subsequent centuries. At this time, a type of residential building emerged, consisting of three rooms - a hut, a cage (or upper room) and a vestibule connecting them. The house was covered with a gable roof. This “three-chamber” building became dominant in Russian villages for a long time. In addition to the hut, the peasant courtyard had a granary for storing grain, one or two sheds (“palaces”) for livestock, a hay barn, a soaphouse (bathhouse), sometimes barns, barns, sheds, although the latter were most often placed outside the courtyards, in the field. In cities since the end of the 15th century. Stone dwellings of boyars, high clergy, and large merchants began to appear.
Villages of the 16th century usually consisted of 10 - 15 households; the larger settlements were villages. Cities developed according to a traditional radial-ring system: radii were formed along roads leading to other cities, rings were formed along the lines of wood-earth and stone fortifications that covered the growing parts of the cities. By the end of the 16th century. Moscow had three rings of stone fortifications - the Kremlin, adjacent to it from the east and enclosing the shopping center of the city of Kitai-Gorod, White City(along the line of the modern boulevard ring) and one ring of wood-earth fortifications - Zemlyanoy Gorod, the fortifications of which were located along the modern Garden Ring. City estates usually opened onto the streets with fences, while residential buildings and utility rooms were hidden inside. In rare cases, streets were paved with wood; In the summer, when it rained, the streets were practically impassable. Each street had one or more churches.
Since many townspeople had their own livestock, the city had grazing areas, runs to water and pastures, as well as vegetable gardens, gardens, and sometimes even plots of arable land. In the 15th century City streets began to be locked with bars at night. “Running heads” of petty nobles appeared in the cities - the embryo of the city police service. The “blind heads” had to monitor not only the appearance of “thieves”, but also security in the city. For these purposes, it was prohibited to fire stoves in houses in the summer. Cooking took place in the courtyards. Blacksmiths and other artisans whose work involved the use of fire set up their workshops away from residential buildings, closer to the water. Despite all these precautions, cities were often destroyed by fires, which caused great damage and often claimed a lot of lives. But the cities were also restored quickly: ready-made, disassembled log houses were brought from the surrounding area, sold at auction, and city streets were rebuilt.

Clothing and food

In the 16th century A peculiar costume of peasants and townspeople developed - poneva, sundress, kokoshnik for women, blouse with a slit on the left side and felt boots (headdress) for men. The social elite began to stand out even more significantly in their appearance - rich fur coats, gorlat hats in winter, elegant caftans - in the summer people saw boyars and rich merchants.
Common foods were cabbage soup, buckwheat, oatmeal, pea porridge, baked and steamed turnips, onions, garlic, fish, oatmeal jelly; on holidays they ate pies with filling, pancakes, eggs, caviar, imported fish, drank beer and honey. In the 50s of the 16th century. The Tsar's taverns opened, selling vodka. Rich people had a different table - here and on weekdays there was always caviar and sturgeon, meat (except for fasting days), and expensive overseas wines.

Religion

Despite the active actions of the church and the secular authorities that supported it in terms of propagating Christian doctrine, the latter in the 16th century. penetrated deeply only into the environment of the ruling class. Sources indicate that the mass of the working population in the city and countryside was far from carefully and reluctantly performing church rituals, that pagan folk festivals and rituals like those associated with the celebration of Kupala and which the churchmen could not manage were still very strong and widespread reinterpret into the Orthodox rite of memory of John the Baptist.
The Church tried to attract the people with magnificent rituals and ceremonies, especially on the days of major religious holidays, when solemn prayer services, religious processions, etc. were organized. The clergy in every possible way spread rumors about all kinds of “miracles” at icons, relics of “saints,” and prophetic “visions.” In search of healing from illnesses or deliverance from troubles, many people flocked to venerate the “miraculous” icons and relics, crowding large monasteries on holidays.

Folk art

Folk songs, glorifying the heroes of the capture of Kazan, also reflected the contradictory personality of Ivan the Terrible, who appears either as a “fair” tsar, taking good fellows from the people under his protection and dealing with the hated boyars, or as the patron of the “Malyuta villain Skuratovich.” The theme of the fight against external enemies gave rise to a peculiar reworking of the ancient Kyiv cycle of epics and new legends. Stories about the fight against the Polovtsians and Tatars merged together, Ilya Muromets turns out to be the winner of the Tatar hero, and Ermak Timofeevich helps in the capture of Kazan. Moreover, the Polish king Stefan Batory appears as a servant of the Tatar “king”. Thus, folk art concentrated its heroes - positive and negative - around the capture of Kazan, thereby emphasizing the enormous significance of this event for contemporaries. In this regard, let us recall the words of Academician B.D. Grekov that “epic stories are a story told by the people themselves. There may be inaccuracies in chronology, in terms, there may be factual errors..., but the assessment of events here is always correct and cannot be different, since the people were not a simple witness to events, but a subject of history who directly created these events.”

