Formation of the Russian unified state. Formation of a unified state of Russia, etc.

The feudal fragmentation of Russian lands was a pan-European phenomenon and had a number of reasons. Name them. As a result of fragmentation, 15 independent principalities were formed. What role did the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech in 1097 play in this process? Name the largest government centers that were formed in Rus'. It is necessary to find out their geographical location, as well as the most important factors, contributing to their power and influence. Vladimir-Suzdal Principality – North-Eastern Rus'. Note the active colonization of lands, the growth of cities, crafts and trade in the 12th century. Give a description of the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod Big Nest. There is a tendency here to become strong princely power , which caused resistance from the boyars . Galicia-Volynskoe principality was the strongest in the south of Rus'. The proximity of European countries contributed to the prosperity of crafts and trade, and the mild climate and fertile lands contributed to the development of agriculture. It happened here strong boyars , which fought with the prince for power . Novgorodskaya boyar republic – Northwestern Rus' developed in a special way. Novgorod was one of the ten largest trading cities in Europe and was a major craft center. Power in Novgorod belonged to veche , which elected prince, mayor, thousand, archbishop . Find out their functions. Please note that virtually all the main issues were resolved here boyars . What's it like meaning of feudal fragmentation? Find in the educational literature data indicating the flourishing of cities, crafts and trade, and the further development of culture during this period.

Features of political fragmentation in individual principalities and lands of Kievan Rus

Lesson 2.

1. Expansion into northern and northwestern Rus'. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and its influence on the further development of Ancient Rus'.

2. Reasons for the rise of Moscow. The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state in the 14th century - beginning. XVI centuries

Question 1. In the 13th century. Russian lands experienced blows from conquerors both from the north-west - Swedish feudal lords and German knights, and from the east - Mongol-Tatars. Tell us about the struggle of Northwestern Rus' against the conquerors. What role did he play in this fight? Alexander Nevskiy?

The student needs to find out where they settled mongol tribes at the end of the 12th – beginning of the 13th century, their social system, main occupation, characterize the Mongol-Tatar army. Tell us about invasion Mongols to North-Eastern Rus' in 1237-1238. and Southern Rus' in 1239-1241. What are the reasons for the military successes of the conquerors? Where and when did the Golden Horde state arise?

Question about consequences Mongolian Tatar invasion to Russian lands is debatable. Recommended educational literature will help you clarify existing points of view. It is necessary to separate concepts "invasion" and "domination". In the first case, we are talking about the devastation of Russian lands, the death of people, material and spiritual values. In the second - about the system of relations between Rus' and the Horde. Rus' became part of the Golden Horde with the rights autonomy. Political dependence Russian lands consisted of the Horde issuing labels (letters) to the princes for the right to reign. Economic dependence consisted of paying tribute (Horde exit). What was the attitude of the Mongol-Tatars to the Russian Church?

Question 2. In the XIV – XV centuries. a unified Russian state is being formed. Should find out preconditions this process. Unlike Western Europe, where they prevailed socio-economic factors V state formation , dominated in Russian lands political factor - the need to unite the Russian principalities to overthrow Mongol-Tatar rule. However, economic conditions for unification were also developing. Read what changes are taking place in agriculture, engineering and technology, pay attention to the growth of cities. The possibility of unification also means a common faith, language, and the foundations of culture.

Next, it is necessary to take into account that the role center Tver, Ryazan, Novgorod, Lithuania, and Moscow claimed the unification of Russian lands. Moreover, Moscow, as the youngest principality, had the least chance of success. Consider reasons for the rise Moscow. The most important among them is policy Moscow princes. Being flexible allowed them to get ahead of their less fortunate rivals.

In the unification of Russian lands we can distinguish several stages. Give them a description. First covers almost the entire XIV century. Tell us about the board Ivan Kalita. Why did he manage to receive a label for a great reign from the Horde? What did this give to the Russian lands? Dmitry Donskoy the first of the Moscow princes began open struggle with the Mongol-Tatars. What is the meaning Battle of Kulikovo? Second period - from 1389 to 1462. At this time it happens feudal war. Indicate its causes and consequences. Third period – 1462-1533. – reign IvanaIIIand VasilyIII, When Union Russian lands were completed. Ivan III was already called “the sovereign of all Rus'”, and not the Moscow prince. Find facts in the textbook that support folding single state.

The state cannot exist without governing bodies. Tell us about their formation. What role did they play under the Grand Duke? Boyar Duma, Castle And Coffers. The first began to appear orders. What questions did they deal with? The country was divided into volosts, headed by governors. Define their responsibilities. What's happened feeding? In 1497, the first set of all-Russian laws was adopted - Code of Law. What was its content?

Lesson 3.

1. Ivan IV. Search for alternative ways of socio-political development of Russia: reforms and oprichnina.

2. Time of Troubles, its causes and results. The accession of the Romanov dynasty.

3. The evolution of the state-political and class system in the 17th century. Split of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Question 1. By the 16th century. the centralization of the state was not completed; large-scale transformations were necessary to solve this problem. Their implementation is associated with the name IvanaIV, describe his personality, note that he is the first of the rulers of Russia married to the kingdom. In the reign of Ivan IV, two periods are clearly visible - reforms late 40's - 50's. and about cause 60's - early 80's In carrying out reforms, the tsar relied on the support Zemsky Sobor. Representatives of what strata of society were part of it? What issues did he solve? What is an estate-representative monarchy? The unofficial government under Ivan IV became Elected Rada(to please - to take care). Who were its members? In 1550, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code of Law. Tell us about its contents. Created system of specialized orders. Name the most important of them. Changes are taking place in local government system. The governorship turned out to be ineffective. In those areas of the country where nobles lived, the population chose labial headman. Where there were no nobles, the peasants chose zemstvo elder. What duties did they perform? To conduct an active foreign policy, the state needed armed forces. Military reform approved the “domestic” and “recruitment” service. What's happened estate? To whom and under what conditions was it provided? Who was recruiting? In 1551, at a church council it was adopted Stoglav. What changes in religious sphere did he fix it? Was limited localism. Define it. What was the significance of the reforms of Ivan IV?

Oprichnina(1564 – 1572). Tell us about the circumstances of its introduction. Which lands were included in the oprichnina? How were the oprichnina lands governed? What policy was pursued in relation to those areas of the country that were not included in the oprichnina lands? Causes The transition to oprichnina is a complex issue on which there are lively discussions in historical science. Find in educational literature different points of view on this issue. In general, we can highlight objective contradictions(political and social) internal structure of the state and personal motives Ivan IV. What were the consequences of the oprichnina policy? Give overall assessment reign of Ivan IV.

Question 2 . In historical literature, the events of the late 16th and early 17th centuries are usually called the Time of Troubles. It was structural crisis, which covered all areas of life. Without going into details of scientific discussions about reasons The Troubles, it should be said that the ruinous consequences of the oprichnina policy increased tension in society, which was already high. The formation of a state required enormous material costs, which placed a heavy burden on all segments of the population. The situation became even more complicated as a result dynastic crisis. What are its reasons?

Time of Troubles begins accession to the throne of Boris Godunov in 1598 and ends the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne in 1613. Next, it is necessary to consider the main events of the Time of Troubles. Why was he elected to the kingdom? Boris Godunov? Describe his reign. Pay attention to his policy on the peasant issue. What's happened “lesson summer”? The fragility of Godunov’s position on the throne can be explained by the fact that in the perception of people of that time, he was not real, “unnatural,” but an elected king. Hence the phenomenon of imposture, the search for a real king. Tell us about False DmitryI. On what terms did he receive Polish support? Why was he able to take the Russian throne? What was the reason for the overthrow of False Dmitry? He was then elected to the throne Vasily Shuisky(1606 – 1610), “boyar king”. During this period the Troubles reached their climax. Tell us about the uprising I. Bolotnikova. The defeat of this uprising did not lead to the strengthening of Shuisky’s power, because a new False Dmitry appeared near Moscow. Why was he called the “Tushino thief”? Influence False DmitryII spread over a large area of ​​the country. In fact, a dual power arose - two sovereigns, two capitals, two patriarchs. Vasily Shuisky concludes an agreement with Sweden for help in fighting the impostor. How did this agreement turn out for Russia? These events led to open intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. What were Poland's plans for the Russian throne? When did the Poles occupy Moscow? Since the autumn of 1610, the Troubles took on the character of a national struggle against the Polish invaders. 4 November 1612 d. second militia liberated Moscow from foreigners. Who led it? In February 1613, at the Zemsky Sobor, he was elected king Michael Romanov. The time of troubles is over. What were the consequences of the Troubles? Please note that statehood was restored only thanks to the selfless struggle of the Russian people.

Question 3. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty became the time heyday of the estate-representative monarchy. Its main elements were Boyar Duma And Zemsky Sobor. Who was part of the Boyar Duma? What role did she play in governing the country? After the end of the Time of Troubles, it was necessary to restore the state, therefore, in the person of the Zemsky Sobor, the government received the support of the entire society. From 1613 to 1619 he met almost continuously. From the middle of the 17th century. begins in Russia formation of absolutism. Define absolutism. Firstly, is changingappearance and meaning Boyar Duma. Its numbers are growing due to the nobles appointed by the Tsar. Why does power seek to rely not on the boyars, but on the nobles? Later, the Near or Indoor Duma was separated from the Duma. Secondly, by the middle of the century The activities of Zemsky Sobors ceased. To resolve what issue did he meet in full force for the last time? Thirdly, it begins heyday of the order systems. At this time, the formation of a bureaucracy occurs. Its characteristic feature was numerous abuses. Why? IN local government Changes are also taking place indicating increased centralization. Elected elders are being replaced by governors, appointed by the authorities.

In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted Cathedral Code. Tell us about its contents. Please note that its provisions, in particular, contributed to the strengthening of autocracy.

Split of the Russian Orthodox Church. Began in the 17th century. the formation of absolutism changed the relationship between government and the church and, inevitably, should have led to its deprivation of feudal privileges and subordination to the state. Tell us about the conflict between Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon. What caused this conflict? Why was there a need? church reforms. What role did Patriarch Nikon play in its implementation? Tell us about the most significant changes adopted in 1654 by the church council, which became cause of the church split. Who began to be called Old Believers?

In the 17th century regulation and unification of estates continues. How did this find expression? Boyars remains the upper class. Further happening strengthening the position of the nobility and his rapprochement with the boyars. Support with facts. In 1682, localism was abolished, which also contributed to “reducing the distance” between the boyars and nobles. The influential class remains clergy, formerly a major feudal lord. More and more try to differentiate between different categories of peasants, which were divided into owner's, palace and black sowing. The urban population was represented merchants and townspeople. Give them a description. Until the beginning of the 18th century. remained in the structure of Russian society slaves and “walking” (free) people.

Lesson 4

Transformations of Peter the Great in the 1st quarter of the 18th century.

The Age of Catherine II: “enlightened absolutism” and its contradictions.

Attempts at reform political system during the reign of Alexander I. Domestic policy of Nicholas I.

Question 1. During the reign of Peter I (1682–1725) in Russia, major reforms. What are their premises? What is the meaning? By the end of the 17th century. the country lagged significantly behind Western European countries: science and education, industry and navy were absent, the organization of the army and the state apparatus were hopelessly outdated. The transformations of Peter I covered the most diverse spheres of public life (which ones?), their essence was “Europeanization” Russia.

The implementation of reforms was associated with Northern War. Who did Russia fight with? What goals did she pursue? Failures at the beginning of the war required military reform. Tell us about its contents. Why regular army more combat-ready? Peter I attached great importance construction navy. What are the results of military reform? underwent a radical restructuring organs central and local government. In 1711 it was created Governing Senate, which replaced the Boyar Duma. What is the difference between them? What functions did the Senate perform? The outdated order system has been replaced collegiums. Name the most important of them. Was created Chief Magistrate, to which all city magistrates were subordinate. Regional reform changed territorial division countries. Governorates were formed. What powers did the governor have? Peter I completed the process of subordinating the church to the state, transferring its management Synod. Thus, during the reign of Peter I formation completed absolutism. In the social sphere, the introduction of Table of ranks, because it provided the opportunity for career advancement thanks to personal qualities, and not origin. Decree on unified inheritance Peter I equated estates with estates, thereby the line between boyars and nobles ceased to exist. Summing up Peter's transformations, it should be emphasized that there are positive and negative points of view in assessing their significance. Consider the Arguments opposite sides, whose assessment seems most reasonable to you.

