Quite often, in their conversations and discussions, people use the terms “cost” and “price” as equivalent, some do not even pay attention to the fact that they are completely different in meaning.
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Price
The concept of value is similar in meaning to the definition of cost. These costs are calculated both in monetary units and in physical units, which the manufacturer spent on the production of any product or on a certain service.
In more simplified terms, the cost of the goods produced includes:
- costs in monetary units for the purchase of raw materials;
- payment for its delivery to the work site;
- pay wages workers, busy making certain products;
- costs of processing and packaging of goods;
- electricity and other costs.
By ordinary additions, these and some other additional costs are summed up, divided by the number of products manufactured and, as a result, a certain amount is obtained, which will indicate the cost of the product.
This concept in economics reflects established properties that characterize a certain thing. This includes:
- useful property of an installed thing, or a commodity (that is, it will not have any value unless it is found useful);
- demand(the product will not have value if it does not begin to be in demand);
- scarcity(determined in relation to a thing that will not show itself as publicly available);
- feasibility(this value will not be realized if a certain item cannot be exchanged or sold).
Species
In today's world there is a large list of all kinds of varieties. Here are some of them:
Market
Its meaning directly depends on social reproduction and the behavior of representatives market relations. This includes factors of all kinds that affect the completion of a particular transaction and affect the cost.
It contains all the information taken specifically from the market, taking into account customer demand and the shortage of a certain type of product that is not on the market.
In other words, the value on the market changes from any specific date. A rough example is explanatory: in summer period It’s very difficult to sell an apartment, sales are dying down, people are going on vacation. Accordingly, during this period of the year the cost of housing decreases significantly.
Another simple but understandable example for everyone. On Easter, the price of eggs rises sharply, even though chickens do not lay them in gold. It is the fact of the approaching holiday that influences.
Investment
This denotes the value approved for a specific person or group of people to use the item for investment purposes and objectives. It is used to solve the following problems:
- purchasing a specific item;
- compilation necessary documents on investments;
- For decisions taken nature of management activities.
Liquidation
It is determined by the estimated size, which reflects the maximum allowable price. According to it, the requested object will be alienated for the period of holding the object at a price. It is used for:
- transfer of personal property as collateral for something;
- upon closure of an enterprise or production;
- to obtain a loan.
Cadastral
Determined by sovereign appraisers to determine valued real estate. The sequence of its production is regulated by the Federal Law “On Valuation Activities in the Russian Federation”.
The decision on the conduction of the estimated value according to the cadastre is made local authorities self-government or representatives of regional bodies who, through a tender, select an appraiser to conclude an agreement with him for the work performed.
In law, cadastral valuation territory can be carried out no more often than once every three years, but not less than once every five years.
The cadastral value of land plots is determined by the state, taking into account the characteristic features of each plot in the calculated value. Personal characteristics include:
- location of the territory;
- size of the land plot;
- category;
- peculiarity in the use of the site.
The amount of land tax approved by the state also depends on the cadastral value, which is obtained through measurements.
Price
This monetary unit, for which the seller is ready to sell and the buyer to purchase a certain type of product. It occupies a central place in the economics of the market.
It determines how efficiently production will operate, on what scale and how this or that product will be sold.
Just like the cost, it completely depends on the demand in the market. If demand exceeds supply, then the price, accordingly, will be much higher than it could be.
Species
There are several varieties:
Retail
Determined for goods that are sold in small volumes. Products are sold at retail prices in markets and stores.
It is established for goods and various services that are used by people and, accordingly, are paid for by them. Retail prices include fixed ones, which are determined by government policy.
According to their validity periods, they are divided into two subgroups:
- Constants ( set them for an indefinite period of time).
Example. The cost is stable in nature for certain equipment, which is manufactured at a specific enterprise.
- Temporary(depend on a certain period of time, season or other specific conditions).
Example. Most often they are installed on vegetable or dairy products.
Wholesale
This is the price of a product that is sold in large quantities to various enterprises and large wholesale companies.
The goods are given by the seller (supplier) to the buyer for the purpose of its next sale, but at higher prices. It consists of the following factors:
- production costs of a firm or company;
- cash expenses spent on storing goods;
- interest that applies when using credit fees;
- expenses that were spent on delivery, testing and advertising of products.
Purchasing goods at wholesale prices is an opportunity to spend your money economically.
Purchasing
This is the price at which products are sold agriculture various state and collective farms to the state for consumption and processing. It includes:
- production costs, including production costs;
- additional expenses and expenses that are associated with an increase in certain tariffs;
- costs of the supply organization.
When purchasing agricultural products (vegetables, meat, milk), payment is made at purchase prices.
Comparison
Price- this is the total monetary determination of the funds spent that production incurred on the manufacture and sale of the product.
If these spent funds are converted into a monetary equivalent, add a certain percentage of the profit that the seller would like to receive by selling this product, then the price of the product will come out of this.
Differences
The cost may only appear as a fraction of the price of the product. It can be expressed both in monetary terms and in physical units. The price is determined only in banknotes of the country where the product is produced.
The cost includes temporary costs, monetary costs, required materials, and energy resources consumed.
And the price contains not only the expression of these resources in money, but also the percentage of profit that the seller would like to receive for the sale of this product.
Teaching practice includes huge amount elements important for the mental development of schoolchildren. This includes explanation of the material in the form of lectures, homework, and various practical exercises. Also a very important element is independent work, which, by the way, has a double meaning.
The versatility of the concept
It is interesting to understand the concept itself. So, what is “self-employment?” Some will say that this is the student’s desire to comprehend knowledge without anyone’s help, while others will simply remember the next task in class, when there is simply no help to be found and it is necessary to put the acquired knowledge on paper alone. Both answers can be considered correct. Consider this concept possible from several sides.