Literacy and writing

The formation of a single state increased the need for literate people needed for the developing apparatus of power. At the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, it was decided “in the reigning city of Moscow and in all cities... priests, deacons and sextons should establish schools in the houses of the school, so that priests and deacons in each city would entrust their children to them for teaching.” In addition to clergy, there were also secular “masters” of literacy, who taught literacy for two years, and for this they were supposed to “bring porridge and a hryvnia of money to the master.” First, the students completely memorized the texts of church books, then analyzed them by syllables and letters. Then they taught writing, as well as addition and subtraction, and they memorized numbers up to a thousand with their letter designation. In the second half of the century, manuals appeared on grammar (“A conversation about teaching literacy, what literacy is and what its structure is, and why such a teaching was compiled, and what is gained from it, and what is appropriate to learn first”) and arithmetic (“Book , recoma in Greek is arithmetic, and in German is algorizma, and in Russian is digital counting wisdom").
Handwritten books were distributed, which remained of great value. In 1600, one small book of 135 pages was exchanged “for a self-propelled gun, a saber, black cloth, and a simple curtain.” Along with parchment, which began to be in short supply, imported paper appeared - from Italy, France, and the German states, with specific watermarks indicating the time and place of paper production. In government agencies, huge long ribbons were glued from paper sheets - the so-called “pillars” (the bottom sheet of each sheet was fastened to the top of the next sheet in the case, and so on until the end of the entire case).

Typography

In the middle of the 16th century. A major event took place in the history of Russian education - the founding of book printing in Moscow. The initiative in this matter belonged to Ivan I V and Metropolitan Macarius, and the initial purpose of printing was to distribute uniform church books in order to strengthen the authority of religion and church organization in general. Book printing began in 1553, and in 1563 the former deacon of one of the Kremlin churches, Ivan Fedorov, and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets became the head of the state printing house. In 1564 there was
The Apostle was published - an outstanding work of medieval printing in terms of its technical and artistic qualities. In 1568, printers were already working in Lithuania, where, according to some scientists, they moved on the orders of the tsar in order to promote the success of Russia's active actions in the Baltic states by distributing church books among the Orthodox population of Lithuania. However, after the Union of Lublin in 1569, the activities of Russian printers in Lithuania ceased. Ivan Fedorov moved to Lviv, where he worked until the end of his life (1583). In Lvov in 1574, he published the first Russian primer, which, along with the alphabet, contained elements of grammar and some reading materials.
In Moscow, after the departure of Fedorov and Mstislavets, book printing continued in other printing houses.

Socio-political thought

The complexity of the socio-political conditions for the formation of a unified Russian state gave rise in the spiritual life of society to an intense search for solutions to big problems - about the nature of state power, about law and “truth”, about the place of the church in the state, about land ownership, about the situation of peasants. To this we must add the further spread of heretical teachings, doubts about the validity of religious dogmas, and the first glimpses of scientific knowledge.
Like everywhere else in European countries During the period of their unification, Russian social thought pinned hopes on establishing an ideal government and eliminating strife and civil strife with a single government. However, specific ideas about the ideal state were far from the same among publicists who expressed the sentiments of different groups - Peresvet’s ideal of a strong sovereign relying on the nobility was not at all like Maxim the Greek’s dreams of a wise ruler, deciding state affairs together with his advisers, and the ascetic refusal of “non-possessors” "from wealth caused furious indignation among the ideologists of a strong church - the Osiphlans. The acute political sound of social thought was characteristic of all its forms and manifestations. From their very origins, chronicles had the character of political documents, but now their purpose has increased even more. Going on a campaign against Novgorod, Ivan III specially took with him the clerk Stepan the Bearded, who “knew how to say” according to the “Russian chroniclers” “the wines of Novgorod.” In the 16th century A tremendous amount of work was undertaken to compile new chronicles, which included appropriately selected and interpreted news from the local chronicles. This is how the huge Nikon and Resurrection chronicles appeared. Notable feature There was a widespread use of government materials in chronicle writing - discharge records, ambassadorial books, treaty and spiritual letters, article lists of embassies, etc. At the same time, there was an increase in church influence on chronicle writing. This is especially noticeable in the so-called Chronograph of 1512 - a work dedicated to the history of Orthodox countries, where the idea of the leading position of Orthodox Russia in the Christian world was substantiated.
One of the copies of the Nikon Chronicle was made in the form of a luxuriously illustrated Facial Code, containing up to 16 thousand illustrations. This specimen, apparently intended for the training and education of young members royal family, was subsequently subjected to repeated editing; According to scientists, it was done by Ivan the Terrible, who retroactively introduced into history the denunciations of past “betrayals” of his opponents, executed during the years of the oprichnina.