Question 2 . When studying domestic policy Catherine II (1762–1796), a number of circumstances should be taken into account. Firstly, being an ardent admirer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, the empress sought to rule in the spirit of “ enlightened absolutism." Secondly, the peasant war of E. Pugachev, the bourgeois revolution in France, the “rebel worse than Pugachev” A. Radishchev forced her to be careful in carrying out reforms. Thirdly, caution was also required because Catherine illegally took the throne and had to take into account the sentiments of the nobility. Therefore, the empress's policy was contradictory. You need to familiarize yourself with the basic ideas of the Enlightenment and “enlightened absolutism”. In accordance with them, Catherine sought to transform Russia on the basis of the principles of freedom and legality, but not to allow the weakening of the autocratic foundations of her power. Tell us why Catherine called Stacked commission. What ideas did she present in "Nakaze"? Why was she forced to dissolve the commission? In accordance with the theory of separation of powers, Catherine did an attempt to create an independent judicial system , transferring judicial powers Senate. A system of estate courts was created. Peasants' War E. Pugacheva showed the need to shift the center of gravity in public administration from the center to the localities. In 1775 it was carried out provincial reform. What changes have occurred in local government? During the reign of Empress Catherine, secularization church lands, i.e. they were transferred to the state. One of the largest transformations in the spirit of “enlightened absolutism” was “Charter of Complaint to the Nobility” 1785. Check out its contents. In accordance with the theory of the “regular state,” Peter I obliged the nobles be on lifelong public service . By decree of Catherine, the first free estate. At the same time, the empress tried to create another free class - the urban one. “Certificate of Commitment to Cities” Elected governing bodies were introduced, but they came under strict control of the central authorities. At the same time, Catherine's reign was marked tightening serfdom, the nobles received, in fact, an unlimited right to dispose of serfs. Support this point with examples. The educational initiatives of the Empress had a significant influence on the spiritual development of Russian society. Tell us about them. Under the influence of the French bourgeois revolution, Catherine persecuted A. Radishchev, N. Novikov, and introduced strict censorship. Assess the transformations of Catherine II.

Question 3 . Alexander I considered one of his most important responsibilities as an “enlightened” monarch reform of the government system. He took an active part in the development of reform projects at the beginning of his reign. Secret committee. Since 1807 this work was entrusted MM. Speransky. His project for the reorganization of public administration was based on principle of separation of powers. Legislative power was concentrated in the State Duma. Who received voting rights under this project? Executive power belonged to the ministries. The Senate became supreme judicial organ. The State Council was created under the emperor. What functions was he supposed to perform? Laws were to be adopted by the Duma, and presented by the emperor, the government and the State Council. The emperor himself could pass laws apart from the Duma. Could such a reform, if implemented, limit the autocracy? Why didn't the emperor sign this project? In 1810 there was the State Council was established, which existed until 1917. In 1802 there were ministries created. Tell us about the significance of these reforms. In 1815 Alexander signed constitution of Poland. After the Patriotic War of 1812, the Tsar again ordered the development of a draft constitution for Russia N.N. Novosiltsev. Tell us about its contents. Why did Alexander withdraw from government affairs in the 1920s? What role did he play at this time? A.A. Arakcheev? What's happened military settlements? Why were plans to reform the political system not implemented?

Starting with Peter Russian emperors looked to Europe as a role model. NikolaiI(1825-1855) ascended the throne when bourgeois revolutions were taking place in the West, and the Decembrist nobles rebelled in Russia. These circumstances determined conservative-protective nature his reign. At the same time, the king was convinced of the need to resolve the most pressing issues. In general, his domestic policy was aimed at strengthening the power of Russia. Considering that all state affairs should be led personally by the emperor, Nicholas turns His Imperial Majesty's Own Office to the highest body to which all were controlled government agencies. Tell me what you were doing IIdepartment Offices? Tell us about your work codification of Russian laws. Who was it assigned to? What tasks were set for IIIdepartment? Emphasize that first and foremost it was supposed to monitor public attitudes. Nikolai considered one of the most important internal political tasks strengthening police-bureaucratic apparatus on the principles of centralization and bureaucratization, which, in his opinion, should have made it possible to effectively combat revolutionary sentiments in society and strengthen the autocracy. To achieve this goal, a huge army of officials was required, the main quality of which should be diligence. What is the meaning of the expression “the uniform defeated the tailcoat”? To prevent a repetition of the events of December 14, 1825, measures were taken in the field of public education. Tell us about the content school And university reforms? What goal did they pursue? The press was subjected to strict control by the state. Why censorship regulations called "cast iron"?

Lesson 5.

Political reforms of Alexander II and Alexandra III.

The peasant question in the 19th century. and the main stages of its solution (from Alexander I to Alexander III).

Social movements in Russia in the 19th century (Decembrists, liberals, conservatives, revolutionaries).

Question 1. The abolition of serfdom required changes in political and spiritual sphere. In the 60s - 70s followed series of reforms, the purpose of which was to harmonize the state system and administration with the new situation of the peasantry. In 1864 it was held zemstvo reform, a little bit later - urban. Zemstvos became local government bodies. How did they form? Which classes participated in the elections? What issues were under the jurisdiction of zemstvos? In the same year it is held judicial reform. It was based on the following principles: lack of authority of the court; its independence from the administration; adversarial legal process; openness and transparency of the judicial process; creation of the institution of jurors. Please evaluate this reform. In 1865 the preliminary censorship. In 1874, transformations were carried out into army. Tell us about the content of the military reform. Universal conscription made it possible to maintain a relatively small army in peacetime, and during war to increase its number at the expense of reserves. How has your military service changed? The series of reforms was to be completed by the implementation project M.T. Loris-Melikova to involve elected officials from local self-government bodies in resolving state issues, which, in fact, would mean limitation of autocracy. The signing of this document by Alexander II was scheduled for March 1, 1881. Why was it not signed? What happened on this day? Assessing the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century, emphasize that they marked Russia’s entry onto the path bourgeois development and beginning of formation civil society and right states. Describe the reign of Alexander III, the peacemaker.

The reign of Vasily the Dark's son, Ivan III (1462-1505), was the most important stage in the process of creating the Russian state. This was the time of the formation of the main territory of Russia, the formation of its political foundations. Ivan III was a major statesman, a man of great political plans and decisive undertakings. Smart, far-sighted, prudent and persistent, he was a worthy successor to his father's work.

The highest goal of Ivan III was the unification of all Russian lands under the rule of Moscow. In 1463, the Yaroslavl principality was annexed to Moscow, then the vast Perm region was conquered and passed into the hands of the Grand Duke Rostov Principality. In 1471, it was the turn of “Mr. Veliky Novgorod”: the army of the Grand Duke set out from Moscow, and Novgorod, defeated in the battle on the Sheloni River, was brought to obedience. In 1478 Novgorod Republic was liquidated, and Novgorod itself and its lands became part of the Moscow Principality. To strengthen his power in Novgorod, Ivan III evicted 1000 Novgorod boyars and merchants to Moscow; Moscow service people were resettled in their place. In 1485, Moscow's old rival, Tver, was conquered, and four years later the Vyatka region joined Moscow. Ivan III began to be called the Grand Duke of All Rus'.

Having united most of the Russian lands, Ivan III started behave like an independent sovereign and stopped paying tribute to the Tatars. Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, decided to restore dominance over Russia. Ambitious but cautious, he prepared for several years for a campaign against Russian soil. With victories in Central Asia and the Caucasus, he strengthened his power and again raised the power of the Khanate.

In 1480, Akhmat, having concluded an alliance with the Lithuanian king Casimir, raised the Great Horde on a campaign. Danger loomed over Russia. Akhmat's troops approached the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka), which flowed along the border of the Moscow Principality and Lithuania. The Tatars' attempts to cross the river were unsuccessful. The “standing on the Ugra” of the enemy troops began, which ended in favor of the Russians: on November 11, 1480, Akhmat turned away. The failure of the campaign caused a new outbreak of strife in the Horde, and Akhmat was killed by his enemy, the Siberian Khan Ivak. Ivak cut off Akhmat's head and sent it to the Grand Duke; Ivan III warmly greeted Ivak's ambassadors and presented gifts to them and the khan.

Under Ivan III, the basic principles of the foreign policy of the Moscow state were formed, principles that determined this policy for centuries to come. Ivan III put forward the position that the Moscow princes are the heirs of the princes of Kievan Rus, and, therefore, all the lands of Kievan Rus are the patrimony of the Moscow sovereigns. The Grand Duke started a war with the Lithuanian-Russian state and conquered 19 cities and 70 volosts.

After the Golden Horde finally disintegrated into the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, Ivan III declared Muscovite Rus' the heir of the Golden Horde and laid claim to it former lands. Ivan III's successors continued his policies.

At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, a powerful power emerged around the Moscow principality, which became the largest in Europe: “Astonished Europe,” wrote K. Marx, “at the beginning of Ivan’s reign, not even aware of Muscovy, squeezed between Lithuania and the Tatars, was stunned by the sudden appearance a huge empire on its eastern borders, and Sultan Bayazet himself, before whom she was in awe, heard for the first time arrogant speeches from the Muscovites.”

As the lands were concentrated under the rule of the Grand Duke of Moscow, the very nature of power, its organization and ideology changed. In diplomatic correspondence, Ivan III from 1485 called himself: “John, by the grace of God, sovereign of all Rus'.”

Mainly the brothers and nephews of the Grand Duke remained appanage princes, but they no longer had the right to mint their own coins, establish diplomatic relations with foreign states and rule over important matters.

In order to increase the prestige of his power, Ivan III, after the death of his first wife (Tver Princess Maria Borisovna), married Sophia Paleologus, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI4. By her marriage, the princess made the Moscow sovereigns as successors to the Byzantine emperors. Following the princess, craftsmen were sent from Italy, where she was educated at the papal court, who built a new Assumption Cathedral, the Palace of Facets and a new stone palace on the site of the previous wooden mansion. In the Kremlin, a complex and strict ceremony began to be introduced at the court. A new, more solemn language appeared in diplomatic papers, and florid terminology developed. During receptions of foreign ambassadors, Ivan III sat on the throne given to him by the Palaiologans. The ambassadors had to bow low to the sovereign, dressed in clothes embroidered with gold and silver. An integral part of them were Byzantine “barmas” (mantles) and the so-called “Monomakh’s hat”, allegedly donated by the Byzantine emperor to Vladimir Monomakh.

Under Ivan III appeared new coat of arms Russian state5. The old Moscow coat of arms, depicting a horseman slaying a serpent with a spear, was combined with the Byzantine double headed eagle. On the seal with the coat of arms of the Russian state, the full title of Ivan III was reproduced: “ By God's grace Sovereign of All Rus', Grand Duke John, Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugorsk, and Perm, and Bulgaria and others.”

As centralization progressed, the organization of government administration also changed. The number of appanage principalities decreased, and former appanage princes joined the ranks of the Moscow boyars. The most notable boyars were members of the Boyar Duma - the highest advisory body; All the most important state issues and issues of palace management were resolved in the Boyar Duma. Gradually, a whole system of palace institutions grew up, in charge of the grand ducal economy and palace lands (Novgorod, Tverskoy and other “palaces”). Along with the system of palaces, at the end of the 15th century, central government institutions began to emerge, which were in charge of individual branches of government in all lands of the state. They were called huts, and later - orders. The huts were usually headed by boyars, but the main work was done by clerks, and from among the serving nobles, office managers and their assistants.

Administratively, the main territory of the state was divided into counties, and the latter into volosts and camps. General local administration was concentrated among governors and volosts. They were judges, collectors of the princes' income. The governors were also the military commanders of cities and districts; according to the old custom, they were supported (“fed”) at the expense of the population. Initially, “feeding” - extortions - was not limited to anything; later, “feeding” standards were established.

The establishment of the local system dates back to the reign of Ivan III. After the annexation of Novgorod, the Grand Duke confiscated the lands of the Novgorod boyars, divided them into estates of 100-300 dessiatinas and distributed them to his horsemen (“landowners”). The landowners had no power over the peasants of their estates; they only collected taxes from them, the amounts of which were recorded in census forms. Ownership of the estate was conditional on service; landowners were regularly called to inspections, and if a warrior displeased the commanders, the estate could be taken away; if the landowner proved himself in battle, then the “manor’s dacha” was increased. Estates could be inherited, but the son entering the service in place of his father was not given the entire father's allotment, but only what was due to the young warrior, "newcomer".