About independence
It is worth noting that independent work - important element every schoolchild. After all, not only excellent academic performance, but also the mental development of the child depends on how interested the student is in learning new material, on the desire to comprehend new knowledge. But how to force a student to study independently? This is quite difficult to do, because first of all you need a great desire on the part of the student. But you can try to interest the class in one or another subject. This already depends on the skill and professionalism of each individual teacher. It is necessary not only to promise rewards in the form of marks for excellent independent work outside the school walls, but also to instill a desire for knowledge itself, for the desire to learn something new. It is very important in almost every lesson not to give children answers to all questions, but to leave a bit of uncertainty for self-education. Working according to a template is much easier, but not as productive as we would like. You need to force the child to look for the answer on his own, then this activity will produce a positive, desired result. It is worth noting that such independent work was still school education will help the child a lot in the future, adult life, and will give everyone the opportunity not to lose heart before difficult trials, simply looking for a solution to the problem.
Knowledge Test
In addition to the above, no less important are independent and tests, which are designed to check students' knowledge of the material covered. In this way, you can track what remains unclear from what has been covered and what still needs to be worked on with schoolchildren. Yes, very important for schooling are independent work in algebra (8th grade and above), physics, chemistry and other rather difficult disciplines. Individual work in humanities subjects also brings benefits, allowing the teacher to monitor the progress of the educational process and the progress of students. But this form of learning is also useful for students, when most of the knowledge takes shape, and gaps in the information received in lessons and from textbooks become clear and visible.
Based on the above, we can conclude that independent work in any form is extremely useful for the mental development of every student. You should not limit yourself to ordinary homework; a deep understanding of the subject is the key to strong knowledge.
Independent work- this is the view educational activities performed by the student without direct contact with the teacher or controlled by the teacher indirectly through special educational materials; an integral and compulsory link in the learning process, which primarily involves individual work by students in accordance with the instructions of the teacher or textbook or training program.
In modern didactics, independent work of students is considered, on the one hand, as a type of educational work carried out without direct intervention, but under the guidance of a teacher, and on the other hand, as a means of involving students in independent cognitive activity, developing methods for organizing such activity. The effect of students’ independent work can only be obtained when it is organized and implemented in the educational process as an integral system that permeates all stages of students’ education at a university.
Types of independent work of students. According to the private didactic purpose, four types of independent work can be distinguished.
1st type. Forming in students the ability to identify externally what is required of them, based on the algorithm of activity given to them and the premises for this activity contained in the conditions of the task. The cognitive activity of students consists in recognizing objects of a given field of knowledge while repeatedly perceiving information about them or actions with them.
As independent work of this type, homework is most often used: work with a textbook, lecture notes, etc. What is common to independent work of the first type is that all the data sought, as well as the method of completing the task, must be presented explicitly or directly in the task itself, or in the corresponding instructions.
2nd type. Formation of knowledge-copies and knowledge that allows solving typical problems. The cognitive activity of students in this case consists of pure reproduction and partial reconstruction, transformation of the structure and content of previously military educational information, which implies the need to analyze this description of the object, different ways completing a task, choosing the most correct ones, or sequentially determining logically successive solutions.
Independent work of this type includes individual stages of laboratory work and practical classes, standard course projects, as well as specially prepared homework assignments with algorithmic instructions. The peculiarity of the work of this group is that in the task it is necessary to communicate the idea, the principle of the solution and put forward a requirement for the students to develop this principle or idea into a method (methods) in relation to given conditions.
3rd type. Formation of knowledge among students that underlies the decision is not typical tasks. The cognitive activity of students when solving such problems consists in the accumulation and manifestation in the external plan of a new experience of activity for them on the basis of previously acquired formalized experience (actions on known algorithm) by transferring knowledge, skills and abilities. Tasks of this type involve the search, formulation and implementation of a solution idea, which always goes beyond the boundaries of past formalized experience and requires the student to vary the conditions of the task and previously learned educational information, viewing them from a new angle. Independent work of the third type should put forward the requirement to analyze situations unfamiliar to students and generate subjective new information. Course and diploma projects are typical for independent work of students of the third type.
4th type. Creating the prerequisites for creative activity. The cognitive activity of students when performing these works consists of deep penetration into the essence of the object being studied, establishing new connections and relationships necessary for finding new, previously unknown principles, ideas, and generating new information. This type of independent work is usually carried out when performing tasks of a research nature, including coursework and diploma projects.
Organization of independent work of students. In progress independent activity the student must learn to identify cognitive tasks, choose ways to solve them, perform operations to monitor the correctness of solving the task, and improve the skills of implementing theoretical knowledge. The formation of skills and abilities for independent work of students can proceed both on a conscious and on an intuitive basis. In the first case, the initial basis for the correct organization of activity is a clear understanding of the goals, objectives, forms, methods of work, conscious control over its process and results. In the second case, a vague understanding, the action of habits formed under the influence of mechanical repetition, imitation, etc. predominate.
The student’s independent work under the guidance of the teacher takes place in the form of business interaction: the student receives direct instructions and recommendations from the teacher on organizing independent activities, and the teacher performs the management function through accounting, control and correction of erroneous actions. Based on modern didactics, the teacher must establish the required type of independent work of students and determine the required degree of its inclusion in the study of their discipline.
The direct organization of students’ independent work occurs in two stages. The first stage is the period initial organization, requiring the teacher direct participation in the activities of students, with the detection and indication of the causes of errors. The second stage is a period of self-organization, when the direct participation of the teacher in the process of independent formation of students’ knowledge is not required.
In organizing students’ independent work, it is especially important to correctly determine the volume and structure of the content of educational material to be submitted for independent study, as well as the necessary methodological support independent work of students. The latter, as a rule, includes a work program (conducting observations, studying primary sources, etc.), variant tasks, non-standard individual assignments for each student, tools for their implementation. Various currently used methodological manuals on students' independent work are usually informational in nature. The student must be oriented towards creative activity in the context of the discipline. Consequently, fundamentally new methodological developments are needed.