Historical stories appeared dedicated to the events of the recent past - the Kazan “capture”, the defense of Pskov, also in the spirit of militant church ideology and glorifying Ivan the Terrible.
The “Book of Degrees” became a new historical work in the form of presentation, where the material is distributed not by years, but by seventeen “degrees” - according to the periods of the reign of the great princes and metropolitans from the “beginning of Rus',” which was considered the reign of the first Christian princes Olga and Vladimir, to Ivan the Terrible. The compiler, Metropolitan Afanasy, through the selection and arrangement of material, emphasized the exceptional importance of the church in the history of the country, the close union between secular and spiritual rulers in the past.
The question of the position of the church in single state occupied a major place in the ongoing in the first half of the 16th century. disputes between the “non-possessors” and the “Osiphites.” The ideas of Nil Sorsky were developed in his works by Vassian Patrikeev, who in 1499, together with his father, Prince Yu.
he was forcibly tonsured a monk and exiled to the distant Kirillovo-Belozersky monastery, but already in 1508 he was returned from exile and even approached at one time by Vasily III. Vassian criticized contemporary monasticism, the inconsistency of his life with Christian ideals, and saw this inconsistency primarily in the fact that monks tenaciously cling to earthly goods.
The views of Vassian Patrikeev were largely shared by the well-educated translator and publicist Maxim the Greek (Mikhail Trivolis), who was invited to Russia in 1518 to translate and correct liturgical books. In his works (there are more than a hundred of them), Maxim the Greek proved the illegality of the churchmen’s references to the writings of the “holy fathers” regarding the right to own lands (heroic texts dealt with vineyards), and denounced the difficult situation of the peasants living on monastery lands. From the pages of the works of Maxim the Greek an unsightly picture of the Russian church appears. The monks quarrel, conduct long-term litigation over villages and lands, get drunk, indulge in a luxurious life, have a completely un-Christian attitude towards the peasants living on their lands, entangle them in heavy usurious debts, spend the wealth of the church for their own pleasure, and sanctimoniously with magnificent rituals. cover up their deeply unrighteous lives.
A like-minded boyar of Maxim the Greek, F.I. Karpov, also very concerned about the state of the Russian Church, even put forward the idea of the need to unite the Orthodox Church with the Catholic Church as a means of overcoming existing vices.
Metropolitan Daniel of Osif led an energetic struggle against all “freethinkers.” Not only heretics and non-covetous people were subjected to Daniel's severe condemnation, but also all those who indulged in secular entertainment. Playing the harp and domra, singing “demonic songs” and even playing chess and checkers were declared as vicious as foul language and drunkenness; beautiful clothes and barber shaving were condemned in the same way. At the insistence of Daniel, in 1531 another Church Council was held against Maxim the Greek and Vassian Patrikeev. The latter died in the monastery, and Maxim the Greek was released only after the death of Vasily II.
Daniel's successor, Metropolitan Macarius, organized a large literary work aimed at strengthening religious influence on the spiritual culture of the country. The largest enterprise in this regard was the creation of a grandiose set of “Lives of Saints” - “Great Chetya-Menya” for daily reading. With the creation of this book, the churchmen wanted to practically absorb all the books “in Rus'” and to give all bookishness a strictly consistent religious character. The Church, with the support of the state, continued its offensive against dissidents. In 1553, the former abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Artemy, a follower of the teachings of Nil Sorsky, was put on trial for his statements condemning the official church, its money-grubbing and intolerance towards the erring. The following year, 1554, another church trial took place over the nobleman Matvey Bashkin, who rejected the veneration of icons, was critical of the writings of the “holy fathers,” and was indignant at the fact that the transformation of people into slaves had become widespread among Christians. In the same year, the Belozersk monk Theodosius Kosoy was arrested and brought to Moscow for a church trial. A former slave, Theodosius Kosoy was one of the most radical heretics of the 16th century. He did not recognize the trinity of the deity (a similar trend of the so-called anti-Trinitarians was also widespread in Western European countries in connection with the then developing reform movement), saw in Christ not God, but an ordinary human preacher, rejected a significant part of dogmatic literature, considered it contrary to common sense meaning, did not recognize rituals, icon veneration, or the priesthood. Theodosius did not believe in “miracles” and “prophecies”, condemned the persecution of dissenters, and opposed the acquisitiveness of the church. In a positive sense, Theodosius’s dreams did not go further than the vague ideals of early Christianity, from the standpoint of which Theodosius spoke about the equality of all people before God, the inadmissibility, therefore, of the dependence of some people on others, and even the need for equal treatment of all peoples and faiths. Theodosius' opponents called his preaching "slave teaching." There is some information that allows us to judge the presence of communities of followers of Theodosius the Kosy. The trial of Theodosius Kosy did not take place because he managed to escape to Lithuania, but the persecution of heretics continued.