The local system marked the beginning of the separation of the military service class - the nobility. The main legal feature of this class was the right to own land subject to public service.

Legally, centralization was expressed in the appearance of the first all-Russian Code of Law (1497) with uniform legal norms. Art. 57 of the Code of Laws, legislating the local system, limited the period for peasants to leave the landowner to a week before and a week after St. George’s Day (November 26); the peasant had to pay the elderly.

Ivan III died in 1505 at the age of 67 after 44 years of reign. When he passed away, he clearly outlined a new order of succession to the throne. In his will, the Grand Duke left inheritance for all his sons, but he gave two-thirds of the state and all power to the heir Vasily, the son of Sophia Paleologus. Under Vasily III (1505-1530), the borders of the state continued to expand - Pskov, Ryazan and Smolensk lands were finally annexed.

The formation of the Russian state has become a fact of great international significance. Many Christians, South Slavic patriots and Greeks who were persecuted in their homeland by the Turkish conquerors found refuge in Moscow. The Russian state has established permanent diplomatic ties with many countries in Europe and Asia.

Fill out the table (in detail for each principality)!!!

Lesson 2.

1. Expansion into northern and northwestern Rus'. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and its influence on the further development of Ancient Rus'.

2. Reasons for the rise of Moscow. The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state in the 14th century - beginning. XVI centuries

Question 1. In the 13th century. Russian lands experienced blows from conquerors both from the north-west - Swedish feudal lords and German knights, and from the east - Mongol-Tatars. Talk about the struggle Northwestern Rus' against the conquerors. What role did he play in this fight? Alexander Nevskiy?

The student needs to find out where they settled mongol tribes at the end of the 12th – beginning of the 13th century, their social system, main occupation, characterize the Mongol-Tatar army. Tell us about invasion Mongols to North-Eastern Rus' in 1237-1238. and Southern Rus' in 1239-1241. What are the reasons for the military successes of the conquerors? Where and when did the Golden Horde state arise?

Question about consequences The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russian lands is debatable. Recommended educational literature will help you clarify existing points of view. It is necessary to separate concepts "invasion" and "domination". In the first case, we are talking about the devastation of Russian lands, the death of people, material and spiritual values. In the second - about the system of relations between Rus' and the Horde. Rus' became part of the Golden Horde with the rights autonomy. Political dependence Russian lands consisted of the Horde issuing labels (letters) to the princes for the right to reign. Economic dependence consisted of paying tribute (Horde exit). What was the attitude of the Mongol-Tatars to the Russian Church?

Question 2. In the XIV – XV centuries. a unified Russian state is being formed. Should find out preconditions this process. Unlike Western Europe, where they prevailed socio-economic factors in state formation , dominated in Russian lands political factor - the need to unite the Russian principalities to overthrow Mongol-Tatar rule. However, economic conditions for unification were also developing. Read what changes are taking place in agriculture, engineering and technology, pay attention to the growth of cities. The possibility of unification also means a common faith, language, and the foundations of culture.

Next, it is necessary to take into account that the role center Tver, Ryazan, Novgorod, Lithuania, and Moscow claimed the unification of Russian lands. Moreover, Moscow, as the youngest principality, had the least chance of success. Consider reasons for the rise of Moscow. The most important among them is policy of Moscow princes. Being flexible allowed them to get ahead of their less fortunate rivals.

In the unification of Russian lands we can distinguish several stages. Give them a description. First covers almost the entire XIV century. Tell us about the board Ivan Kalita. Why did he manage to receive a label for a great reign from the Horde? What did this give to the Russian lands? Dmitry Donskoy the first of the Moscow princes began open struggle with the Mongol-Tatars. What is the meaning Battle of Kulikovo? Second period - from 1389 to 1462. At this time it happens feudal war. Indicate its causes and consequences. Third period – 1462-1533. – reign Ivan III and Vasily III, When the unification of Russian lands was completed. Ivan III was already called “the sovereign of all Rus'”, and not the Moscow prince. Find in the text of the textbook facts confirming the formation of a single state.

The state cannot exist without governing bodies. Tell us about their formation. What role did they play under the Grand Duke? Boyar Duma, Castle And Coffers. The first began to appear orders. What questions did they deal with? The country was divided into volosts, headed by governors. Define their responsibilities. What's happened feeding? In 1497, the first set of all-Russian laws was adopted - Code of Law. What was its content?

Lesson 3.

1. Ivan IV. Search for alternative ways of socio-political development of Russia: reforms and oprichnina.

2. Time of Troubles, its causes and results. The accession of the Romanov dynasty.

3. The evolution of the state-political and class system in the 17th century. Split of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Question 1. By the 16th century. the centralization of the state was not completed; large-scale transformations were necessary to solve this problem. Their implementation is associated with the name Ivan IV, describe his personality, note that he is the first of the rulers of Russia married to the kingdom. In the reign of Ivan IV, two periods are clearly visible - reforms late 40's - 50's. and about cause 60's - early 80's In carrying out reforms, the tsar relied on the support Zemsky Sobor. Representatives of what strata of society were part of it? What issues did he solve? What is an estate-representative monarchy? The unofficial government under Ivan IV became Elected Rada(to please - to take care). Who were its members? In 1550, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code of Law. Tell us about its contents. Created system of specialized orders. Name the most important of them. Changes are taking place in local government system. The governorship turned out to be ineffective. In those areas of the country where nobles lived, the population chose labial headman. Where there were no nobles, the peasants chose zemstvo elder. What duties did they perform? To conduct an active foreign policy, the state needed armed forces. Military reform approved the “domestic” and “recruitment” service. What's happened estate? To whom and under what conditions was it provided? Who was recruiting? In 1551, at a church council it was adopted Stoglav. What changes in religious sphere did he fix it? Was localism is limited. Define it. What was the significance of the reforms of Ivan IV?

Oprichnina(1564 – 1572). Tell us about the circumstances of its introduction. Which lands were included in the oprichnina? How were the oprichnina lands governed? What policy was pursued in relation to those areas of the country that were not included in the oprichnina lands? Causes The transition to oprichnina is a complex issue on which there are lively discussions in historical science. Find different points of view on this issue in the educational literature. In general, we can highlight objective contradictions(political and social) internal structure of the state and personal motives Ivan IV. What were the consequences of the oprichnina policy? Give a general assessment of the reign of Ivan IV.

Question 2 . In historical literature, the events of the late 16th and early 17th centuries are usually called the Time of Troubles. It was structural crisis, which covered all areas of life. Without going into details of scientific discussions about reasons The Troubles, it should be said that the ruinous consequences of the oprichnina policy increased tension in society, which was already high. The formation of a state required enormous material costs, which placed a heavy burden on all segments of the population. The situation became even more complicated as a result dynastic crisis. What are its reasons?

Time of Troubles begins accession to the throne of Boris Godunov in 1598 and ends the election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne in 1613. Next, it is necessary to consider the main events of the Time of Troubles. Why was he elected to the kingdom? Boris Godunov? Describe his reign. Pay attention to his policy on the peasant issue. What's happened “lesson summer”? The fragility of Godunov’s position on the throne can be explained by the fact that in the perception of people of that time, he was not real, “unnatural,” but an elected king. Hence the phenomenon of imposture, the search for a real king. Tell us about False Dmitry I. On what terms did he receive Polish support? Why was he able to take the Russian throne? What was the reason for the overthrow of False Dmitry? He was then elected to the throne Vasily Shuisky(1606 – 1610), “boyar king”. During this period the Troubles reached their climax. Tell us about the uprising I. Bolotnikova. The defeat of this uprising did not lead to the strengthening of Shuisky’s power, because a new False Dmitry appeared near Moscow. Why was he called the “Tushino thief”? Influence False Dmitry II spread over a large area of ​​the country. In fact, a dual power arose - two sovereigns, two capitals, two patriarchs. Vasily Shuisky concludes an agreement with Sweden for help in fighting the impostor. How did this agreement turn out for Russia? These events led to open intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. What were Poland's plans for the Russian throne? When did the Poles occupy Moscow? Since the autumn of 1610, the Troubles took on the character of a national struggle against the Polish invaders. November 4, 1612 d. second militia liberated Moscow from foreigners. Who led it? In February 1613, at the Zemsky Sobor, he was elected king Mikhail Romanov. The time of troubles is over. What were the consequences of the Troubles? Please note that statehood was restored only thanks to the selfless struggle of the Russian people.

Question 3. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty became the time heyday of the estate-representative monarchy. Its main elements were Boyar Duma And Zemsky Sobor. Who was part of the Boyar Duma? What role did she play in governing the country? After the end of the Time of Troubles, it was necessary to restore the state, therefore, in the person of the Zemsky Sobor, the government received the support of the entire society. From 1613 to 1619 he met almost continuously. WITH mid-17th century V. begins in Russia formation of absolutism. Define absolutism. Firstly, The appearance and significance of the Boyar Duma is changing. Its numbers are growing due to the nobles appointed by the Tsar. Why does power seek to rely not on the boyars, but on the nobles? Later, the Near or Indoor Duma was separated from the Duma. Secondly, by the middle of the century The activities of Zemsky Sobors ceased. To resolve what issue did he meet in full force for the last time? Thirdly, it begins heyday of the order system. At this time, the formation of a bureaucracy occurs. Its characteristic feature was numerous abuses. Why? IN local government Changes are also taking place indicating increased centralization. Elected elders are being replaced by governors, appointed by the authorities.

In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted Cathedral Code. Tell us about its contents. Please note that its provisions, in particular, contributed to the strengthening of autocracy.

Split of the Russian Orthodox Church. Began in the 17th century. the formation of absolutism changed the relationship between government and the church and, inevitably, should have led to its deprivation of feudal privileges and subordination to the state. Tell us about the conflict between Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon. What caused this conflict? Why was there a need? church reform. What role did Patriarch Nikon play in its implementation? Tell us about the most significant changes adopted in 1654 by the church council, which became the cause of the split in the church. Who began to be called Old Believers?

In the 17th century regulation and unification of estates continues. How did this find expression? Boyars remains the upper class. Further happening strengthening the position of the nobility and his rapprochement with the boyars. Support with facts. In 1682, localism was abolished, which also contributed to “reducing the distance” between the boyars and nobles. The influential class remains clergy, formerly a major feudal lord. More and more trying to differentiate between different categories of peasants, which were divided into owner's, palace and black sowing. The urban population was represented merchants and townspeople. Give them a description. Until the beginning of the 18th century. remained in the structure of Russian society slaves and “walking” (free) people.

Lesson 4

1. Transformations of Peter the Great in the 1st quarter of the 18th century.

2. The Age of Catherine II: “enlightened absolutism” and its contradictions.

3. Attempts to reform the political system during the reign of Alexander I. Domestic policy of Nicholas I.

Question 1. During the reign of Peter I (1682–1725) in Russia, major reforms. What are their premises? What is the meaning? By the end of the 17th century. the country lagged significantly behind Western European countries: science and education, industry and navy were absent, the organization of the army and the state apparatus were hopelessly outdated. The transformations of Peter I covered the most diverse spheres of public life (which ones?), their essence was “Europeanization” Russia.

The implementation of reforms was associated with Northern War. Who did Russia fight with? What goals did she pursue? Failures at the beginning of the war required military reform. Tell us about its contents. Why regular army more combat-ready? Peter I attached great importance construction of the navy. What are the results of military reform? underwent a radical restructuring central and local government bodies. In 1711 it was created Governing Senate which replaced the Boyar Duma. What is the difference between them? What functions did the Senate perform? The outdated order system has been replaced collegiums. Name the most important of them. Was created Chief Magistrate, to which all city magistrates were subordinate. Regional reform changed the territorial division of the country. Governorates were formed. What powers did the governor have? Peter I completed the process of subordinating the church to the state, transferring its management Synod. Thus, during the reign of Peter I the formation of absolutism was completed. In the social sphere, the introduction of Table of ranks, because it provided the opportunity for career advancement thanks to personal qualities, and not origin. Decree on unified inheritance Peter I equated estates with estates, thereby the line between boyars and nobles ceased to exist. Summing up Peter's transformations, it should be emphasized that there are positive and negative points of view in assessing their significance. Consider the arguments of the opposing sides, whose assessment seems to you the most justified.