Principles of organizing independent work of students. Analyzing the current situation in universities with independent work of students, V. A. Kan-Kalik puts forward his thoughts on the principles on which such student activity should be based. When planning independent work on a particular course, first of all it is necessary to highlight its so-called fundamental tree, which includes that basic system of methodological, theoretical knowledge, which must be submitted for mandatory lecture study. So, out of a 100-hour course, the fundamental volume will take up half of it. Further, as derivatives of this “fundamental tree,” it is proposed to form various types of independent work for students, providing for them topics, the nature of the study, forms, location, variable methods of implementation, a control and accounting system, as well as various reporting methods. According to Kan-Kalik, without such a system, not a single type of independent work by students will give an educational and professional effect.
The success of independent work is primarily determined by the degree of preparedness of the student. At its core, independent work presupposes the maximum activity of students in various aspects: organizing mental work, searching for information, and striving to turn knowledge into beliefs. The psychological prerequisites for the development of students’ independence lie in their success in studies, a positive attitude towards it, interest and passion for the subject, and the understanding that with the proper organization of independent work, skills and experience of creative activity are acquired.
One of the conditions for the regulation of human activity as the main prerequisite for the success of any type of activity is mental self-regulation, which is a closed control loop. This information process, the carriers of which are various mental forms of reflection of reality. General patterns of self-regulation in an individual form, depending on specific conditions, as well as on the nature of nervous activity, personal qualities of a person and his system of organizing his actions is formed in the process of education and self-education. When creating a system for students’ independent work, it is necessary, firstly, to teach them study(this should be done from the first classes at a university, for example, in the course of introduction to the specialty) and, secondly, familiarize with the psychophysiological foundations of mental work, the technique of its scientific organization.
Rules rational organization independent work of students. The intensity of educational work especially increases under conditions of rapid switching from one type of educational activity to another, as well as during unexpected changes in educational situations (actions) in the process of manifestation of high emotionality and its changes during training.
A high degree of mental stress with low physical activity can lead to a kind of pathology - changes vegetative functions(increased heart rate), increased blood pressure, hormonal changes, and sometimes sudden changes reaching a state of stress. Mental overload, especially in situations where a student studies independently, without the supervision of a teacher, can lead to exhaustion nervous system, memory deterioration and attention mania, loss of interest in learning and social work. Helps cope with mental overload physical exercise, rational nutrition, correct mode of educational work, the use of rational work methods.
In relation to organizing independent work, it is useful for both teachers and students to know the rules for the rational organization of mental work formulated by the greatest Russian scientist N. A. Vvedensky (1852–1922).
1. You need to get into work not immediately, not in a jerk, but gradually getting involved in it. Physiologically, this is justified by the fact that the basis of any activity is the formation of a dynamic stereotype - a relatively stable system of conditioned reflex connections formed by repeated repetition of the same influences of the external environment on the senses.
2. It is necessary to develop a rhythm of work, uniform distribution work throughout the day, week, month and year. Rhythm serves as a means of mental stimulation of a person and plays an exceptionally high role in his life.
3. It is necessary to maintain consistency in solving all matters.
4. It is reasonable to combine the alternation of work and rest.
5. Finally, an important rule for fruitful mental activity is public importance labor.
Over time, the skills of a knowledge work culture turn into habits and become natural need personality. Internal composure and organization is a clear result organized regime labor, volitional manifestations and systematic self-control.
Independent work as part of students' educational activities. Independent work is a special highest degree educational activities. It is determined by individual psychological differences student and personal characteristics and requires a high level of self-awareness and reflectivity. Independent work can be carried out both outside the classroom (at home, in the laboratory) and in classroom lessons in written or oral form.
Independent work of students is integral part academic work and has the goal of consolidating and deepening acquired knowledge and skills, searching for and acquiring new knowledge, including using automated learning systems, as well as completing educational tasks, preparing for upcoming classes, tests and exams. Organized, supported and controlled this type activities of students in the relevant departments.
Independent work is intended not only for mastering each discipline, but also for developing skills of independent work in general, in educational, scientific, professional activity, ability to take responsibility, solve problems independently, find constructive solutions, way out of a crisis situation, etc. The importance of independent work goes far beyond separate subject, in connection with which graduating departments must develop a strategy for developing a system of skills and abilities for independent work. In this case, one should proceed from the level of independence of applicants and the requirements for the level of independence of graduates, so that a sufficient level is achieved over the entire period of study.
According to the new educational paradigm, regardless of the specialization and nature of the work, any beginning specialist must have fundamental knowledge, professional skills and skills in his field, experience in creative and research activities to solve new problems, social-evaluative activities. The last two components of education are formed precisely in the process of students’ independent work. In addition, the task of the departments is to develop differentiated criteria for independence depending on the specialty and type of activity (researcher, designer, constructor, technologist, repairman, manager, etc.).
The main features of the organization of education at a university are the specificity of the educational methods used and the degree of independence of students. The teacher only guides cognitive activity a student who himself carries out cognitive activity. Independent work completes the tasks of all types of educational work. No knowledge that is not supported by independent activity can become the true property of a person. In addition, independent work has educational significance: it forms independence not only as a set of skills and abilities, but also as a character trait that plays a significant role in the personality structure of a modern highly qualified specialist. Therefore, in each university, in each course, material is carefully selected for students’ independent work under the guidance of teachers. The forms of such work can be different - these are different types of homework. Universities draw up schedules of independent work for the semester with the application of semester curricula and curricula. Schedules stimulate, organize, force rational use of time. Work must be systematically supervised by teachers. The basis for independent work is a scientific and theoretical course, a complex of knowledge acquired by students. When assigning tasks, students receive instructions on how to complete them, guidelines, manuals, list of necessary literature.
Features of group independent work of students. In a higher educational institution they combine various types individual independent work, such as preparing for lectures, seminars, laboratory work, tests, exams, completing essays, assignments, coursework and projects, and at the last, final stage - completing a diploma project. University teaching staff can make independent work more effective if they organize students in pairs or groups of three. Group work enhances the factor of motivation and mutual intellectual activity, increases the efficiency of students’ cognitive activity due to mutual control and self-control.