The beginnings of scientific knowledge and the church’s struggle with them

With the activities of heretics at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. were associated, albeit in a very narrow circle, with the first attempts to go beyond the canonical ideas about the world around us. Contrary to the widespread idea, included even in church “Easters” (indicators of Easter days in future years), that in 7000 (according to the then calendar “from the creation of the world”, according to modern - 1492) the “end of the world” will come ", heretics did not believe in the coming of the "end of the world." They did a lot of astronomy and had conversion tables for calculating lunar phases and eclipses.
The clergy were hostile to all these activities, considering them “witchcraft” and “witchcraft.” The monk Philotheus, who wrote to Vasily III about Moscow - the “third Rome,” admitted that it is possible, of course, to calculate the time of a future eclipse, but this is of no use, “the effort is much, but the feat is small,” “It is not appropriate for the Orthodox to experience this.” Hostility towards secular, non-religious knowledge and towards ancient culture was especially openly manifested in the arrogant confession of Philotheus that he is “a rural man and ignorant in wisdom, was not born in Athens, studied neither with wise philosophers, nor in conversation with wise philosophers I haven’t been.” This was the attitude of Russian churchmen towards ancient culture just at the time when the rise of Western European culture took place during the Renaissance, marked by a lively and strong interest in the ancient heritage. It was these churchmen who developed the political theory of the Russian state, they prepared for it the path of isolation from advanced culture, ossification in ancient orders and customs - for the glory of the “true”, Orthodox Christianity. The bold thought of Russian heretics and other “freethinkers” of the late 15th-16th centuries looks all the brighter. Heretics of the late 15th century. were familiar with the works of medieval and ancient philosophy, they knew the basic concepts of logic and some issues of theoretical mathematics (the concepts of plane, line, indivisible numbers, infinity). The head of the Moscow heretics, Fyodor Kuritsyn, thought about the question: is man’s will free or are his actions predetermined by God? He came to the conclusion that free will (“autonomy of the soul”) exists, and that the more literate and educated a person is, the greater it is.
The beginnings of scientific knowledge existed in the 16th century. in the form of purely practical information on various everyday matters. The centuries-old practice of peasant farmers long ago developed criteria for assessing soils - now they were applied to assess the solvency of “good”, “average”, “poor” lands. Government needs necessitated the measurement of land areas. In 1556, a manual was compiled for scribes who described the allocated lands, with the appendix of land surveyors. In the second half of the century, a manual “On laying out the earth, how to lay out the earth” appeared, which explained how to calculate the area of a square, rectangle, trapezoid, parallelogram, and the corresponding drawings were attached.
The development of trade and money circulation led to the development of practical knowledge in the field of arithmetic. It is no coincidence that terminology links arithmetic operations with trade operations: the term was called in the 16th century. “list”, reduced - “business list”. In the 16th century knew how to perform operations on numbers with fractions, used the signs + and -. However, mathematical and other specific knowledge in the Middle Ages was very often clothed in a mystical-religious shell. The triangular figure, for example, was interpreted as a symbolic embodiment of the movement of the “holy spirit”, following within the “holy trinity” from the “god the father” located at the apex of the triangle.
Fantastic ideas about the Earth were quite widespread. In the popular translated book “Christian Topography” by an Alexandrian merchant of the 6th century. Kosma Indikoplov said that the sky is round, the Earth is quadrangular, stands on endless water, beyond the ocean there is an earth with paradise, in the ocean there is a pillar reaching to heaven and the devil himself is tied to this pillar, who is angry, and from this all sorts of disasters occur.
Mystical interpretation natural phenomena was very widespread, there were special books - “astrologies”, “lunars”, “lightnings”, “tremblers”, “spatulas”, which contained countless signs and fortune-telling. Although the church formally condemned everything that went beyond the framework of religious worldviews, nevertheless, it was rare that a secular feudal lord did not maintain household “soothsayers” and “healers” at his court. Ivan the Terrible was not without superstitious feelings, who often feverishly sought reassurance for his anxieties in various fortune-telling.
But along with this, specific practical knowledge.
In 1534, “Vertograd” was translated from German, containing a lot of medical information. During the translation, “Vertograd” was supplemented with some Russian information. In this, very common in the 16th century. The handwritten book contained the rules of personal hygiene and patient care ( special attention was devoted to preventing drafts, as well as “so as not to get burned, and the brain would not dry out in the head”), numerous information about medicinal plants, their properties and places of distribution. There are special instructions about treating a beaten person “from the whip,” and precisely “from the Moscow whip, and not the rural one” - serfdom reality was reflected here in all its cruelty. In 1581, the first pharmacy in Moscow was established to serve the royal family, in which the Englishman James French, invited by Ivan the Terrible, worked.
The expansion of the territory of the Russian state and the growth of its connections with foreign countries advanced the development of geographical knowledge. Along with naive ideas about the “quadrangular Earth”, specific information about the location of various parts of the Earth began to appear.
Moscow ambassador Grigory Istomin in 1496 traveled on sailing ships from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Bergen and Copenhagen, opening up the possibility of relations between Russia and Western Europe. by sea. In 1525, one of the most educated people of that time, diplomat Dmitry Gerasimov, went abroad. He expressed the idea that India, which attracted Europeans with its riches, as well as China could be reached through the Northern Arctic Ocean. In accordance with this assumption, the English expedition of Willoughby and Chancellor was later equipped, which in the 50s of the 16th century. arrived in Kholmogory and opened the Northern route of sea communication with England.
The Trade Book, compiled in the second half of the 16th century, contained information about other countries necessary for foreign trade. In the 16th century Pomors made voyages to Novaya Zemlya and Grumant (Spitsbergen).

