Ukrainians, just like Russians and Belarusians, belong to Eastern Slavs. Ukrainians include Carpathian (Boikos, Hutsuls, Lemkos) and Polesie (Litvins, Polishchuks) ethnographic groups. Formation Ukrainian people occurred in the XII-XV centuries on the basis of part of the population that was previously part of Kievan Rus.

During the period of political fragmentation, due to the existing local characteristics of language, culture and way of life, conditions were created for the formation of three East Slavic peoples (Ukrainians and Russians). The main historical centers of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality were the Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, and Chernigov region. In addition to the constant raids of the Mongol-Tatars, which lasted until the 15th century, from the 13th century the Ukrainians were subjected to Hungarian, Polish and Moldavian invasions. However, constant resistance to the conquerors contributed to the unification of Ukrainians. Not last role in the making Ukrainian state belongs to the Cossacks who formed the Zaporozhye Sich, which became a political stronghold of Ukrainians.

In the 16th century, the ancient Ukrainian language emerged. Modern Ukrainian literary language formed at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries.

In the 17th century, as a result of the liberation war under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Hetmanate was formed, which in 1654 became part of Russia as an autonomous state. Historians consider this event a prerequisite for the unification of Ukrainian lands.

Although the word “Ukraine” was known back in the 12th century, it was then used only to designate the “extreme” southern and southwestern parts of ancient Russian lands. Right up to the end century before last the inhabitants of modern Ukraine were called Little Russians and were considered one of the ethnographic groups of Russians.

The traditional occupation of Ukrainians, which determined their place of residence (fertile southern lands), was agriculture. They grew rye, wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat, oats, hemp, flax, corn, tobacco, sunflowers, potatoes, cucumbers, beets, turnips, onions and other crops.

Agriculture, as usual, was accompanied by livestock raising (cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, poultry). Beekeeping and fishing were less developed. Along with this, various trades and crafts were common - weaving, glass production, pottery, woodworking, leatherworking and others.

The national housing of the Ukrainians: huts (huts), made of adobe or logs, whitewashed inside and out, were quite close to the Russians. The roof was usually made of hipped thatch, or of reeds or shingles. In a number of areas, until the beginning of the last century, the dwelling remained chicken or semi-kurny. The interior, even in different areas, was the same: at the entrance on the right or left in the corner there was a stove, with its mouth facing the long side of the house. Diagonally from it in the other corner (the front corner) painted with embroidered towels, flowers, icons hung, and there was a dining table. There were benches for seating along the walls. There was a sleeping area adjacent to the stove. Depending on the wealth of the owner, the peasant house consisted of one or several outbuildings. Wealthy Ukrainians lived in brick or stone houses, with several rooms with a porch or veranda.

The culture of Russians and Ukrainians has a lot in common. Often foreigners cannot distinguish them from each other. If we remember that for many centuries these two peoples were actually one whole, this is not surprising.

Women's traditional clothing of Ukrainians consists of an embroidered shirt and unstitched clothes: dergi, spare tire, plakhta. Girls usually let go long hair, which were braided into braids, placing them around the head and decorating them with ribbons and flowers. Women wore various caps, and later - scarves. A men's suit consisted of a shirt tucked into wide trousers (harem pants), a sleeveless vest and a belt. The headdress in summer was straw hats, in winter - caps. The most common footwear was stols made of rawhide, and in Polesie - lychak (bast shoes), among the wealthy - boots. In the autumn-winter period, both men and women wore retinue and opancha - a type of caftan.

Due to their occupation, the basis of nutrition for Ukrainians was plant and flour foods. National Ukrainian dishes: borscht, soup with dumplings, dumplings with cherries, cottage cheese and potatoes, porridge (especially millet and buckwheat), dumplings with garlic. Meat food was available to the peasantry only on holidays, but lard was often consumed. Traditional drinks: varenukha, sirivets, various liqueurs and vodka with pepper (gorilka).