The participation of a partner significantly rebuilds the student’s psychology. In the case of individual training, the student subjectively evaluates his activity as complete and complete, but such an assessment may be erroneous. During group individual work, a group self-test takes place, followed by correction by the teacher. This second link of independent learning activities ensures the effectiveness of the work as a whole. With a sufficiently high level of independent work, the student himself can complete an individual part of the work and demonstrate it to a fellow student.
Technology for organizing independent work of students. The ratio of time allocated for classroom and independent work throughout the world is 1: 3.5. This proportion is based on the enormous didactic potential of this type of educational activity for students. Independent work contributes to the deepening and expansion of knowledge, the formation of interest in cognitive activity, mastery of the techniques of the cognition process, the development cognitive abilities. In accordance with this, independent work of students becomes one of the main reserves for increasing the efficiency of training young specialists at a university.
Independent work is carried out using supporting didactic materials designed to correct students’ work and improve its quality. Modern requirements In connection with the teaching process, it is assumed that department teams develop in a timely manner: a) a system of tasks for independent work; b) topics of abstracts and reports; c) instructions and guidelines for performing laboratory work, training exercises, homework, etc.; d) topics of coursework, coursework and diploma projects; e) lists of required and additional literature.
Independent work includes reproducing and creative processes in the student’s activities. Depending on this, three levels of independent activity of students are distinguished: 1) reproductive (training); 2) reconstructive; 3) creative, exploratory.
For the organization and successful functioning of students’ independent work, it is necessary, firstly, integrated approach to the organization of such activities for all forms of classroom work, secondly, a combination of all levels (types) of independent work, thirdly, ensuring control over the quality of implementation (requirements, consultations) and, finally, forms of control.
Activation of independent work of students. Independent work is performed by students at different stages of the learning process: when acquiring new knowledge, consolidating it, repeating it and testing it. Systematic reduction of direct teacher assistance serves as a means of increasing creative activity students.
The effectiveness of students' creative activity depends on the organization of classes and the nature of the teacher's influence. In the pedagogical literature, various techniques for enhancing students’ independent work are described and practically applied. Here are the most effective of them.
1. Teaching students methods of independent work (time guidelines for performing independent work to develop time budget planning skills; communication of reflective knowledge necessary for self-analysis and self-assessment).
2. Convincing demonstration of the need to master the proposed educational material for the upcoming educational and professional activities in introductory lectures, guidelines and teaching aids.
3. A problematic presentation of the material, reproducing typical methods of real reasoning used in science and technology.
4. Application of operational formulations of laws and definitions in order to establish an unambiguous connection between theory and practice.
5. Use of methods active learning(analysis of specific situations, discussions, group and pair work, collective discussion difficult questions, business games).
6. Development and familiarization of students with the structural and logical diagram of the discipline and its elements; use of video footage.
7. Issuing teaching instructions to junior students containing a detailed algorithm; gradual decrease explanatory part from course to course in order to accustom students to greater independence.
8. Development of comprehensive teaching aids for independent work, combining theoretical material, guidelines and problems to solve.
9. Development of interdisciplinary teaching aids.
10. Individualization of homework and laboratory work, and when group work– its clear distribution among group members.
11. Introducing difficulties into standard tasks, issuing tasks with redundant data.
12. Security questions to the lecture flow after each lecture.
13. Students read a fragment of a lecture (15–20 minutes) with preliminary preparation with the help of the teacher.
14. Assigning the status of student consultants to the most advanced and capable of them; providing such students with comprehensive assistance.
15. Development and implementation of collective teaching methods, group and pair work.
Ways to increase the efficiency of students' independent work. Reaching a new level of specialist training by leading scientists and teachers Russian universities see the reorientation of curricula towards the widespread use of independent work, including in junior courses. In this regard, certain constructive proposals deserve attention, such as:
› organization individual plans training with the involvement of students in research work and, if possible, actual design on orders from enterprises;
› inclusion of independent work of students in the curriculum and class schedule with the organization of individual consultations at departments;
› creation of a set of educational and teaching aids for students’ independent work;
› development of a system of integrated interdepartmental assignments;
› orientation of lecture courses towards independent work;
› collegial relations between teachers and students;
› development of tasks involving non-standard solutions;
› individual consultations the teacher and recalculation of his teaching load taking into account the independent work of students;
› conducting forms of lecture classes such as lecture-conversation, lecture-discussion, where the students themselves are the speakers and co-speakers, and the teacher plays the role of presenter. Such classes require preliminary independent study of each specific topic by the speaking students using textbooks, consultations with the teacher and the use of additional literature.
In general, the orientation of the educational process towards independent work and increasing its efficiency implies, firstly, an increase in the number of hours for students’ independent work; secondly, organizing ongoing consultations and advisory services, issuing a set of tasks for students’ independent work immediately or in stages; thirdly, the creation of an educational, methodological and material and technical base in universities (textbooks, teaching aids, computer classes), allowing one to independently master the discipline; fourthly, the availability of laboratories and workshops for independent laboratory work; fifthly, the organization of constant (preferably rating) control, which makes it possible to reduce traditional control procedures to a minimum and, at the expense of session time, to increase the time budget for students’ independent work; fifthly, the abolition of most of the existing forms of practical and laboratory classes in order to free up time for independent work and servicing consultation points.
Independent work of junior schoolchildren V.
Primary school is the basis, the foundation. It is in primary school that the bulk of the work on developing learning skills should be done..Children must be taught to work independently in the learning process from primary school age.
Independent work is considered as a means of learning. If children get used to working independently in elementary school, this habit will remain with them for the rest of their lives. The teacher should encourage students to work independently. And, most importantly, the desire to work independently arises not out of coercion, but at the behest of the will, that is, it is necessary to make sure that independent work becomes a student’s need. Student performance largely depends on this.
The teacher's guidance of independent work is to give students the opportunity to express themselves and their strengths in solving tasks and exercises. This is possible if the teacher well understands the level of development of the students in the class, knows the individual characteristics of the children and knows how to choose a feasible and interesting task for independent work.