Architecture

The rise of Russian culture manifested itself in many ways. Significant changes have occurred in construction technology and the art of architecture closely related to it.
Strengthening Russian statehood already at the end of the 15th century. stimulated the restoration of ancient and construction of new buildings of the Moscow Kremlin, cathedral beginning of XIII V. in Yuryev Polsky and some others. Stone construction, although still to a small extent, began to be used for the construction of residential buildings. The use of brick opened up new technical and artistic opportunities for architects: During the unification of Russian lands, a pan-Russian architectural style began to take shape. The leading role in it belonged to Moscow, but with the active influence of local schools and traditions. Thus, the Spiritual Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, built in 1476, combined techniques of Moscow and Pskov architecture.
The reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin was of great importance for the development of Russian architecture. In 1471, after the victory over Novgorod, Ivan III and Metropolitan Philip decided to build a new Assumption Cathedral, which was supposed to surpass the ancient Novgorod Sophia in its grandeur and reflect the power of the Russian state united by Moscow. At first, the cathedral was built by Russian craftsmen, but the building collapsed. The craftsmen had no experience in constructing large buildings for a long time. Then Ivan I I I ordered to find a master in Italy. In 1475 he came to Moscow famous engineer and the architect Aristotle Fioravanti. The Italian master became acquainted with the traditions and techniques of Russian architecture and by 1479 he built the new Assumption Cathedral - an outstanding work of Russian architecture, enriched with elements of Italian construction technology and Renaissance architecture. Solemnly majestic, embodying in its forms the power of the young Russian state, the cathedral building became the main religious and political building of Grand Ducal Moscow, a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 15th century.
To rebuild the Kremlin, masters Pietro Antonio Sola-ri, Marco Rufsro, Aleviz Milanets and others were invited from Italy. In 1485-1516. under their leadership, new walls and towers (preserved to this day) of the Kremlin were erected, expanding its territory to 26.5 hectares. At the same time, its internal layout took shape. In the center was Cathedral Square with the monumental building of the Assumption Cathedral and the high bell tower of Ivan the Great (architect Bon Fryazin, 1505 - 1508), completed at the beginning of the 17th century. On the southwestern side of the square, the Annunciation Cathedral appeared, which was part of the grand-ducal palace ensemble. This cathedral was built by Pskov masters in 1484-1489. The techniques of its external decoration were borrowed from Vladimir-Moscow traditions (arcature belts) and from Pskov (patterns of the upper part of the domes). In 1487 - 1491 Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari built the Chamber of Facets to receive foreign ambassadors. It was the largest hall of that time. The vaults of the hall rest on a massive pillar in the middle - no other methods of constructing large interiors were known at that time. The chamber received its name from the “edges” of the external treatment of the facade. In 1505-1509. Aleviz built the tomb of the great princes and members of their families - the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, which combines the traditions of Moscow architecture (a cube topped with a five-domed dome) with elegant Italian decor. The zakomar (“shells”) finishing technique used by the architect later became a favorite in Moscow architecture.
The ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was a unique work of architecture at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, embodying the greatness, beauty, and strength of a people liberated from the foreign yoke, who had embarked on a common path of political and cultural progress with the advanced countries of Europe.
In the 16th century Stone churches with a hipped roof were already being built - “for wooden work,” as one of the chronicles says, i.e., following the example of numerous wooden hipped-roofed buildings. The material itself - wood - dictated this form of completion of the buildings in the form of a tent extending upward with even edges. In contrast to the Byzantine examples of cross-domed churches with domes, not only wooden, but also stone tented churches without domes, without pillars inside, with a single, albeit small, internal space appeared in Russia.
In 1532, in the palace village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, to commemorate the birth of the long-awaited heir of Vasily III - Ivan Vasilyevich, the future Terrible, the tented Church of the Ascension was erected, which is a true masterpiece of Russian and European medieval architecture. Soaring up into the sky on a coastal hill near the Moscow River, the temple with amazing power embodied the idea of moving upward.
The crown of Russian architectural culture of the 16th century. became the famous Intercession Cathedral - St. Basil's Cathedral - on Red Square in Moscow, erected in memory of the capture of Kazan in 1555 - 1560. The nine-domed cathedral is crowned with a large tent, around which are crowded the bright, uniquely shaped domes of the chapels, connected by a gallery and located on one platform. The diversity and individuality of the cathedral's forms gave it a fabulous look and made it a real pearl of Moscow architecture. This great monument of Russian architecture of the 16th century. reflected the wealth of national talent, the great spiritual upsurge that the country was then experiencing, freed from the threat of attacks the most dangerous enemy and was experiencing a period of significant reforms that strengthened the state.
Things were more complicated in the second half of the 16th century. Strict regulation of architecture by the Osiflan churchmen and Ivan the Terrible, who was under their influence in this regard, led partly to a reduction in new construction, partly to the construction of heavy imitations of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral, such as, for example, the cathedrals built in the late 60s - 80s in Trinity-Sergius Monastery and Vologda. Only at the very end of the century did the festive decorative principle in Russian architecture revive and begin to develop, which found its manifestation in the church in Vyazemy near Moscow, the Nativity Cathedral of the Pafnutiev Borovsky Monastery, and the so-called “small” cathedral of the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow.