Question 2 . When studying the domestic policy of Catherine II (1762–1796), a number of circumstances should be taken into account. Firstly, being an ardent admirer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, the empress sought to rule in the spirit of “ enlightened absolutism." Secondly, the peasant war of E. Pugachev, the bourgeois revolution in France, the “rebel worse than Pugachev” A. Radishchev forced her to be careful in carrying out reforms. Thirdly, caution was also required because Catherine illegally took the throne and had to take into account the sentiments of the nobility. Therefore, the empress's policy was contradictory. You need to familiarize yourself with the basic ideas of the Enlightenment and “enlightened absolutism”. In accordance with them, Catherine sought to transform Russia on the basis of the principles of freedom and legality, but not to allow the weakening of the autocratic foundations of her power. Tell us why Catherine called Stacked commission. What ideas did she present in "Order"? Why was she forced to dissolve the commission? In accordance with the theory of separation of powers, Catherine did an attempt to create an independent judiciary, transferring judicial powers To the Senate. A system of estate courts was created. E. Pugachev's Peasant War showed the need to shift the center of gravity in public administration from the center to the localities. In 1775 it was carried out provincial reform. What changes have occurred in local government? During the reign of Empress Catherine, secularization of church lands, i.e. they were transferred to the state. One of the largest transformations in the spirit of “enlightened absolutism” was “Charter of Complaint to the Nobility” 1785. Check out its contents. In accordance with the theory of the “regular state,” Peter I obliged the nobles be in public service for life. By decree of Catherine, the first free estate. At the same time, the empress tried to create another free class - the urban one. “Certificate of Commitment to Cities” Elected governing bodies were introduced, but they came under strict control of the central authorities. At the same time, Catherine's reign was marked tightening of serfdom, the nobles received, in fact, an unlimited right to dispose of serfs. Support this point with examples. Significant impact on spiritual development Russian society was influenced by the educational initiatives of the empress. Tell us about them. Under the influence of the French bourgeois revolution, Catherine persecuted A. Radishchev, N. Novikov, and introduced strict censorship. Assess the transformations of Catherine II.

Question 3 . Alexander I considered one of his most important responsibilities as an “enlightened” monarch reforming the government system. He took an active part in the development of reform projects at the beginning of his reign. Unspoken committee. Since 1807 this work was entrusted MM. Speransky. His project for the reorganization of public administration was based on principle of separation of powers. Legislative power was concentrated in the State Duma. Who received voting rights under this project? Executive power belonged to the ministries. The Senate became supreme judicial organ. The State Council was created under the emperor. What functions was he supposed to perform? Laws were to be adopted by the Duma, and presented by the emperor, the government and the State Council. The emperor himself could pass laws apart from the Duma. Could such a reform, if implemented, limit the autocracy? Why didn't the emperor sign this project? In 1810 there was the State Council was established which existed until 1917. In 1802 there were ministries created. Tell us about the significance of these reforms. In 1815 Alexander signed constitution of Poland. After the Patriotic War of 1812, the Tsar again ordered the development of a draft constitution for Russia N.N. Novosiltsev. Tell us about its contents. Why did Alexander withdraw from government affairs in the 1920s? What role did he play at this time? A.A. Arakcheev? What's happened military settlements? Why were plans to reform the political system not implemented?

Beginning with Peter, Russian emperors looked to Europe as a role model. Nicholas I(1825-1855) ascended the throne when bourgeois revolutions were taking place in the West, and the Decembrist nobles rebelled in Russia. These circumstances determined conservative-protective nature his reign. At the same time, the king was convinced of the need to resolve the most pressing issues. In general, his domestic policy was aimed at strengthening the power of Russia. Considering that all state affairs should be led personally by the emperor, Nicholas turns His Imperial Majesty's Own Office to the highest body that controlled all government agencies. Tell me what you were doing II department Offices? Tell us about your work codification of Russian laws. Who was it assigned to? What tasks were set for III department? Emphasize that first and foremost it was supposed to monitor public attitudes. Nikolai considered one of the most important internal political tasks strengthening the police-bureaucratic apparatus on the principles of centralization and bureaucratization, which, in his opinion, should have made it possible to effectively combat revolutionary sentiments in society and strengthen the autocracy. To achieve this goal, a huge army of officials was required, the main quality of which should be diligence. What is the meaning of the expression “the uniform defeated the tailcoat”? To prevent a repetition of the events of December 14, 1825, measures were taken in the area public education. Tell us about the content school And university reforms? What goal did they pursue? The press was subjected to strict control by the state. Why censorship regulations called "cast iron"?

Lesson 5.

1. Political reforms of Alexander II and Alexander III.

2. The peasant question in the 19th century. and the main stages of its solution (from Alexander I to Alexander III).

3. Social movements in Russia in the 19th century (Decembrists, liberals, conservatives, revolutionaries).

Question 1. The abolition of serfdom required changes in the political and spiritual sphere. In the 60s - 70s there followed series of reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the state system and administration into conformity with the new situation of the peasantry. In 1864 it was held zemstvo reform , a little bit later - urban. Zemstvos became local government bodies. How did they form? Which classes participated in the elections? What issues were under the jurisdiction of zemstvos? In the same year it is held judicial reform. It was based on the following principles: lack of authority of the court; its independence from the administration; adversarial legal process; openness and transparency of the judicial process; creation of the institution of jurors. Please evaluate this reform. In 1865 the preliminary censorship. In 1874, transformations were carried out into army. Tell us about the content of the military reform. Universal conscription made it possible to maintain a relatively small army in peacetime, and during war to increase its number at the expense of reserves. How has your military service changed? The series of reforms was to be completed by the implementation project M.T. Loris-Melikova to involve elected officials from local self-government bodies in resolving state issues, which, in fact, would mean limitation of autocracy. The signing of this document by Alexander II was scheduled for March 1, 1881. Why was it not signed? What happened on this day? Assessing the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century, emphasize that they marked Russia’s entry onto the path bourgeois development and beginning of formation civil society and the rule of law. Describe the reign of Alexander III, the peacemaker.

Question 2. In the 19th century. There were two obstacles to the formation of an industrial society in Russia: serfdom and autocracy.

In the first half of the 19th century. in Russia there were no social forces capable of opposing serfdom. The Decembrists, being representatives of the noble class, expressed the views of only its most enlightened part. Therefore, at this time, reform initiatives come mainly from the authorities. Emperor Alexander I(1801–1825) was convinced of the need to give freedom to the peasants. Why couldn't he radically resolve this issue? What was the attitude of the sovereign’s inner circle towards his attempts? What do you know about the A.A. project? Arakcheeva? However, Alexander in 1801 allowed buy uninhabited lands for non-nobles, in 1803 by decree “About free cultivators” the nobles could set the peasants free (under what conditions?), and in 1804 it was, to some extent, limited serfdom in the Baltic states. Emperor Nicholas I(1825–1855) openly for the first time, declared that serfdom was evil and should be abolished. During the years of his reign, nine commissions on the peasant issue worked continuously, which developed numerous projects. A number of decrees were adopted that limited the right of landowners to dispose of serfs. The most significant transformation was the implementation project of Count P.D. Kiseleva. They were offered a reform of both landowners and state peasants (former black-sown peasants). However, only the last one was carried out. Tell us about its contents. What do you see as its positive value? A decree was passed regarding the landowner peasants "About obligated peasants" which was in many ways a repetition of the decree “On Free Plowmen”.

Considering the issue of abolition of serfdom in Russia, think why Alexander II(1855-1881) took this step, despite the resistance of the nobility? Russia's defeat played a decisive role in making this decision. Crimean War due to military-technical backwardness. What explained the absence in the country at that time of a large industrial production? Whose interests did Alexander protect by carrying out this reform – the landowners or the state? Tell us about the work of the Secret and Peasant Committees. What is the content "Manifesto" February 19, 1861.? note that Peasants received personal freedom for free, but had to pay a ransom for the land. How was the land purchased? What are segments? It should be emphasized that the peasants did not receive the land as personal property. The state preserved the community, trying to prevent the massive ruin of the peasantry. Community members were collectively responsible for fulfilling duties. Explain the significance of the reform, noting its contradictions.

In the post-reform period Significant changes are taking place in agriculture due to development of capitalist relations. Give examples. However, in general, they develop quite slowly . In what causes? Preservation peasant community restrained the stratification of the peasantry and the allocation of strong farms (it helped the weak, but “clipped the wings of the strong”), the need to pay ransom, the lack of land were the cause of chronic poverty of the peasantry, and the landowner economy was unable to adapt to new conditions.

The Decembrists were representatives extreme left wing noble opposition to autocracy. It is necessary, first of all, to consider sources of Decembrist ideology paying attention to ideas European Enlightenment and criticism of the existing order in Russia by Radishchev and Novikov. What influence did the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army have on the formation of the Decembrist movement? They considered the main obstacle to the further development of Russia autocracy and serfdom. Tell us about the first political organizations “Union of Salvation” and “Union of Welfare”, their programs and tactics. In 1821, “ Southern Society", and in 1822 - “ Northern society". Reveal the basics "Russian Truth" P.I. Pestel And " Constitution" N.M. Muravyova. Which political system Did they offer it to Russia? How was it planned to solve peasant question? Tell us about uprising on Senate Square on December 14, 1825 Why did it end in defeat? The events of December 14, 1825 contributed to the revival of public thought in the country, which inevitably came to the questions: “What is Russia?” and “What should I do?” In the 30s and 40s, three main directions of Russian social thought were formed: conservative, liberal and radical.

At the turn of the 30-40s. have developed in Russia three main currents Russian socio-political thought - protective, conservative, liberal and radical, revolutionary-democratic. Intensification of activities conservatives became a consequence of the Decembrist uprising and the need to protect the most important foundations of the state and society from any changes. The ideological expression of the protective direction was theory of "official nationality". Who was its author? Open positions Uvarov's "triad". Reforms of the 60-70s caused sharp criticism from conservatives, they argued that serfdom did not need to be abolished, because a good landowner protects the interests of the peasants better than they protect themselves. Climb revolutionary movement they considered it a destructive consequence of the reforms. At the same time, it should be noted that the guardianship, rejecting the values ​​of the “rotting West,” contributed to the “Russification” of the nobility: the Russian language is replacing French even at court, romanticism, fashionable at that time, gave rise to increased attention to folk traditions. An important role was played by the patriotic upsurge after the Patriotic War of 1812. In what strata of Russian society did conservatives find support? Name the most prominent representatives this direction.

30s – 40s became the time of formation of the Russian liberalism. What values ​​underlie this ideological direction? During this period, two trends emerged in Russian liberalism: Westerners and Slavophiles. In what social strata did they find support? The most prominent representatives of Westernism There were professors at Moscow University, including historians, philologists, and lawyers. Name the names you know. The main thing that separated Westerners and Slavophiles was the question of the ways of development of Russia. Tell us about the ideological views of Westerners. Please note that they saw the future of Russia in development according to the European way. What assessment did they give to the transformations of Peter I? Slavophiles claimed originality of Russia's historical path and they accused Peter of forcibly forcing Russia to follow western path. What happened general in the programmatic statements of Westerners and Slavophiles? How did liberals react to the reforms of Alexander II? It should be emphasized that the reforms gave rise to hope in liberal circles for the possibility of their further continuation. In the post-reform period, zemstvos became the centers of liberal activity. Which methods of struggle admitted liberals, how did they feel about revolutionary methods? Specify features of Russian liberalism.

The most widespread and radical in their aspirations were the supporters socialist development Russia. In the second half of the 20s. - early 30s There were numerous circles in the country, in which there were lively discussions about the future of Russia. The idea has often been heard here revolutionary struggle against the existing order. In the 30s - 40s A.I. Herzen was developed the theory of “Russian” or “communal socialism”. Please read its contents carefully. What is socialism? K. Marx believed that the main force of socialist reconstruction is the proletariat. Therefore, the path to socialism is through the development of capitalism, when the number of the working class increases. A.I. Herzen believed that Russia can move from feudalism to socialism, bypassing capitalism. He was convinced that Russian peasant lacks the private property instinct and is accustomed to communal ownership of land, so he is the bearer of socialist ideas and the main revolutionary force. This theory became the ideological basis populist movements. Most of the populists were not nobles, but people from other classes - commoners. Pay attention to how the reforms of the 60-70s were assessed. representatives of the revolutionary camp. Name stages of the populist movement and give them a description. Considering the peasantry to be the main revolutionary force, the populists saw their task as rousing them to revolution. What tactics of revolutionary struggle were proposed M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov And P.N. Tkachev? In 1874 the so-called "going to the people." What were the goals and results of this movement? Tell us about your activities "Land and Freedom". What organizations were formed as a result of its collapse? The hopes of the revolutionaries that with the assassination of Alexander II a revolution would begin in the country did not come true. In the 80s, the crisis of populism began.