Diverse songs have always been and remain the most striking feature of the national folk art Ukrainians. They are still well preserved (especially in rural areas) ancient traditions and rituals. Just like in Russia, in some places they continue to celebrate semi-pagan holidays: Maslenitsa, Ivan Kupala and others.

They speak the Ukrainian language of the Slavic group, in which several dialects are distinguished: northern, southwestern and southeastern. Writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet.

Ukrainian believers are mostly Orthodox. There are also Catholics in Western Ukraine. Protestantism is found in the form of Pentecostalism, Baptistism, and Adventism.

Introduction.

1. Social and economic development of Ukrainian lands. The growth of expansion of Polish feudal lords.

2. Union of Brest. The struggle of the Ukrainian people against national and religious oppression.

3. Kozachina in Ukraine.

List of used literature.

Introduction

Due to the development of new steppe spaces and the development of the filvark economy in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 17th century. significantly increased area of ​​cultivated land and productivity agriculture. The most developed agricultural production was in Volyn, Galicia, and Western Podolia. Three-field farming prevailed here, the fields were fertilized, and a plow with an iron share was used. The main grain crop was rye, but wheat and barley were also widespread, although their yields long time remained low. The main industrial crops, as before, were flax, hemp and hops. Livestock farming increased. They raised cattle, pigs, and sheep, and herd horse breeding spread in the steppe regions. In those days, hunting and fishing continued to play a significant role, especially in the southeast. Urbanism, gardening, and beekeeping developed.

It should be noted that the majority of the farm farming was not limited to growing grain crops for export; their owners often had distilleries, breweries, mead breweries, and sometimes ore, potash, saltpeter, zhupa (salt) works. The serfs who worked in these industries were the most exploited part of the rural population.

In Ukraine, handicraft production is increasing both in cities and villages. Greatest development it reached Galicia and Volhynia, although the filvarka trades and the right of feudal lords to trade without duty caused it some damage, narrowing the sales markets. The largest craft centers there were Lvov, Lutsk, Ostrog, Kamenets-Podolsky. The number of artisans increased, both those united in workshops and those outside the workshop - “partachis”.

1. Social and economic development of Ukrainian lands. The growth of expansion of Polish feudal lords

After the Union of Ljubljana Ukrainian lands The Kingdom of Poland (“Crowns”) was part of this voivodeship: Russian (Galicia), Belzkoe, Volyn, Podolsk, Bratslav, Kiev, Chernigov. On the territory of Ukraine (with the exception of Galicia), Lithuanian charters of 1566 and 1588 were in force. Most Ukrainian cities were guided by the provisions of Magdeburg law. Thus, Poland, without a “single shot,” annexed Ukraine, established its own administrative order in it, turned it into its province and launched colonization.

After the union, a huge flow of Polish feudal lords moved to Ukraine, in which magnates played a leading role. They occupied empty lands and displaced local landowners. The Zholkiewskis, Zamoyskis, Kalinovskis, Koniecpolskis, Pototskis, Sinyavskis, Yazlowieskis and many other clans captured vast areas - hundreds of villages, dozens of towns and castles. They were the unlimited rulers of their regions, since they held in their hands and highest positions in the administration of voivodeships and counties. Small landowners were defenseless against their tyranny and either obeyed and gave up their lands, or, saving their lives, flowed in. Complaints or attempts at litigation did not yield positive results, since the entire judicial system was in the hands of Polish feudal lords. Three quarters of all peasant farms in Volyn in 1629 were concentrated in the hands of 37 Volyn magnates, their rights to acquired and often seized lands were approved by royal charters.

On the Left Bank, the Vyshnevetsky mansions with their center in Lubny stood out for their size. Cherkassy elder Prince O. Vishnevetsky in late XVI Art. captured most of the Left Bank and asked the king for confirmation on the ground from the borders with the Moscow principality to the Dnieper. He built the cities of Lubny, Romny, Piryatyn, Priluki here, and besieged hundreds of villages. And at the end of the 30s of the 17th century. The Vishnevetskys were the owners of almost forty thousand peasant households.