Painting

The process of development of painting in Russia at the end of the 15th-16th centuries was approximately similar. The beginning of this period was marked by the flourishing of painting, associated primarily with the activities of the famous master Dionysius. With his assistants, he painted the walls and vaults of the cathedrals of the Pafnutev and Ferapontov monasteries. Fulfilling the orders of the Metropolitan and the Grand Duke, Dionysius managed to make his painting very elegant, beautiful, and festive, despite the static nature of the figures, the repetition of compositional techniques, and the complete lack of perspective.
Dionysius’s workshop produced so-called “hagiography” icons, which, in addition to the image of the “saint,” also contained small “stamps” on the sides with images of individual episodes strictly according to the text of the “life” of this saint. The icons were dedicated to Moscow “saints” who played a significant role in the rise of Moscow.
The more the dominance of the Osiphlian church strengthened in the spiritual life of the country in the first half and middle of the 16th century, the more constrained the creativity of painters was. They began to be subject to increasingly stringent requirements regarding exact and unconditional adherence to the texts “ Holy Scripture", "Life" and other church literature. Although the cathedral of 1551 indicated the icon painting of Andrei Rublev as a model, the simple repetition of even brilliant works doomed the art of painting to the impoverishment of creativity.
Painting increasingly turned into a simple illustration of one text or another. By means of painting on the walls of the temple, they tried to “retell” the content of the “Holy Scripture” and “lives” as accurately as possible. Therefore, the images were overloaded with details, the compositions became fractional, and the laconicism of artistic means, so characteristic of artists of the previous time and which created a huge effect on the viewer, was lost. Special elders appointed by the church ensured that the painters did not deviate from the models and rules. The slightest independence in the artistic design of images caused severe persecution.
The frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral reflected the official idea of the origin and continuity of power of the Moscow Grand Dukes from Byzantium. On the walls and pillars of the cathedral, Byzantine emperors and Moscow princes are depicted in magnificent clothes. There are also images of ancient thinkers - Aristotle, Homer, Virgil, Plutarch and others, but, firstly, they are drawn not in ancient, but in Byzantine and even Russian attire, and secondly, scrolls with sayings are placed in their hands, as if they predicted the appearance of Christ. So, the church tried through falsification ancient culture counteract its influence and even use it to your advantage.
Official church ideas were embodied in the large beautiful icon “Church Militant,” painted in the middle of the 16th century. to commemorate the capture of Kazan. The success of the Russian state was shown here as the victory of “true Christianity” over the “infidels,” “infidels.” The warriors are led by “saints” and are overshadowed by the Mother of God and angels. Among those depicted on the icon is the young Tsar Ivan the Terrible. There is an allegorical image - the river symbolizes the source of life, which is Christianity, and the empty reservoir represents other religions and deviations from Christianity.
In conditions of strict regulation of the art of painting, by the end of the century, a special direction had developed among artists, concentrating efforts on the painting technique itself. This was the so-called “Stroganov school” - named after the wealthy merchants and industrialists Stroganovs, who patronized this direction with their orders. The Stroganov school valued writing technique, the ability to convey details in a very limited area, external picturesqueness, beauty, thoroughness of execution. It is not for nothing that artists’ works began to be signed for the first time, so we know the names of major masters of the Stroganov school - Procopius Chirin, Nikifor, Istoma, Nazarius, Fyodor Savina. The Stroganov school satisfied the aesthetic needs of a relatively narrow circle of fine art connoisseurs. The works of the Stroganov school distracted viewers from the religious theme itself and focused their attention on the purely aesthetic side of the work of art. And in Nikifor Savin, the viewer also encountered a subtly poeticized Russian landscape.
Democratic tendencies were evident among painters associated with the townspeople circles of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, and Nizhny Novgorod. On the icons they painted, sometimes instead of “biblical” ones, objects and characters appeared that were well known to the viewer and the artist from the life around them. Here you can find an image of the Mother of God, similar to a Russian peasant woman, a rather real image of the log walls and towers of Russian monasteries.
The accuracy in conveying the details of the texts of the chronicles and the various stories and legends included in them determined the development of the art of book miniatures. Facial chronicle vaults, numbering thousands of miniatures on their pages, conveyed real paintings in great detail historical events. The art of book design, inherited from ancient Russian scribes, continued to develop successfully in the 16th century. Artistic sewing achieved great development, especially in the workshop of the Staritsky princes. Skillfully created compositions, color selection, and delicate workmanship made the works of these masters outstanding monuments of artistic creativity of the 16th century. At the end of the century, sewing began to be decorated with precious stones.