The crisis of populism contributed to the search by revolutionaries for new ideas that could lead Russia to socialism. This idea becomes Marxism. In 1883 G.V. Plekhanov creates in Geneva group "Liberation of Labor". To promote Marxist ideas in Russia, the group translates the main works of K. Marx and F. Engels into Russian. What do you know about the emergence in Russia Marxist circles? What role did the Liberation of Labor group play in the fight against populism and the spread of Marxism in Russia? Please note that the popularity of Marxist ideas in the country was due to rapid growth in the working class which was heavily exploited. In the 70s The first attempts were made to create workers' organizations. Where did they originate? What demands did they make? Tell us about your first working performances. What do you know about "Morozov strike" 1885? What were its results? In the mid-90s. there is a merger of Marxist circles into “ Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." Among its organizers was IN AND. Ulyanov (Lenin). In 1898, at a congress in Minsk, the foundation was laid for the creation Marxist party.

Independent work

1. The objective need for industrial modernization in Russia; reforms of S. Yu. Witte.

2. The formation of political parties at the beginning of the 20th century. and during the years of the first Russian revolution: genesis, classification, programs, tactics.

3. Stolypin’s reform policy: concept, course, results.

Question one. By the beginning of the century, Russia had achieved significant success in economic development. In the 80s - 90s. XIX century The industrial revolution was completed in the country, industry developed vigorously, and the country entered the top five most industrialized countries. Back it up with facts. Late XIX–early XX centuries. - time formation of monopolies, which dominated leading industries. Nevertheless, Russia remained an agrarian-industrial country, i.e., the agricultural sector remained predominant. The war brewing in Europe for the redistribution of colonies acutely posed the task of speedy modernization of industry and rearmament of the army. Define industrialization. At the beginning of the 20th century. Russia was a country catch-up type development. Explain what this meant. The development of capitalism in Russia had a number of features. Which ones? It should be emphasized that one of them was active government intervention into the economic life of the country. Interested in the fastest possible industrial development, it provided support to industrialists and took certain measures for this. Which? The implementation of this policy was associated with the name S.Yu. Witte, which at the beginning of the century carried out reforms. Tell us about financial and tax reforms, about attracting foreign capital to domestic economy, on the use of redemption payments, profits from the export of grain and wine monopoly. What impact did these measures have on the country's industrial development? What do you know about adoption? labor legislation? What importance did S.Yu. attach? Witte destruction of the peasant community to resolve agrarian question?

Question two. At the beginning of the century, oppositional sentiments in society intensified. What caused this? On this wave the process begins formation of political parties. The first to organize socialist parties. In 1902 it was formed party with

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1. After the death of Vasily II (1462), his son Ivan III (1462-1505) becomes Grand Duke. At this time he was 22 years old. It was during his reign that the process of unification of Russian lands was completed. A cautious and prudent man, Ivan III consistently pursued his course towards the conquest of appanage principalities and the return of Russian lands seized by Lithuania. At the same time, he showed determination and iron will.

2. Under Ivan III, Novgorod was finally included in the Moscow Principality. Back in 1471, the pro-Lithuanian part of the Novgorod aristocracy, led by Martha Boretskaya, concluded a Lithuanian prince Casimir IV treaty: Novgorod recognized Casimir IV as its prince, accepted his governor, and the king promised help to Novgorod in the fight against the Grand Duke of Moscow. Ivan III organized a well-planned campaign against Novgorod. The main battle took place on the Shelon River. And although the Novgorodians had a huge superiority in forces (approximately 40,000 versus 5,000), they suffered a crushing defeat. Ivan III brutally dealt with representatives of the pro-Lithuanian party: some were executed, others were sent to Moscow and Kaluga and imprisoned. The independence of the Novgorod Republic was greatly undermined. After 1471, the situation in Novgorod worsened even more. In 1477, Ivan III launched a second campaign against Novgorod. In December the city was blocked on all sides. Negotiations lasted a whole month and ended with the capitulation of Novgorod. At the beginning of January 1478, the Novgorod veche was cancelled. Ivan III ordered the veche bell to be removed and sent to Moscow. The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist and became part of the Moscow Principality. Many boyars and merchants were taken from Novgorod to central areas, and 2 thousand Moscow nobles arrived in Novgorod.

3. In 1485, Ivan III made a campaign against Tver, Prince Mikhail Tverskoy fled to Lithuania. The rivalry between the two centers of North-Eastern Rus' ended in favor of Moscow. The son of Ivan III, Ivan Ivanovich, became the prince in Tver. Muscovy has become all-Russian. Since 1485, the Moscow sovereign began to be called “the sovereign of all Rus'.” Under Vasily III (1505-1533), Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521) were annexed. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed. The territory of a single Russian state was formed - the largest in Europe. From the end of the 15th century. it began to be called Russia. The double-headed eagle became the emblem of the state. During this period, government bodies are formalized. The head of state was Grand Duke, to which the princely-boyar power was subordinate. Along with the boyar elite and the princes of the former appanage principalities, the service nobility is gaining strength. It is a support for the Grand Duke in his fight against the boyars. For their service, nobles receive estates, which are not inherited. Naturally, the nobles are interested in supporting the grand ducal power.

Changes are taking place in the army. The feudal squads supplied by the boyars recede into the background. And the first comes out to the noble militias, noble cavalry, foot regiments with firearms(squeakers) and artillery.

But the Grand Duke is still forced to reckon with the economic and political power of the princes and boyars. Under him there is a permanent council - the Boyar Duma. Members are appointed to this advisory body by the Grand Duke on a local basis. This is the name for the procedure for appointment to a position in accordance with birth, proximity of the family to the Grand Duke and length of service, and not according to personal abilities and merits. The Boyar Duma met daily, deciding all issues of domestic and foreign policy. But often Ivan III made decisions alone, limiting boyar power. Thus, under Ivan III, the formation of an estate-representative monarchy takes place, when the Grand Duke rules with the help of the Boyar Duma.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. orders are created - special institutions to manage military, judicial and financial affairs.

The most significant innovation of Ivan III was the judicial reform, promulgated in 1497 in the form of a special legislative collection - the Code of Laws. Until 1497, the Grand Duke’s governors, in exchange for carrying out judicial and administrative functions, received the right to collect “feed” from the subject population for their needs. They were called feeders. These officials abused the power given to them, imposed exorbitant taxes on the population, took bribes, and carried out unfair trials. The Code of Law of Ivan III prohibited bribes for legal proceedings and business management, proclaimed impartial court, and established uniform court fees for all types of judicial activities. This was a major step towards creating a judicial apparatus in the country. The Code of Law expressed in legislative form the interests of the ruling class - boyars, princes and nobles - and reflected the offensive feudal state on the peasants. Article 57 of the Code of Laws marked the beginning legal registration serfdom. It limited the right of peasants to transfer from one feudal lord to another. From now on, the peasant could leave his feudal lord a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26), i.e. when all rural work ended. At the same time, he had to pay the feudal lord for living on his land “elderly” and all debts. The size of the “elderly” amount ranged from 50 kopecks to 1 ruble (the price of 100 pounds of rye or 7 pounds of honey).

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1. The Slavs are the largest group of related peoples in Europe, united by the proximity of languages ​​and common origin. Their number is almost 300 million people. The ancestors of the Slavs, the so-called

Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs in the 8th-9th centuries, their occupations and social relations
1. In the middle of the 1st millennium, the tribes of the Eastern Slavs occupied huge territory from Lakes Onega and Lake Ladoga in the north to the northern Black Sea region in the south, from the foothills of the Carpathians in the west to between

Religion of the Eastern Slavs
1. The era of the primitive communal system among the Eastern Slavs corresponded to a pagan religion. Slavic paganism is a whole complex of beliefs, ideas, rituals that came from ancient times.

Chronicle of the beginning of the Russian state
1. There are several theories on the issue of the emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs. One of them comes from the story “The Tale of Bygone Years.” In it, under 862, it talks about the invitation

Norman theory of the formation of the Russian state, its supporters and opponents. Stages in the history of the formation of the Old Russian state
1. This chronicle message served as the basis for the emergence in the 18th century. the so-called "Norman theory". The German historians Bayer, Miller and Schlozer, who worked in Russia at that time, argued that

Socio-economic relations and social system of Ancient Rus'
1. The formation of the state in Rus' and the formation of feudal relations among the Eastern Slavs was preceded by a period called military democracy. This was the last stage of the tribal system

The reign of the first Rurikovichs, their internal and foreign policies
1. After the death of Rurik (879), his relative Prince Oleg began a campaign against Kyiv, captured the Krivichi city of Smolensk, then Lyubech. He managed to deceive the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir (they were later killed

Vladimir I - statesman, reformer, commander
1. In 980, Vladimir Svyatoslavich became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who continued the policy of his predecessors - he conquered the Radimichi and Vyatichi for the second time. Vladimir managed to stop the bloody princedom

Kievan Rus under Yaroslav the Wise, his state and military activities
1. The Great Prince of Kiev Yaroslav (1019-1054), nicknamed the Wise, unlike his father, Vladimir the Holy, was not a hero of epics and legends. But the chronicle speaks of him as a great statesman

Reign of Vladimir Monomakh
1. At the end of the 11th century. The process of the collapse of Rus' begins. The main reasons for it are the following: > the establishment of feudal relations led to the formation of independent local political centers

Causes of feudal fragmentation
1. Since the 30s of the 12th century. the process begins in Rus' feudal fragmentation, which was a natural stage in the development of feudalism. The great princes - Monomakh and his son Mstislav - managed for a while

Democracy and public order in Novgorod the Great
1. Veliky Novgorod occupied a special place among the Russian principalities. Like Kyiv, Novgorod was the center of Slavic lands in Northwestern Rus'. Novgorod land was located between lakes Ilmen and Ch

Features of the formation of ancient Russian culture
1. East Slavs received from the primitive era a folk, basically pagan, culture, the art of buffoons, rich folklore - epics, fairy tales, ritual and lyrical songs. 2. K

Architecture
1. Archaeological excavations show that up to the 10th century. in Rus' they built exclusively from wood. The wooden buildings of pagan Rus' have not survived, but the architectural style - turrets, towers, yaru

Art, music, oral folk art
1. Icon painting also became widespread. An icon is an image on specially treated boards of saints revered by the church. In Rus', the strict Byzantine technique of icon painting was influenced by ancient

Life and customs of Ancient Rus'
1. The culture of a people is inextricably linked with its way of life and morals. People lived in cities (20-30 thousand people), villages (≈50 people), villages (25 - 40 people). The main type of Slavic dwelling was

The uniqueness of the historical development and way of life of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia
1. In the second half of the XII - early XIII centuries. Numerous Mongolian tribes lived in the steppes of Transbaikalia and the northeastern part of Mongolia. Actually, the Mongols were divided into several tribes: Mongols

Campaigns of Genghis Khan
1. In 1190, the noyon Temujin won a victory, slaughtering the tribes of Tatars, Merkits and others. History attributes to him mercilessness and cunning in the fight against enemies, the ability to pit them against each other. He participated

Batya's invasion
1. At the beginning of 1223, the Polovtsian khans turned to the Galician prince Mstislav the Udal for help in the fight against the Mongols. The Polovtsians convinced the Russians that if they did not help them, they themselves would soon be defeated

Vassal and tributary dependence of Rus'
1. Returning from Europe, Batu in 1243 formed one of the largest states of the Middle Ages in the Lower Volga - the Golden Horde. The capital of the state became the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan

Resistance of the Russian people to Batu's invasion
1. In 1257, Basque scribes appeared in Novgorod, but local residents They refused the census, and uprisings began. Prince Alexander Nevsky and Horde ambassadors arrived in Novgorod. Seeing the ratio