Thus, many Polish, and after them Ukrainian magnates, received large plots of land, which immediately had to be populated and organized in order to make profits. The magnates barbarously exploited the natural resources of Ukraine, cutting down forests over the rivers of Southern Ukraine for agriculture and extracting potash from the tree. Forests were also destroyed in other regions of Ukraine.

Together with the magnates, the small nobility moved to Ukraine, hoping for estates and wealth for themselves. Most often, they became managers, housekeepers of the master's estates, commanded detachments of courtyard guards and, together with their patrons, sought out the local population. Jews, whom the magnates brought with them, were also tenants, housekeepers, and trade intermediaries. their number grew rapidly.

The peasantry on the occupied lands was under the unlimited power of the feudal lords. Not only the peasant property, but the peasant himself belonged to the feudal lord. This provided the necessary labor for the landowner's economy.

During the second half XVI Art. The Polish and Lithuanian governments removed a number of laws prohibiting peasants from moving from place to place without the permission of the feudal owner. In 1573, unlimited corvée was introduced on estates “at the will of the master.” This meant that the peasant had to carry out all the work, as required by the feudal lord, and where he ordered. The “Lithuanian Charter” of 1588 finally enslaved the peasants. The master had the right to shackle those who were disobedient, throw them into prison, and put them on fire. The peasants who lived on the “royal lands” - state-feudal lands - also had no rights. Here, the peasant could not leave his plot without permission from the royal administration or independently develop new lands.

It should be noted that corvee (working rent) in different regions of Ukraine had certain characteristics. It gained the greatest development in Galicia and Volyn, where landowners' estates acquired a filvark character and were most closely connected with the external market. These lands were also the most densely populated. Here the filvark system stimulated a significant increase in the exploitation of the peasantry. In Volyn in the 20s of the 17th century. corvée reached four to five days a week, and in the 40s - 6 days. At the same time, to the north of the Kyiv Voivodeship - two to three days. It was introduced with less intensity in the Bratslav region, where, as in the Kiev region, the filvark economy was just being introduced. In Galicia and Volyn, the most intensive dispossession of the peasantry took place. Here the feudal lords, for the support of the government, increased the filvark lands and cut their allotments. As a result, the number of land-poor and landless peasants reached 35-40%, with a half allotment (half a drag or field) - about 40%. Only 20% of peasant households (dymyl) had a full allotment (districts from 16 to 21 hectares). In the second half of the 16th century. in Galicia and Volyn there was mainly a working rent, and next to it - food and cash.

The situation of the peasantry worsened due to the feudal lords transferring their estates for rent. Tenants - merchants, gentry, and Jewish moneylenders forced the serfs to work in the filvarka for five to six days a week. The government also brutally punished the peasants and townspeople, levying large taxes, especially during wars.

Something developed differently peasant farm in the newly formed farms of the Dnieper region, Podolia and Left Bank. When settling these lands with peasants from the interior provinces, the feudal lords gave them various benefits, in particular freedom from all duties for 20-40 years. The way to these regions was opened by the “Ukhodniki” back in the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries. Following in their footsteps were magnates who, having built estates here, needed a large number of workers. Fertile lands with freer living conditions caused mass movement the peasantry to the east, mainly from Volyn, Podolia, Galicia, Kholmshchyna and Polesie, where serfdom and the oppression of feudal lords and government officials were becoming increasingly intolerable. Peasants eagerly settled these little-developed lands, although in new places they were threatened by Tatar raids. The benefits extended to those peasants who already lived here. These settlements, released from duties for many years, acquired the name “settlements” among the people. As a result, for several decades after the Union of Ljubljana, a colossal process of economic development by Ukrainian peasants and Cossacks of the spaces of the middle and southern Kiev region and almost the entire territory of modern Poltava region and other regions of steppe Ukraine took place. Taking advantage of the benefits, the settlers energetically began to develop chernozem soils, introducing them into economic circulation. The government supported this process, hoping that the new population would be more successful in organizing defense against Tatar raids.