Music and theater

Church singing of the 16th century. was characterized by the approval of “znamenny” - single-voice choral singing. But at the same time, the church could not ignore folk musical culture. Therefore, in the 16th century. and polyphonic singing with its brightness and richness of shades began to spread in the church.
Polyphonic singing apparently came from Novgorod. Novgorod resident Ivan Shai-durov came up with special “banners” - signs for recording melody with “chants”, “divorces” and “translations”.
Due to the church's stubborn opposition to instrumental music, Western European organs, harpsichords and clavichords, which appeared at the end of the 15th century, did not become widespread. Only among the people, despite all the obstacles, they played wind instruments everywhere - bagpipes, nozzles, horns, flutes, pipes; strings - beeps, gusli, domra, balalaika; drums - tambourines and rattles. The army also used trumpets and surnas to transmit combat signals.
In the folk environment, rich traditions of theatrical art were widespread. The Church tried to contrast them with some elements of theatrical “action” in divine services, when individual scenes from the so-called “sacred history” were presented, such as the “cave action” - the martyrdom of three youths at the hands of the unrighteous “Chaldean king”.

B.A. Rybakov - “History of the USSR from ancient times to late XVIII century." - M., “Higher School”, 1975.

Russian culture XIV – XVIIcenturies

The cultural development of Ancient Rus', which had accumulated extensive experience in the construction and improvement of cities, creating wonderful architectural monuments, frescoes, mosaics, and icon painting, was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led the state to economic and cultural decline. The revival of Russian culture became possible only at the end XIII - beginning XIV centuries Moscow became the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which gradually turned into the political and cultural center of the Russian lands.

Shaping towards the end XV century, the centralized Russian state put forward the task of widely expanding the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital, Moscow, to build temples and palaces that corresponded to its significance (previously, the Mongols prohibited stone construction, fearing the construction of defensive structures). For this purpose, architects from other Russian cities, as well as Italian architects and engineers were invited to the capital (one of the outstanding Italian architects who worked in Rus' was Aristotle Fioravanti, who built the Assumption Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin). The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half XV V. expanded to its current size. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin, and it itself was surrounded by a wall of white stone (later the white brick was replaced with red).

The new tasks of state building were directly reflected in the literature. Old Russian writing fully recorded the change in popular consciousness, embodied in the desire for national unification. Numerous editions of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo (“The Tale of Mamaev's massacre", "The Tale of Zadonshchina", etc.) present it as a national feat. In many subsequent literary sources, Prince Dmitry Donskoy appears as a national hero, and his heirs, the Moscow princes, as national sovereigns. Ideology did not stand aside either. Its task was to search for new ideological forms of state building.