The influence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion on ancient Russian history
1. It was the boundary that divided the history of Rus' into two eras - before and after Batu’s invasion. 2. From that time on, the economic and cultural lag of Rus' from a number of European countries began

Battle of the Neva with the Swedes (July 15, 1240)
1. The Swedes were the first to try to take advantage of the weakening of Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion; Novgorod was under threat of capture. In July 1240, the Swedish fleet entered the Neva under the command of

Battle of the Ice (April 5, 1242)
1. But soon German and Danish crusading knights appeared in the North-West of Rus'. They captured the important Pskov fortress of Izborsk, and then, with the help of a traitorous mayor, captured Pskov. In 1241

Features and stages of the formation of a unified Russian state
1. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. In Rus', the process of overcoming feudal fragmentation begins, and prerequisites arise for the formation of a centralized state. Unlike Western Europe,

Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands into a single state
1. The Mongol-Tatar yoke held back the development of Rus', but could not stop it. North-Eastern Rus' became the center of revival and unification. The forests and rivers surrounding its lands made it difficult for Tat raids

The role of political, economic and geographical factors in the rise of Moscow. Moscow and Tver
1. Analyzing the reasons for the rise in the XIII-XIV centuries. Moscow principality and its transformation into the center of the emerging Russian state, some historians argued that Moscow was obliged by its power

Political course of Ivan Kalita
1. Fearing the strengthening of the Tver prince, Uzbek Khan in 1327 sent his cousin Cholkhan (in Rus' he was called Shchelkan) to Tver as a baskak with a large detachment. Cholhan shouldn't have

Transformation of Moscow into the center of the emerging Russian state
1. The most important objective reasons for the transformation of Moscow into the center of the emerging unified state are the following: > Moscow was the center of fairly developed arable farming

Heirs of Ivan Kalita. Reign of Dmitry Donskoy
1. The policy of Ivan I Kalita was continued by his sons - Simeon the Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan II the Red (1353-1359). Moscow rulers, strengthening Moscow as the political center of Rus', acted farsightedly

Rus' on the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo
1. In the 70s of the 14th century. The most important political task for Rus' was a decisive struggle against the Horde. Moreover, at this time the Horde was experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation, there were constant

Battle of Kulikovo September 8, 1380 and its historical significance
1. At the end of August 1380, the Russian army set out from Kolomna and on September 6 approached the banks of the Don. After the meeting, the princes decided to cross the Don in order to cut off their path to retreat. On the night from 7 to

Feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century
1. In 1425, Grand Duke Vasily I died. His ten-year-old son Vasily became his heir. He received from his father the main part of the Moscow Principality and the lands of the Vladimir Principality, annexed by you

Overthrow of the Horde yoke (1480)
1. In 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. The ruler of the Great Horde, Akhmat Khan, decided to force the Moscow prince to observe the old order. In the fall of 1480, Akhmat moved with a significant army

Growth of territory, population, agricultural development
1. At the beginning of the 16th century. our state was called differently in official documents: Rus', Russia, the Russian state, the Muscovite kingdom, and in late XVI V. - Russia. Creation of a single state

Cities and trade
1. Cities grew quickly, although in general urban population was no more than 2%. By the middle of the 16th century. There were 160 cities in Russia. The largest of them, Moscow, had about 100 thousand inhabitants, but

Government
1. Central power in the country was exercised by the Grand Duke, the Boyar Duma (an advisory body under the sovereign), palace institutions and the clerk's apparatus. 2. Before Ivan the Terrible, there were two in Rus'

Political struggle of the boyar-palace nobility
1. After the death of Vasily III (1533), his three-year-old son Ivan IV became the Grand Duke. But in fact, power ended up in the hands of Elena Glinskaya, Ivan’s mother. During her reign, a number of reforms were launched,

Zemsky Sobor and reforms of the first half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible
1. Infighting between nobles, revelry and oppression of feeding boyars, and increased raids from the Kazan and Crimean khanates caused discontent among many segments of the population. With hope they looked at Ivan IV

On the eve of the oprichnina
1. Public administration reforms of the 50s strengthened the central government and undermined the political power of the boyars. The tsar, who was assisted by the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor, had the highest power.

Events of early January 1565
1. At the beginning of December 1564, the tsar and his family, guarded and accompanied by a huge convoy, left Moscow for Alexandrovskaya Sloboda. In January 1565, Ivan sent two letters: the first, “angry”, gr

Oprichnina politics 1565-1572
1. On February 2, 1565, Ivan Vasilyevich solemnly returned to Moscow and the next day announced to the clergy and noble boyars the establishment of the oprichnina. Voprichnin (from the word “oprich” - except, especially), subv

Consequences of the oprichnina and its impact on the life of the country
1. Ivan IV, introducing the oprichnina, pursued primarily the main goal - strengthening his autocratic power. It is also impossible not to admit that objectively the oprichnina contributed to the centralization of the country, i.e.

Religious and socio-political thought in Rus'. Journalism in the 16th century
1. The development and strengthening of the Russian state was accompanied by a strengthening of the position of the church in all spheres of spiritual life. In the 16th century The ideological activities of the church acquired a wide scope. Church

Painting
1. Russian painting in the XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented prosperity. Images of saints have become a means of conveying human feelings. Man and his spiritual world- the central theme of Russian painting.

Architecture
1. Medieval architecture was closely connected with princely power. Only the rich and strong prince there was money to build stone temples and fortifications. At the end of the 14th century. in Moscow there are

Enlightenment, scientific knowledge, printing in the 16th century
1. Centers for literacy and education in the 16th century. There were monasteries and churches where schools were created, and there were libraries of handwritten and printed books. Teachers appear in cities and villages - “master

The end of the Rurik dynasty and the question of succession to the throne
1. In the spring of 1579, when Ivan the Terrible became seriously ill, he appointed his eldest son, Ivan, as his heir. Tsarevich Ivan was educated, smart, and cruel. But in November 1581, in a quarrel, Ivan the Terrible struck

Exacerbation of social contradictions at the beginning of the 17th century
1. In 1601, there were long rains in Russia, then early frosts came and the harvest was destroyed. In 1602, frost destroyed the crops on which farmers had pinned their hopes. In 1603 there was no longer anything to sow with

False Dmitry I
1. In 1601 Godunov learned that a man had appeared in Poland posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. The search showed that this was a Galician nobleman, former monk Grigory Otrepiev, who fled to Poland (1602). Su

Intervention, the patriotic upsurge of the people and their liberation struggle
1. In the summer of 1606, an uprising led by the former serf Ivan Bolotnikov began in the southwest of the country, in the Putivl region. To attract peasants to his side, Bolotnikov used the name of the princess

Restoration of agriculture. Corvee farming. The final enslavement of the peasants. Cathedral Code of 1649
1. The Polish-Swedish intervention, wars with Poland and Sweden, and the Time of Troubles led Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. to the “great Moscow ruin.” Restoring the destroyed economy took several

Industry and manufactories. New phenomena in the country's economy
1. In the 17th century. new processes begin in the economic development of the country: > firstly, in market relations large patrimonial farms, monasteries, artisans are increasingly drawn into

The beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market
1. In the 17th century. There have been changes in the area of ​​trade. The government abolished small levies and introduced a single duty. Small artisans and poor merchants gave their goods to large merchants, who

Social groups and classes in Russia in the 17th century
1. In the 17th century. The following social class structure of Russian society developed. The ruling class is the patrimonial boyars, nobles, and clergy. The state sought to strengthen their own

Public administration in Russia. Strengthening autocracy
1. After the end of the Time of Troubles and the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar, a new political situation developed in the country. A significant role in government was played by Zemsky Sobors who decided

Armed forces in the 17th century
1. The entire 17th century for Russia passed in difficult and long wars. The noble militia was losing its fighting qualities, the stronger Streltsy army was small in number. Nobles often avoided

Reasons for church reform. Filaret and Patriarch Nikon
1. The Russian Orthodox Church played a significant role in the life of Russia. On the one hand, she supported royal power, on the other hand, she often conflicted with her: > the treasury and nobles tortured

Church reforms of Nikon
1. On the instructions of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1653, Nikon began to implement church reform. Its main content boiled down to the following: > a uniform ku was established for all churches

Schism in the Russian Orthodox Church. Old Believers
1. In 1667, the Church Council cursed all the defenders of the old rituals - the Old Believers. The Council officially recognized that the reform is not Nikon’s personal business, but the business of the Tsar, the state and the church. Therefore everything

Urban uprisings (1648,1662)
1. In 1645, after the death of Mikhail, his son Alexei Mikhailovich became king (until 1676). At the beginning of his reign, the young tsar was strongly influenced by his former tutor, boyar Boris Morozov.

Revolt of Stepan Razin (1670-1671)
1. But a few years after " copper riot“The largest social action began under the leadership of the Don Cossack Stepan Razin. Its cause was the Council Code of 1649, which finally

Urban uprisings failed
But what impact did they have on Russian life at that time? 2. What changes in the life of the country led to the uprising of Stepan Razin? 3M

Russian-Polish (Smolensk) War (1632-1634). Azov
1. After the Time of Troubles, Russia began to establish international relationships, Russian embassies were opened in many countries. Tsar Michael's father, Patriarch Filaret, also headed the Ambassadorial Order.

Russian-Polish War 1654-1667 Annexation of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands
1. According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, as a result of which the Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands were annexed directly to Poland.

Annexation of Siberia to Russia in the 17th century
1. Russian people began to explore Siberia back in the 16th century, when, on the initiative of the Stroganov merchants, Ermak’s squad organized a campaign to Siberia. Over a vast territory - from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean

School and education
1. The development of cities, crafts, trade, manufactories, and connections with foreign parties contributed to the spread of literacy and education. In Moscow in the 80s of the 17th century. about 24% of the townspeople population

Development of scientific knowledge
1. Accumulation and distribution continued scientific knowledge, mostly of an applied, practical nature. Compiled by O. Mikhailov “Charter of military, cannon and other matters relating to military

Painting
1. The process of secularization also affected painting. Russian painters showed interest in the human personality, biblical stories served only as a pretext for depicting real life. Directed the arts

Architecture. Russian theater
1. New trends in architecture were expressed primarily in a departure from medieval severity and asceticism, in a desire for external elegance, picturesqueness, and decoration. Compared to the previous time

Tsar Feodor Alekseevich. Moscow uprising of 1682
1. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676. his son Fedor ascended the throne. The Miloslavskys came to power, and the Naryshkins (relatives of Tsar Alexei’s second wife) were removed from the throne. New king

Regency of Princess Sophia, her domestic and foreign policy (1682-1689)
1. Sophia's reign lasted 7 years, during which Ivan and Peter were considered kings, but had no role in political affairs did not play, 25-year-old Sophia, according to foreigners, was ugly, smart,

The coming to power of Peter 1 Alekseevich
1. The relationship between Sophia and Peter has always been tense. Sophia understood that in the coming years she would have to give up power to her brothers and go to a monastery herself. At the beginning of 1689, Tsarina Natalya married Pet

The first years of the reign of Peter 1 (1689-1695)
1. The reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725), or the time of Peter’s reforms, is a turning point in the history of Russia. Reforms began under Tsars Michael and Alexei. But Peter I went much further

Azov campaigns (1695,1696)
1. In 1694, Austria and Poland - allies of Russia in the anti-Turkish coalition - demanded that Peter begin active actions against Turkey. It was decided, unlike previous Crimean campaigns prince

Features of the economic development of Russia under Peter I. Manufacturing production
1. During the reign of Peter I, enormous changes occurred in the Russian economy. There are several reasons for this: > The Northern War required a large number of weapons for the army

All-Russian market. International trade. Policies of protectionism and mercantilism
1. Under Peter I, trade achieved significant development. At the same time, the government pursues a policy of patronage of domestic producers and protects internal trade from foreign competition

Social policy and its consequences. Results of economic transformations
1. In 1721, there were 336 cities in Russia, in which 170 thousand inhabitants lived (out of 15 million of the country's population). In 1720, the Chief Magistrate, an estate-based body of city government, was established. Regulations

What facts indicate the need
economic reforms in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century? 2. What new features did the economic sphere acquire during the reign of Peter the Great? 3.