Independent educational work is understood as any active activity of students organized by the teacher, aimed at achieving the set didactic goal in a specially allocated time. At the same time, such actions as the search for knowledge, its comprehension, consolidation, formation and development of skills and abilities, generalization and systematization of knowledge must be carried out.
The following types of independent educational work of schoolchildren are distinguished:
)work with educational book(varieties - drawing up a plan individual chapters, answers to teacher questions, analysis of ideological content, or artistic features works on teacher issues, characteristics characters, work on documents and other primary sources, etc.);
2) work with reference literature (dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.);
3) solving and composing problems;
4) training exercises;
5) essays and descriptions (based on key words, pictures, personal impressions, etc.);
6) observations and laboratory work (work with herbarized material, mineral collections, observation natural phenomena and their explanation).
7) work related to the use of handouts (sets of pictures, figures, etc.;
Independent work of students on educational literature :
1. Work on the text of the textbook on compilation:
a) plan;
b) notes;
c) answers to the teacher’s questions;
d) tables;
e) diagrams and diagrams.
2. Work on illustrative material for the textbook.
3. Performing exercises and tasks based on the textbook:
a) searching for examples;
b) drawing up tasks.
4. Work with other literature and teaching aids:
a) with fiction;
b) with others literary sources;
c) with dictionaries;
d) with atlas and contour maps;
e) with visual aids;
f) with movies;
g) observations;
h) practical and laboratory work.
When organizing independent work, you must comply with the following requirements:
Any independent work must have a specific goal.
Each student must know the order of execution and master the techniques of independent work.
Independent work must correspond to the learning capabilities of students.
The results or conclusions obtained during independent work should be used in the educational process.
A combination of different types of independent work should be provided.
Independent work should ensure the development of students’ cognitive abilities.
All types of independent work should ensure the formation of habits of independent learning.
In tasks for independent work, it is necessary to provide for the development of student independence.
Tasks for independent work with sources of knowledge when obtaining new information and mastering methods of educational work, like all other educational tasks, can be different.
Simple questions(Where? How much? When? Why? How? Why? etc.).
Logically related questions(What will change if...? How is it different? etc.).
Various tests (alternative, multiple choice, etc.).
Instructions or plans.
Brief requirements (draw up a diagram, prove, explain, justify, extract from a textbook, etc.).
The tasks are quantitative, qualitative, cognitive (searching for new knowledge, searching for new ways to obtain knowledge), training (consolidating knowledge, consolidating ways to obtain knowledge).
There are 4 types of independent work:
─ according to the model;
─ reconstructive;
─ variable;
─ creative.
Each of them has its own didactic goals.
Independent work according to the model are necessary for the formation of skills and their strong consolidation. They form the foundation for truly independent student activity.
Reconstructive independent work teaches one to analyze events, phenomena, facts, forms techniques and methods of cognitive activity, contributes to the development of internal motives for knowledge, and creates conditions for the development of schoolchildren’s mental activity.
Independent work of this type forms the basis for the student’s further creative activity.
Variable with Independent work develops the skills to find an answer outside of a known sample. The constant search for new solutions, generalization and systematization of acquired knowledge, and transfer of it to completely non-standard situations make the student’s knowledge more flexible and form a creative personality.
Creative independent work is the crown of the system of independent activity of schoolchildren. These jobs reinforce skills independent search knowledge is one of the most effective means of developing a creative personality.
Thus, the practical application of various types of independent work helps to improve the ability to work independently and develop independence. .
The importance of independent work in learning junior schoolchildren
Without the systematic organization of independent work of schoolchildren, it is impossible to achieve a strong and deep assimilation of concepts and patterns; it is impossible to cultivate the desire and ability to learn new things, which are mandatory for self-education and self-improvement.
Independent work is also of great importance when repeating, consolidating and testing knowledge and skills.
are considered not only as a means of developing knowledge, skills and abilities, but also as a condition that allows students to show maximum initiative and independence in the process of their implementation. It is shown that in such work it is advisable to include tasks that are identical in content and different in the method of execution. It is the use of such tasks that is effective in terms of independent development.
Independent thinking is characterized by the following skills:
─ highlight the main thing, see the general pattern and draw general conclusions;
─ consistently, logically justify your actions and control them;
─ apply knowledge in new conditions, often complicated, with elements of a creative non-standard approach to achieving the goal;
─ reach the truth without asking for help.
Consequently, the education system in primary school should become the link where the cult of independent cognitive activity, the cult of developing the ability to learn independently, should be created.
The independent activity of schoolchildren in educational activities is associated with the formation of their educational work skills. The most important of them are planning and self-control. The ability to plan is the training of schoolchildren general rules drawing up a plan: setting goals, defining tasks and stages of work, allocating time, etc.
Self-control presupposes the ability of schoolchildren to control the level of their knowledge both in general on a topic, section, and at individual stages of their assimilation.
Independent work of students can be carried out in lessons by studying the text of new material, doing exercises, solving problems, conducting experiments and observations, labor operations, etc. A very common type of independent work is doing homework, oral and written.
This could be working with an educational book, independent work when performing written exercises or writing essays, stories, poems, working with instruments and laboratory devices, independently solving problems, etc.
It is difficult, impossible to overestimate a student’s work with a book. Doing written exercises, writing essays, stories, poems, etc. ─ these are independent creative works that require greater activity and efficiency. Solving problems independently develops practical skills and abilities, develops logical thinking. Here it is important to place the student in a specifically new situation, then independent work will be a great success.
Independent work done at home also plays a big role. Homework has important to develop the skills of independent mental work and self-education, a sense of responsibility for the assigned work.
By definition, independent work in the process of teaching younger schoolchildren should teach children to think, acquire knowledge on their own, and arouse interest in learning at school.
At all stages of independent work, the student thinks, this develops his mental abilities. Teach your child to think for himself
Independent work helps. A child comes to school with a great desire to learn something new. And the teacher helps him with this. Children experience intellectual satisfaction from independent activity, and they have a desire to learn.