The definition of the vector of spiritual development became more concrete with the fall of the Byzantine Empire under the onslaught of the Turks. Rus', the most powerful country in the Orthodox world, began to strive for a dominant position among other Orthodox states, turning into an outpost of the true (Orthodox) Church. While the Turks destroyed all the Orthodox monarchies of the East and captured all the patriarchates, Moscow took upon itself the responsibility of preserving and supporting Orthodoxy both at home and throughout the East. The Moscow prince now became the head of the entire Orthodox world (especially after the marriage of Ivan III on the heiress of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus). The Pskov monk (“elder”) Philotheus developed a theoretical justification for such aspirations, expressed in the formula “Moscow is the third Rome”: “as two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, but there will not be a fourth.” This attitude led the Moscow authorities to the decision to make the Moscow principality a “kingdom” through the official adoption by the Grand Duke of the title of “Caesar” - in our interpretation of “tsar”, to accept the coat of arms of the Roman and Byzantine Empire(double-headed eagle).

Already in the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. The centers of its new development are Novgorod, Rostov, and Tver. The Novgorod and Pskov schools paid special attention to fresco painting. One of the brightest representatives of this trend was Theophanes the Greek. His images, embodying ascetic religious ideals, are distinguished by psychological tension, his writing technique is characterized by dynamics and originality of techniques, and his coloring is characterized by extreme restraint.

By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries The artistic role of Moscow is strengthening. Feofan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Daniil Cherny worked here. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local craftsmen, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan’s. In 1408, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny completed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened, benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft, harmonious colors of the painting are imbued with a feeling of peace. Rublev had a rare gift for embodying in art the bright sides of a person’s life and mental state. In his works, the internal turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Feofan’s images is replaced by the beauty of mental balance and the power of conscious moral rightness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, national nature. In the wonderful icon “Trinity”, painted for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrew the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. In the last third XV V. starts his artistic activity Dionysius. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, there is a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of the masters to artistic form, and features of festivity and decorativeness. The works of Dionysius are solemn and graceful, but psychologically inferior to Rublev.

The revival of decorative and applied arts proceeded more slowly. This was explained by the fact that many craftsmen were captured and a number of craft skills were lost. But gradually Russian jewelry art is also revived. Embossing, enamel, painting on ground enamel, casting and other techniques were mainly focused on plant and animal ornaments performed in a patterned oriental style. Excessive enthusiasm for the pomp of ornament, to XVII V. led to a loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, from which patterns were composed that were previously made of gold. Even in iron products there is a fascination with patterned forms (for example, Andrei Chokhov’s Tsar Cannon). In the monuments of bone and wood carving that have come down to us, plant and animal motifs also predominated. In addition, carvings were often colorfully painted. Sewing also had much in common with painting. IN XVII V. In Rus', golden lace with geometric mesh motifs or with floral elements is spreading. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, and colored drilled stones were introduced into the patterns.

The Polish-Swedish intervention began XVII V. delayed the development of art, but by the middle of the century artistic creativity had noticeably revived. During this period, Russian art appeared new genre– portrait. The first portraits were painted in the icon-painting traditions, but gradually Western European painting techniques appeared in them - an accurate depiction of facial features and three-dimensionality of the figure. The expansion of cultural areas associated with the technical achievements of that time was also reflected in such an area as book publishing.

Traditionally, in Rus', books were written by hand. At the same time, the text was decorated with ornaments and covered in a rich (often with gold and precious stones) cover. But beauty did not always compensate for the shortcomings of handwritten books, primarily the length of time it took to write and errors that appeared during repeated rewriting of texts. The Church Council of 1551 was even forced to develop a resolution to prevent the rewriting of books with distorted text. The need to correct and unify church texts not least influenced the opening of the first printing workshop in Moscow. Its founders were Clerk Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. During the 12 years of the printing house’s existence (from 1553 to 1565), it printed 8 large books of not only a religious, but also a secular nature (for example, the Book of Hours, which became the first alphabet).

However, book printing did not receive proper development at that time, like many other areas of art and science characteristic of European culture. The reason for this lies in the desire for a peculiar isolation of Russian culture, especially manifested in XVI century. An explanation for these conservative tendencies should be sought primarily in the history of the formation of the Moscow state, which was continuously subjected to external aggression both from the West and from the East. Cultural identity in critical periods Russian history became perhaps the only saving and unifying factor. Over time, the cultivation of one’s own traditional culture took on hypertrophied forms and rather hampered its development, closing the possibility of the achievements of art and science from other countries penetrating into Russia. The obvious lag (primarily in the scientific and technical sphere) was overcome only by Peter I , and in a decisive and ambiguous way.