Renewal of government. Bureaucratic apparatus. Supreme authorities
1. Under Peter I, a new state apparatus was created. The reform of government bodies was largely dictated by the war, since the old state machine could not cope with the increasingly complex tasks and

Creation of boards. Local authorities
1. In 1718, the cumbersome system of orders was replaced by collegiums that were subordinate to the Senate. Each board was in charge of a specific branch of management, all issues were resolved jointly (collegially)

Church reform
1. Serious changes occurred in the position of the church, which also reflected the trend of bureaucratization and centralization of management. Patriarch Adrian died in 1700. The king's entourage advised him to

Service order. Table of ranks
1. The bureaucratic nature of the state required a change in the procedure for serving. Before Peter I, career advancement depended on origin and nobility. Peter stopped paying attention to the

Military reforms
1. The war with Sweden showed the need to reorganize the army. Its essence was the elimination noble militia and Streltsy troops and formation regular army with a single organization,

The case of Tsarevich Alexei
Peter's reforms evoked ambiguous assessments from various social groups of the Russian population - from complete rejection to enthusiastic approval. On the one hand, the reforms strengthened the state

Causes of the Northern War
1. Foreign policy of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. was very active and was accompanied by continuous wars. They were aimed at solving the main task - to ensure Russia’s access to the

The beginning of the war. Defeat at Narva
1. Back in the mid-90s, Peter formed 30 infantry regiments from recruits. The colonels and junior officers were exclusively foreigners - Poles, Swedes, Germans, Danes, etc. He was for

First victories in the Baltic states. Founding of St. Petersburg (1703)
1. Failures did not suppress Peter; he actively took up the creation of a regular army. Only 23 thousand people survived the battle of Narva, so a new set of recruits was announced. Recovery of losses

Battle of Poltava (1709)
1. Another ally of Russia was the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Charles XII captured Warsaw and placed his protege Stanislaw Leszczynski on the throne. Then swedish king occupied Saxony and forced Augustus II to

Naval operations in the Baltic
1. However, after the Battle of Poltava, the war continued for another 12 years. Peter offered Sweden peace on his own terms, but Charles XII refused. Under his pressure Turkish Sultan at the end of 1710 declared war on R

Treaty of Nystadt (1721). The meaning of victory
1. In the Finnish city of Nystadt on August 30, 1721, an agreement was signed under which Russia received: > Estland, Livonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and part of Finland with Vyborg;

Science and education
1. During the reign of Peter I, great changes occurred in the field of education, culture, and science. They were due to profound changes in the socio-economic life of the country, expanded communications

Changes in the life of the nobility
1. After the return of the “great embassy” from Europe, Peter I began to introduce European-style clothing. Tsar's decrees prescribed that beards should be shaved and that one should dress not in a long-skirted Russian dress, but in a short one.

Palace coups (1725-1762)
1. From the second quarter of the 18th century. (from 1725 - with the death of Peter I) the era of palace coups begins in Russia - a change of reigning persons, which was accompanied by a fierce struggle between various

Russian foreign policy by the middle of the 18th century
1. At the end of Peter I’s life, Russia’s relations with England, Denmark, Turkey worsened, and after his death - with France and Sweden. In the 30s of the XVIII century. The War of the Polish Succession began. The French are under

Russian participation in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763)
1. In the 50s of the 18th century, having abandoned the alliance with England, Russia entered into an agreement with Austria and France. The Prussian king Frederick II the Great hoped to capture Saxony, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Kurlan

Peter III. Coup of June 28, 1762
1. Peter III arrived in Russia back in 1742, shortly after Elizabeth’s accession, and was appointed heir. But the choice turned out to be unsuccessful. Peter III was uneducated, cruel, demonstratively despised everything

Reforms of Catherine II. Public administration. Stacked commission
1. Catherine's reign lasted 34 years (1762-1796). Contemporaries called this period “the golden age of Catherine the Great,” “the era of enlightened absolutism.” Ekaterina wanted to implement

Local reforms
“Charter granted to the nobility” 1. The Peasant War led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775) showed the need for further reforms, primarily local

Personality of Catherine II the Great
1. Catherine II lived for 67 years, of which she ruled Russia for 34 years. At the very beginning of her unhappy marriage, she believed that she would become an empress. She wanted to become Russian, loved by Russians

Territory, population of Russia. Agriculture
1. The territory of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. has expanded significantly. It included Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, Crimea, Azov region, Black Sea region, Lithuania. 2. Population

Development of industry, manufacturing
1. In Russian industry in the second half of the 18th century. great changes took place, the number of manufactories doubled (from 600 to 1200). Russia took 1st place in the world in iron smelting, etc.

Trade and finance
1. Specialization of individual regions in the production of grain, industrial crops, vegetable gardening, and the development of commercial livestock farming is emerging. The growth of cities and industry requires further development

Social contradictions and state legislation
1. At the end of the 18th century. Russia's population numbered 37 million people. The structure of the population was based on the class principle. Estates were divided into privileged and unprivileged. K is privileged

The movement of peasants and working people in the 30-60s of the 18th century
1. The continuous strengthening of serfdom, the increase in taxes and duties caused fierce resistance from the peasants. Its main form remained flight; from 1727 to 1742, 327 thousand people fled

The course of the peasant war
1. At the beginning of 1773 in Yaitsky Cossack army Another Peter III appeared, in fact, the Don Cossack of the Zimoveyskaya village, Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev. Thirty years old, illiterate, but very brave

The meaning of the peasant war, its features
1. Peasant War 1773-1775 markedly different from the movements of Bolotnikov, Razin, Bulavin, primarily in that it was the most powerful, covered a huge territory, and huge forces took part in it

The main tasks of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century
1. In the second half of the 18th century. Russia was solving several foreign policy problems: > access to the shores of the Black and Azov seas, development and settlement of the southern black soil steppes, establishment

War with Poland. Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774
1. In 1763, the Polish king Augustus III died, and a struggle immediately began between candidates for the throne. With the support of Russia, Stanislav Poniatowski (formerly Catherine’s favorite) became King of Poland, although

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791
1. Türkiye did not want to accept the loss of its dominance in the Black Sea and was preparing for a new war. In 1777, Russian troops invaded Crimea and installed Shagin-Girey as Crimean Khan. However, his hair

What are the main tasks of Russia's foreign policy under Catherine II?
2. What assessment could you give to the results of Catherine II’s foreign policy? Question 35. Russia at the end of the 18th century. Paul I ANSWER PLAN:

Foreign policy (1796-1801)
1. While still an heir, Paul sought to prove to his mother that offensive wars are harmful to Russia and it is necessary to wage defensive wars. In 1796, in a special note to the European powers, he

Conspiracy of March 11, 1801 Murder of Paul 1
1. In the winter of 1801, dissatisfaction with the tsar’s policies reached highest point. A conspiracy arose, headed by St. Petersburg Governor-General Count P.A. Palen. He managed to convince the heir Alexander

Enlightenment and science
1. In Russian culture XVIII V. Significant changes are taking place, which are determined by fundamental changes in the socio-economic sphere, in the life and way of life of the people. The main influence is t

Age of Enlightenment. Social and political life
1. The 18th century is called the era of European Enlightenment. The great philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Kant believed that public life obeys not God, but natural laws. Historical progress -

Architecture. Painting. Theater
1. In the middle of the 18th century. The Baroque style still predominates in Russian architecture. St. Petersburg becomes a city of palaces. V. Rastrelli erects his masterpieces in the Baroque style: Grand Palace

Social class and national composition of the population of Russia
1. By the beginning of the 19th century. The Russian Empire was the largest power in the world by territory: from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, from the Arctic to the Caucasus and the Black Sea. Information sent from St. Petersburg to

Industry, trade, communications
1. The basis of the country's economy was still the feudal-serf system of economy. But at the beginning of the 19th century. it has entered the stage of decomposition. This was evidenced by the following facts:

Political system of the Russian Empire
1. Russia was an autocratic monarchy. The highest legislative, executive and judicial power belonged to the emperor (king). He was also the actual head of the church. The Emperor claimed

Determine the national and class composition of the population of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century
2. What slowed down the economic development of Russia? 3. What is an “autocratic-bureaucratic system”? What influence did he have on the life and development of the country?

Reforms of the early 19th century
1. April 2, 1801 Alexander I issued five important decrees: > the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” was restored in full; > the “Charter of Grant to Cities” was restored

Speransky's reform projects
1. But Alexander I saw that the actions of the “Unofficial Committee” did not lead to serious changes. A new person was needed who would decisively and consistently carry out reforms. It became the state

The Eastern Question in Russian foreign policy at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries
1. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. were determined by two circumstances: > firstly, the alliance of Paul I with Napoleon did not limit France’s aggression in Europe and at the same time worsened relations

Russian participation in coalition wars
1. In 1806, the war in Europe resumed, the 4th coalition took shape consisting of England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony, and Sweden. In response, Napoleon declared a continental blockade of England. He demanded from him

What are the reasons for Russia's active foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century?
3. How did its accession to the continental blockade affect the development of Russia? Question 39. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaign of the Russian army

Causes of the war; plans and strengths of the parties
1. The main direction of Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. there was a struggle with Napoleonic France. A significant part of Europe was occupied by French troops. In 1807, after a series of times, it was time

The beginning of the war (June 12(24), 1812). Battle of Borodino (August 26, 1812)
1. Let us trace the course of military events from the beginning of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia (June 1812) to the end of the Battle of Borodino (August 1812). On the night of June 12, 1812, the French army crossed the rivers

Tarutino maneuver. Guerrilla warfare. Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia
1. Leaving Moscow, Kutuzov made a remarkable maneuver: creating the appearance of retreat along the Ryazan road, he moved with the main forces to the Kaluga road, where he stopped in the village of Tarutino (80 km

Foreign campaign of the Russian army. Congress of Vienna. Holy Alliance
1. After the enemy was expelled from the country, the people and the army believed that the war was over. But Alexander I understood that Napoleon could quickly assemble a new army and start the war again. Poeto

The historical significance of Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812
1. The Patriotic War of 1812 ended with the victory of the Russian people, who fought a fair, liberation struggle. The Napoleonic invasion caused enormous damage to the country's economy and brought

Socio-economic development of Russia. Military settlements
1. Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign trip Russian army (1813-1815) had a serious impact on the Russian economy. Material losses amounted to 1 billion rubles (annual treasury income - 100 million).

Domestic policy of Alexander I. The question of the constitution. Increasing political reaction
1. After the end of the war with Napoleon, many in Russia expected reforms: the nobles dreamed of a constitution, the peasants hoped for the abolition of serfdom, non-Russian peoples expected relaxation in the nation

Decembrist movement
1. After the war of 1812 For the first time in Russia, an organized social movement arose, the basis of whose ideology was proclaimed the priority of the individual and his freedoms over everything else. This would

Strengthening the role of the state apparatus under Nicholas I. The essence of bureaucracy
1. In the first years of his reign, Nicholas I independently resolved many state issues and personally controlled ministries and departments. In his work he relied on the bureaucracy, many

Codification of laws. Reforms of Kiselev and Kankrin
1. Since 1649, a huge number of manifestos and decrees have accumulated that contradict each other. It was necessary to draw up a single Code of Laws, i.e., carry out codification. For this purpose it was involved

Results of the domestic policy of Nicholas I
1. So, the codification of laws, the reform of the management of state peasants, and monetary reform are the main achievements of the reign of Nicholas I. With their help, Nicholas I managed to strengthen his imp.

Features and directions of the social movement of the 30-50s of the XIX century
1. The social movement of the 30s-50s had characteristics: > it developed in conditions of political reaction (after the defeat of the Decembrists); > revolutionary and rights

Mugs from the 20s and 30s
1. In the conditions of political reaction that came after the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, the creation of circles of advanced, mainly student, youth became a new form of social struggle in Russia

Conservative direction. Liberal direction. Westerners and Slavophiles
1. After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the question arises about the further paths of development of Russia, around which a long struggle of various currents ensues. In resolving this issue, the main

Petrashevtsy. Revolutionary-democratic direction
1. At the turn of the 30-40s of the XIX century. A revolutionary-democratic direction of Russian social thought is taking shape. Representatives of this direction are V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P

Petr Yakovlevich Chaadaev
1. A peculiar response to the Nikolaev reaction on the part of the older generation of the noble intelligentsia was the first of the series “Telescope”, published in 1836 in the Moscow magazine “Telescope”.