Mathematics is loved by those students who can solve problems independently. Weak people often find it difficult to solve problems. And there may not be indifferent people if the teacher takes into account the capabilities of each student when organizing independent work and gives tasks that are accessible to him.
When organizing independent work on a task, you must use differentiated tasks, in the form short note conditions, drawing, figure, table.
This organization of independent work on several tasks helps a strong student to show his creative abilities, and gives a weak student the opportunity to experience the joy of work ─ find the right way to solve a problem using differentiated help.
A special place is occupied by work with demonstration pictures and plot pictures.
Using story pictures, I use different types of tasks.
Making sentences based on supporting words and expressions.
Compose complete answers to questions.
Questions help students select the right words, establish the correct word order, and connect words in a sentence. The teacher’s questions and the students’ answers gradually become more complex: at first, the children use almost all the words of the question when answering, then the questions are posed in such a form that the students are forced to give more free answers, based on the image.
Compiling a story.
The work begins in grade 1 and, gradually becoming more complex, is applied to all grades. primary school. The work proceeds in the following sequence: first, children, looking at the picture, name the objects and actions depicted on it; then they compose complete answers to the questions; thus creating a coherent story.
Titles of pictures.
The teacher invites students to name the picture, the children give different names. Each is discussed, and the most appropriate one is selected, expressing the main idea.
All of the listed types, of course, are first training, gradually preparing for independent work.
In our practice, punched cards have become widespread, making it possible to significantly increase the amount of independent work of students. It takes much less time to complete a task using punched cards. However, it is impossible to reduce all exercises to working with a punched card, so we combined them with traditional means.
All of the above types of independent work are educational. Some of them are based mainly on students' reproduction of the teacher's actions. Others require self-use knowledge, abilities, skills acquired earlier, in situations similar to those in which they were formed, or in new, different situations. Teaching independent work also includes the so-called creative work, which requires students to independent conduct observations, independent conclusion, independent selection of material, I will give you tasks when working with a textbook in literature lessons.
Selection main idea read.
Making a plan for what you read.
Verbal drawing of pictures to the text, stories from pictures.
Making a plan using a system of questions.
Dividing the text into semantic parts and highlighting the main idea.
Drawing up various plans (simple, detailed, oral, written, in the form of quotes, theses, questions).
Drawing up comparative characteristics.
When working with the textbook, the tasks were first selected simple, then became more complex, the time to complete was reduced, and the requirements for independent work and handling of skills increased. The textbook provides the basic material for students’ independent work. It determines the content and system of independent work in primary school. But, of course, a textbook alone is not enough for the proper organization of independent work, so we used didactic handouts that allowed us to differentiate tasks, carry out individual work, and used reminders for working with the book. The importance of independent work of schoolchildren, from an educational and purely didactic point of view, is beyond any doubt. It is believed that in elementary grades the share of independent work should be 20% of teaching time, in middle grades - less than 50%, in high grades at least 70%
Independent work has a significant impact on the depth and strength of students’ knowledge of the subject, on the development of their cognitive abilities, and on the pace of learning new material.
1. Independent work of students in class
One of the most accessible and practice-tested ways to increase the effectiveness of a lesson and activate students in the classroom is the appropriate organization of independent educational work. It occupies an exceptional place in the modern lesson, because the student acquires knowledge only in the process of personal independent learning activity.
Advanced teachers have always believed that in the classroom children should work as independently as possible, and the teacher should guide this independent work and provide material for it. Meanwhile, at school it is still rare to see independent work that would be aimed at developing methods of cognitive activity; schoolchildren are taught little ways and techniques of independent work, in particular methods of expanded and condensed description, explanation, derivation of rules and regulations, formulation of ideas and their preliminary development in meaning and content, i.e. those techniques that form the basis of a student’s educational and cognitive activity.
2. The concept of student independent work
Under independent study workusually understand any active activity of students organized by the teacher, aimed at fulfilling the set didactic goal in a specially allocated time: the search for knowledge, its comprehension, consolidation, formation and development of skills, generalization and systematization of knowledge. As a didactic phenomenon, independent work is, on the one hand, an educational task, i.e. what the student must perform, the object of his activity, on the other hand, the form of manifestation of the corresponding activity: memory, thinking, creative imagination when the student performs an educational task, which ultimately leads the student either to obtaining completely new knowledge, previously unknown to him, or to deepening and expanding the scope of already acquired knowledge.
Therefore, independent work is a learning tool that:
in each specific learning situation it corresponds to a specific didactic goal and task;
forms in the student at each stage of his movement from ignorance to knowledge the necessary volume and level of knowledge, skills and abilities to solve a certain class cognitive tasks and corresponding promotion from lower to higher levels mental activity;
develops in students a psychological attitude towards independent systematic replenishment of their knowledge and the development of skills to navigate the flow of scientific and social information when solving new cognitive problems;
is the most important tool for pedagogical guidance and management of the student’s independent cognitive activity in the learning process.
3. Levels of independent activity of schoolchildren
Research by practicing scientists and psychologists allows us to conditionally identify four levels of independent activity of students, corresponding to their learning capabilities:
Copying actions of students according to a given pattern. Identification of objects and phenomena, their recognition by comparison with a known sample. At this level, students are prepared for independent activity.
Reproductive activity to reproduce information about various properties of the object being studied, which generally does not go beyond the memory level. However, at this level the generalization of techniques and methods of cognitive activity begins, their transfer to solving more complex but typical problems.
Productive activity of independent application of acquired knowledge to solve problems that go beyond the known model, requiring the ability to make inductive and deductive conclusions.
Independent activity to transfer knowledge when solving problems in completely new situations, conditions for drawing up new decision-making programs, developing hypothetical analogue thinking.
Each of these levels, although they are identified conditionally, exists objectively. Give independent task for a student at a higher level is, at best, a waste of time in class.
Naturally, the maximum program for any creative teacher is to bring as many children as possible to the fourth level of independence. However, it should be remembered that the path to it lies only through the three previous levels. Accordingly, a program of actions for the teacher is built when organizing independent work in the lesson.
4. Requirements for organizing students’ independent activities in the classroom
Let's consider the basic requirements for organizing students' independent activities in the classroom. They boil down to those listed below. Any independent work at any level of independence has a specific goal. Every student knows the order and techniques of doing the work.
Independent work corresponds to the student’s learning capabilities, and the degree of difficulty satisfies the principle of gradual transition from one level of independence to another. The educational process uses the results and conclusions of independent work, including homework.
A combination of various types of independent work and management of the work process itself is provided.
The purpose of independent work is the development of cognitive abilities, initiative in decision making, creative thinking. Therefore, when selecting tasks, it is necessary to minimize their routine execution. The content of the work and the form of its implementation should arouse students’ interest and desire to complete the work to the end.
Independent work is organized so that they develop skills and work habits.
According to the form of organization, independent work can be divided into individual, frontal and group.
5. Types of independent work
In accordance with the levels of independent educational and cognitive activity of students, four types of independent work can be distinguished: reproducing independent work based on a model, reconstructive-variative, heuristic and creative. Each of the four types has its own didactic goals.
Reproducing independent work based on a model is necessary for memorizing methods of action in specific situations (signs of concepts, facts and definitions), developing skills and abilities and their strong consolidation. The activity of students when performing work of this type, strictly speaking, is not entirely independent, since their independence is limited to simple reproduction and repetition of actions according to a model. However, the role of such work is very great. They form the foundation for truly independent student activity. The teacher's role is to determine the optimal amount of work for each student. A hasty transition to other types of independent work will deprive the student of the necessary knowledge base, abilities and skills. Delay in work according to the model is a waste of time, causing boredom and idleness. Schoolchildren lose interest in learning and the subject, and their development slows down.
Independent work of a reconstructive-variative type allows, on the basis of previously acquired knowledge and given by the teacher general idea find on your own specific ways to solve problems in relation to the given conditions of the task. Independent work of this type leads schoolchildren to a meaningful transfer of knowledge into typical situations, teaches them to analyze events, phenomena, facts, forms techniques and methods of cognitive activity, promotes the development of internal motives for knowledge, and creates conditions for the development of schoolchildren’s mental activity. Independent work of this type forms the basis for the student’s further creative activity.
HeuristicIndependent work develops the skills to find an answer outside of a known sample. As a rule, the student determines the way to solve the problem and finds it. The student already has the knowledge necessary to solve the problem, but it can be difficult to select it from memory. At this level of productive activity, creative personality student. The constant search for new solutions, generalization and systematization of acquired knowledge, transferring it to completely non-standard situations makes the student’s knowledge more flexible, mobile, develops skills, abilities and the need for self-education. The types of heuristic independent work, as well as other types of work, can be very diverse.
One of the common types of heuristic independent work in school practice is independent explanation, analysis of a demonstration, phenomenon, reaction, strict substantiation of conclusions using arguments or equations and calculations.
As an illustration, consider a fragment of a physics lesson in the 6th grade. In the previous two lessons, students studied and consolidated the effect of a liquid on a submerged body and the conditions for floating bodies. And now the teacher shows a simple experiment. Fill a bottle with a narrow neck to the top with water, lower a match with a piece of plasticine at the end (the match is completely immersed in water, but floats), close it thumb the neck of the bottle and presses on the water. The match smoothly sinks into the water. Then, at his command, the match rises up, stops at any depth, falls down again, etc. Most class is amazed. The teacher offers to explain this phenomenon. This task is heuristic. It is clear to everyone that the solution has something to do with the change in pressure inside the liquid produced by the finger. But, on the one hand, this change in pressure is the same at both ends of a vertically located match, and therefore should not seem to change the balance of the match, on the other hand, it is clear that the buoyancy of the match does change. Pressure is not included in the formula for the floating conditions of bodies just studied. So what is the mechanism for the buoyancy of a match? Finding the answer to this question brings a lot of joy to sixth graders.
Creativeindependent work is the crown of the system of independent activity of schoolchildren. This activity allows students to gain knowledge that is fundamentally new to them and strengthens the skills of independent search for knowledge. Psychologists believe that the mental activity of schoolchildren when solving problematic, creative problems is in many ways similar to the mental activity of creative and scientific workers. Tasks of this type are one of the most effective means of developing a creative personality.
6. Types of independent work in training
independent work student lesson
In teaching practice, each type of independent work is represented by a wide variety of types of work used by teachers in the system of classroom and extracurricular activities. Let us list the most common and effective of them.
Working with a book. This is work with text and graphic material from a textbook: retelling the main content of part of the text; drawing up a response plan based on the text read; short summary text; searching for answers to questions posed in advance to the text; analysis, comparison, generalization and systematization of the material of several paragraphs. Work with primary sources, reference books and popular science literature, taking notes and summarizing what you read.
Exercises: training, reproducing exercises according to the model; reconstructive exercises; drawing up various tasks and questions and solving them; reviewing the answers of other students, assessing their activities in the lesson; various exercises aimed at developing practical skills and skills.
Solving various problems and performing practical and laboratory work.
Various independent tests, tests, dictations, essays.
Preparation of reports and abstracts.
Carrying out individual and group tasks in connection with excursions and observations in nature.
Home laboratory experiments and observations.
Technical modeling and design.
Most of the listed types of independent work can be compiled for different levels independent learning activities of students, i.e. assigned to each of the four types of independent work listed above. A huge arsenal of various independent works for a variety of didactic purposes is available to a creative teacher.
The variety of independent work excludes prescription instructions for its implementation. However, any work must begin Withstudents’ awareness of the purpose of action and the method of action. The effectiveness of all work largely depends on this.
A study of the work experience of advanced teachers shows that one of the main features that distinguishes the level of their skill is the ability to use in their work a variety of independent work that complements each other, which takes into account the educational capabilities of schoolchildren.