Wars with Turkey and Iran (1826-1829). Exacerbation of Russian-English contradictions
1. In 1825, the Shah of Iran received news of an uprising in St. Petersburg. It was perceived by the Shah's government as the right moment to unleash military action against Russia. The Shah decided once

Caucasian War
1. The military conflict in the Caucasus had an ancient history and its own reasons. The main reason big Caucasian War(1817-1864) began the attempts of the tsarist government to extend its power to the peoples

Crimean War (1853-1856)
1. By the beginning of the 50s, the Eastern question had intensified. The emergence of the so-called Eastern Question was facilitated by 3 main points: > the decline of the once powerful Ottoman Empire

Education in the first half of the 19th century
1. Early XIX V. - a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 accelerated the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people, its consolidation, which greatly increased

Science and technology in Russia
1. Russian science has achieved great success in these years. Naturalists I.A. Dvigubsky and I.E. Dyadkovsky argued that living beings inhabiting the Earth change over time, that everything

Russian travelers
1. Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and new tasks arose for geographers. In 1803-1806. two Russian ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I. F. Krusenstern and Yu. F. Lisyansko

Theater and music
1. As in literature, in the theater in the 20-30s, classicism and sentimentalism were pushed aside by romanticism. The romantic actor P. S. Mochalov played Hamlet very emotionally. On the stage of the same Alexandriysk

Painting. Architecture
1. In painting, artists’ interest in the personality of man, in the life of ordinary people, and not just gods and kings, is growing. There is a gradual shift away from academicism, the center of which was the Academy of Arts.

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom
1. With the end of the Crimean War (1856), the era of liberation, or the era of Great Reforms, began in the history of Russia, as contemporaries called it. The demand for the abolition of serfdom was put forward to

Preparation of peasant reform
1. Preparation for the reform began immediately after the end of the Crimean War. In 1857, a Secret Committee was formed “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants,” which secretly began

Reform of local government (zemstvo and city)
1. The abolition of serfdom led to the need to carry out bourgeois reforms in other areas of public life. The autocratic monarchy turned into a bourgeois monarchy. 2.

Judicial and military reforms. The meaning and implementation of liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century
1. At the insistence of the public, in 1864 the government carried out judicial reform, which was developed by progressive lawyers. Before the reform, the court in Russia was class-based, secret, without the participation of the parties, shi

Industrial development of Russia in the 60-80s of the XIX century
1. The abolition of serfdom (1861) led to rapid growth of the country’s productive forces, the development of the domestic market, railway construction, and urban growth. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Railway construction
1. An important condition for economic development is the creation of a powerful infrastructure - highways and railways, canals, ports, warehouses, transport, communications. Construction of railways began

Industrial revolution. Russian entrepreneurs
1. The industrial revolution in Russia began in the late 30s of the 19th century, it had 2 sides: > technical - the transition from manufactory to factory, the replacement of manual labor with machine labor; >

Cities, population in the second half of the 19th century
1. Evidence of the capitalist development of Russia after the reform of 1861 was the growth of the urban population. According to official statistics, at the end of the century there were 932 cities in Russia in which people lived

Features of the development of landowner farming. Two paths of agricultural development in Russia
1. Unlike industry, the development of agriculture in post-reform times was not quite successful. True, over 20 years, bread exports from Russia have increased 3 times (1st place in the world). Prices

Peasant community
1. After the reform, intensive stratification of the village began. Rich peasants stood out (20% of families), who had a significant amount of land, livestock (less than 4 horses), cars, and farm laborers. This

Features of Russian liberalism in the 50s and 60s of the 19th century. Conservatives
1. In the social movement of Russia in the 60-80s of the XIX century. Several areas can be identified that received particular development in specific decades: > the liberal movement of the early 6

The emergence of populism. Three currents in populism
1. The ideas of communal socialism of Herzen and Chernyshevsky became the basis of the political movement of the radical intelligentsia - populism. The populists considered the people - the peasantry - as a real political force.

International position of Russia after the Crimean War (1856-1875)
1. In 1856, Russia suffered a heavy defeat in the Crimean War, its international situation worsened. After the war, Alexander II began to carry out fundamental reforms in the country. Their success is largely

Annexation of Central Asia and Kazakhstan to Russia
1. The territory of Central Asia was inhabited by numerous peoples - Uzbeks, Tajiks, Turkmens, Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, who were at a relatively low level historical development, many of them moved

Siberia and the Far East. Treaties with China (1858 and 1860)
1. In the 19th century. The development of the Far East continued. At the end of the 50s, the Russian government received the latest maps of the area of ​​the Amur and Ussuri rivers, and the question arose about clarifying the border between Russia and China.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878
1. In the mid-70s, contradictions in the Balkans between Russia and Turkey intensified, and the rivalry between European powers intensified. 2. In the 70s, national liberation movements grew in the Balkans

The position of the main strata of Russian society in post-reform times
1. In 1897, the first general population census was carried out in the Russian Empire. According to the census, the total population of the country was about 126 million people (excluding Finland); own

Industrial boom in the 90s of the XIX century
1. By the beginning of the 80s, the industrial revolution was completed in Russia. The creation of a powerful economic base began, the modernization of industry was carried out, its organization on capitalist principles

Counter-reforms of Alexander III
1. Alexander III reigned from 1881 to 1894. He was not prepared for kingship, he received a military education, was modest, hardworking, attached to his family, had a will of steel, was not stupid, but his mentality

Foreign policy of Alexander III
1. Alexander III himself led the foreign policy of the Russian Empire. In 1882, the old diplomat official P.K. was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. Gire, who strictly followed the instructions of the emperor.

Labor movement at the end of the 19th century. Morozov strike (1885)
1. At the end of the 19th century. with the development of capitalist relations in post-reform Russia, the number of workers tripled; in 1900 it was 3 million people (most of them were immigrants

Liberal movement in Russia at the end of the 19th century
1. After the assassination of Alexander II, the Executive Committee of Narodnaya Volya addressed Alexander III with a letter, promising to end the terror in exchange for a constitution. But the wave of repression that followed the murder of Ale

Liberal populism
1. After the defeat of Narodnaya Volya (1881-1885), reformist liberal populism began to play a significant role. It preached the peaceful path of social transformation, the theory of small deeds in the sf

Conservatives
1. At the end of the 19th century. Conservatism becomes the leading direction of government policy. Its main ideologists were the former mentor of Alexander III, Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev and re

Development of education
1. Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century. developed in conditions when new, capitalist relations were established in the country, and various reforms were carried out. But at the same time, experiences remained

Russian science
1. Russian science in the second half of the 19th century. achieved great success. The Russian physiologist I. N. Sechenov published the work “Reflexes of the Brain” in 1863, where he proved the conditionality of mental

Painting
1. B fine arts second half of the nineteenth century. the dominant trend was critical realism. The ideologist and organizer of artists of this movement was I. P. Kramskoy.

Sculpture, architecture
1. The architecture and sculpture of this period is characterized by a mixture of styles; modernity, determined by the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and antique stylization. Great popularity

Music. Theater
1. Second half of the 19th century. - this is the flowering of Russian musical art. In 1862, the “Balakirev circle” of musicians was formed, called the “Mighty Handful” by critic V.V. Stasov. It's in

“Every nation has the right to be proud of its history. But the history of the Russian people is unique, special, original. Our ancestors created it over thousands of years, they formed statehood, piece by piece collected the Russian character. What we inherited from past generations was achieved through the labor of millions of people, therefore We must remember with gratitude the deeds of the past, study and know the history of our Fatherland and our people.” The formation and development of the Russian centralized state is the main topic of my work today. Here, we have to understand this complex, long and labor-intensive process, get acquainted with it. activities of many outstanding people and try not to lose sight of those important facts, which served as an incentive for the unification of Russian lands. The Big Way the Russian people passed before the unified Russian state was formed. The beginning of this path, the times of political fragmentation of the Kyiv state. As a result, new independent principalities emerged, which grew and developed rapidly. Political fragmentation did not at all mean a severance of ties between Russian lands; didn't lead to them complete fragmentation. This is evidenced by a single religion and church organization, a single language, the legal norms of the “Russian Truth” in force in all lands, people’s awareness of a common historical destiny. The next step was the struggle of the Russian lands and principalities with Mongol conquest and the crusaders. The overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke began in the XIII - XV centuries. main national task. The restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The question was being decided around which center the Russian lands would unite. Moscow became this center, and here the process of centralization of the state was subsequently completed. All this only briefly describes what our country had to face before becoming a single, independent state. Only after the Moscow boyars and the church finally sided with Vasily II did the feudal war end with the victory of the forces of centralization. By the end of the principality of Vasily II, the possessions of the Moscow principality increased 30 times compared to beginning of the XVI V. The Moscow Principality included Murom, Nizhny Novgorod and a number of lands on the outskirts of Rus'. The strength of the Grand Ducal power is evidenced by the refusal of Vasily II to accept an alliance between the Catholic and Orthodox churches under the leadership of the pope. The choice of the head of the Russian Church is determined in Moscow. The process of formation of the Russian state with its capital in Moscow became irreversible. The annexation of the Novgorod, Vyatka and Perm lands with the non-Russian peoples of the north and north-east living here expanded a lot National composition Russian state. The princes in the annexed lands became boyars of the Moscow sovereign. These principalities were now called counties. were governed by governors from Moscow. After the annexation of Tver, Ivan III received the honorary title “By the grace of God, the sovereign, All Rus', Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov and Tver and Ugra and Perm and Bulgaria and other lands.” Under him, the term “Russia” began to be used in relation to our state, double headed eagle became the emblem of our country. Continued his father's work Vasily III. Son of Ivan III and Sophia Paleologus - nieces of the last Byzantine emperor. He began the fight for the abolition of the appanage system and behaved like an autocrat. In 1521, the Ryazan land, which was already dependent on Moscow, became part of Russia. Thus, the process of unification of the north - eastern and northern - was completed. Western Rus' in one state. The largest power in Europe was formed, which from the end of the 15th century began to be called Russia. A huge burden was lifted from the shoulders of our country by the liberation from the Mongol - the Tatar invasion and the fall of the Golden Horde. The unification of principalities and lands of the period of fragmentation took place in the most developed countries of Western Europe in connection with the growth of material production due to the development commodity-money relations and the destruction of subsistence farming as the basis of the economy. This, in turn, allowed the city and craft to develop quickly. There are also peculiarities in the formation of the Russian state, the process of creation of which chronically coincides with many Western European countries. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the socio-economic development of Russian lands. In contrast to the advanced countries of Western Europe, the formation of a single state in Russia took place under the complete dominance of the traditional method of economy of Russia - on a feudal basis. This allows us to understand why a bourgeois, democratic, civil society began to form in Europe, while in Russia serfdom, class, and inequality of citizens before the laws will dominate for a long time. The word “sovereign” in Russian comes from the Old Russian “sovereign” (the so-called prince-ruler in ancient Rus'). A state is a special organization of society, united by common social and cultural interests, occupying a certain territory, having its own management system, security system and possessing internal and external sovereignty. “The state is a machine for the oppression of one class by another, a machine for keeping other subordinate classes in obedience to one class.” "The state is the embodiment of law in society." The following theories of the origin of the state are distinguished: theological theory, patriarchal theory, social contract theory, theory of violence, materialist (Marxist) theory, psychological theory, Gunther’s racial theory, organic theory, irrigation theory, complex theory of the origin of the state Y.M. Klassen, crisis theory of A.B. Vengerov, etc. The initial factor in the emergence of the state should be sought in direct political force. In his opinion, property, classes and the state arise as a result of violence of one part of society over another. As for the characteristics of a state, summarizing the above, we can say that a state is characterized by the following signs:

Based on the above characteristics, a definition of the state can be given. “The state is an organization of sovereign political power, acting in relation to the entire population on the territory assigned to it, using the right of a special coercive apparatus.”

In conclusion, I would like to note that in addition to the above-mentioned features, there are formal attributes and symbols of the state. The latter include the coat of arms, flag, anthem, and capital. As the historical practice of many states, including Russian state, the attributes are mobile and changeable. This happens due to various reasons and circumstances of ideological, ideological, political, religious, national, military, etc. Attributes and symbols, of course, help to more fully and subtly comprehend the state, its intentions, preferences, and help build a detailed image of the state as a whole. Therefore, according to this definition and to the above mentioned signs and concepts we can say with confidence that by the XIII - XVI centuries. a unified Russian state emerged.