Today, a bad lesson is mainly characterized primarily by the fact that in such a lesson most students spend their time idly and do not work. In the lessons of great masters, students spend a significant part of the lesson doing a variety of independent work.
Observations of the practice of organizing independent work and analysis of the results of students’ implementation large number Such work allows us to identify the most common shortcomings in their organization:
there is no system in the organization of work, they are random in content, quantity, and form;
the level of independence offered does not correspond to the student’s learning capabilities;
the individual approach in the selection of tasks is poorly expressed;
independent work is monotonous, its duration is not optimal for of this class.
In order for students to be able to independently describe this or that object or phenomenon when performing a learning task, solving a learning task, and correctly perform all operations, it is necessary:
clearly formulate the description task indicating its boundaries - collapsed or expanded;
present an object for observation - in kind or model, on a diagram, drawing, drawing; if a phenomenon is being studied, then give a general picture of its course - verbally, using a map, drawing, diagram;
give all the necessary previously studied supporting concepts, and also present in finished form description language map - names of the object and its components, including terms, symbols, code signs;
determine boundaries and provide guidelines for independent recognition of significant signs of similarity and difference; if necessary, give a hint - where, how and what signs to look for.
Let's give some examples.
Let’s assume that after learning about the concept of “war” in history lessons, general view Students will have to give a detailed description of one of the specific wars of the slave era. Then, having given them a task for a detailed description, the teacher:
gives brief information, which indicates the years of the war, its participants, their forces, main stages, battles, results;
reads some excerpts from historical documents, fiction, if possible, shows fragments from educational and feature films;
presents a list of supporting concepts, names historical figures, military leaders, names of cities, places of battles, etc.;
indicates the boundaries of the search for significant signs of similarity between the war being studied and those previously studied, and also essential features differences - the nature of the war, scale, time, features of the battles.
In a similar way, in geography lessons, you can prepare students to construct a story based on description, for example, natural conditions the geographic region being studied; in biology lessons - to describe the structure of a plant or animal organism; physics or chemistry ~ to describe the structure of a device, technical or chemical structure.
Preparing students to complete tasks to explain previously described objects or phenomena consists of such moments. Teacher:
provides guidelines for recognizing stable connections or relationships between the components and sides of the described object or phenomenon; if necessary, indicates the nature of the connections - cause-and-effect, functional, genetic, morphological - and the boundaries of their action;
in order to identify sustainable connections or relationships shows methods of trial transformations (calculations, measurements, construction, experiments - in exact sciences), estimates and transfer of connections from the studied model of an object or phenomenon to a previously studied one;
shows possible ways logical construction of sentences that would reflect the connections or relationships found - logical schemes of sentences, their possible options, coding methods (where possible and necessary);
shows typical methods of substantiating the formulated proposals and, if necessary, a detailed plan of proof, its logical diagram;
gives a list of supporting concepts and axiomatic provisions used in the proof.
When preparing students for an assignment in history class to explain war during the era of slavery, this might look like this. Teacher:
sets the task of explaining the nature and causes of the war, as well as the reasons for the defeat or victory of the warring countries;
indicates guidelines for recognizing the connection between social order warring countries and the nature of wars; guidelines for recognizing the causes of war, as well as the reasons for defeat or victory;
reminds by what criteria the just or unjust nature of a war is established, and gives the task of correlating these signs with the war being studied; indicates the typical causes of wars in general and the typical causes of the defeat or victory of the warring parties in principle and proposes to correlate them with those reasons that are characteristic of this case;
gives logical schemes of sentences reflecting the found patterns: “... was... of a (fair, unfair) nature”; “The main goal of the war is ... (the seizure of foreign territories, slaves and prisoners, wealth, the crushing of a trade competitor, etc.”; “The main reasons for victory ... (the weakness and disunity of the enemy, including political, military, economic) "; "The main reasons for the defeat...";
provides supporting concepts and axiological provisions for proof.
The designated range of issues that make up the content of students’ independent work in the lesson can be successfully resolved when students are prepared for highest level cognitive independence. But it can be reached through intermediate steps, each of which will raise students from one step to another.
So, taking into account the importance of students’ independent work in the educational process of a modern school, the teacher’s task is, first of all, to create necessary conditions for the effective implementation of all types of independent work, the most important of which are:
gradual introduction of types of independent work of varying degrees of complexity and stimulation of mental activity;
mandatory preparation of students to complete assignments (message background knowledge and training in general educational skills);
variety of types of independent work used in teaching each academic subject;
selection of tasks that help to awaken interest in their implementation, containing feasible difficulties;
familiarizing students with sources of information necessary to complete the task;
provision by the teacher of assistance in work if necessary;
teaching students self-control techniques when doing work;
obligatory check by the teacher of students’ independent work.
Literature
1.Babansky Yu.K. Pedagogy. - M.: Education, 1983.
2.Bogoyavlenskaya A.E. Active forms and methods of teaching biology. - M.: Education, 1996.
.Dubinina N.V. Thematic and lesson planning for the textbook “Biology. Bacteria. Mushrooms. Plants". - M. Publishing house "Drofa", 2001.
.Ishkina I.F. Biology. Lesson plans. - Volgograd, 2002.
.Kalinova G.S. Methods of teaching biology (grades 6 - 7) - M.: Education, 1987.
.Kolesov D.V. Thematic and lesson planning for the textbook “Biology. Man" - M.: Bustard Publishing House.
.Kropotova L.A. Design and Analysis modern lesson. - Novokuznetsk, 2001.
.Latyushin V.V. Thematic and lesson planning for the textbook “Biology. Animals" - M.: Bustard Publishing House, 2001.
.Lutskaya L.A., Nikishov A.I. Independent work of students in zoology. - M.: Education, 1987.
.Portnov M.L. Lessons from a novice teacher. - M.: Education, 1993.
.Rosenshtein A.M. Independent work of students in biology. - M.: Education, 1998.
.Sukhova T.S. Control and testing work in biology (grades 6 - 8). - M.: Publishing house "Drofa", 1997.
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