However, over time, freedom and benefits began to be limited, and in this negative role played by the small gentry and Jews, who appeared here in increasing numbers. Together with the magnates and government authorities, they begin to introduce serfdom, albeit on a small scale. In response, the armed population, accustomed to continuous military skirmishes with the Tatars, moved further into the steppes, replenishing the Cossack lavas, and started an uprising.

Production was dominated by handcraft, although the use of machines and mechanical devices gradually increased.

The first enterprises were created where civilian workers from among the ruined artisans and peasants worked alongside the serfs. Gradually, the first manufactories grew from handicraft production. These are the foundries that cast cannons and church bells in Lev, Ostra, Cherkassy, ​​Bila Tserkva; guts, especially those who made art glass; zhupa, etc. For some industries there was a monopoly of the state or the gentry - distillery, mill.

The unification of Ukrainian lands within Poland contributed to the spread of their economic ties, strengthening the formation of external and internal markets, intensifying commodity circulation. Old people expanded, new trades and fairs appeared, which played a big role in the development domestic trade. Some fairs (in Kyiv, Lvov, Kamyanka, Lutsk) were of national significance. Merchants from neighboring countries also came here.

Foreign trade developed more and more intensively. The Polish port of Gdansk on the Baltic becomes the main center of grain trade in Europe. Over the 65 years from 1583 to 1648 p., grain exports through this port increased 2.5 times. A significant part of it came from Ukraine. Much was also exported by dry land - through Krakow and Lublin. The export of oxen and other livestock was extended. Significant role in foreign trade, as before, was won back by the sale of processed wood - oak blocks for the construction of ships, mast wood, as well as tar and potash. Quite significant components of export were honey and wax. As before, a lot of Carpathian salt was exported abroad.

Thus, most industrial production was connected with the farms of the feudal lords, worked for the market, bringing significant profits, which fell into the hands of the feudal lords, were spent on expensive jewelry, luxury goods, wine, sugar, silk fabrics and almost did not invest in industry.

In the second half of the XVI - first half of the XVII century. In Ukraine, the number of cities and towns and the population in them is increasing, especially in Southern and South-Eastern Ukraine, where large groups of peasants and townspeople moved from the West and North. In the 40s of the 17th century. There were about 1000 cities and small towns in Ukraine. Among the towns, small ones predominated, often containing no more than 100 households. The largest cities were Lviv with 18 thousand inhabitants and Kyiv - 13-14 thousand. Large urban centers were Kamenets-Podolsky, Lutsk, Chernigov, Nizhyn, Poltava and Przemysl.

2. Union of Brest. The struggle of the Ukrainian people against national and religious oppression

The leadership of secular figures in religious affairs often resulted in incompetent interference in the life of the church and disrupted church order. The brotherhoods began to remove priests without sufficient justification; the most resolved complex church issues that required serious knowledge and even interpreted the holy letter without sufficient theological training. There were endless disputes between brotherhoods and bishops, which paralyzed church life in some regions and cities. This was one of the reasons that gave rise to the idea of ​​a church union among some of the spiritual hierarchs - the unification of the strictly disciplined Catholic and Orthodox religions.

However the main reason the desire of the Orthodox hierarchs for union was a selfish desire of the elite Orthodox Church to be on par with the Catholic “princes of the church”, to sit next to them in the Diet, to depend only on the Pope. they were infuriated and the leadership of the eastern patriarchs, who supported the brotherhoods, interfered greatly in inner life Orthodox bishops, sent conflicting instructions and demanded significant material support.

The Polish king and the Pope were interested in carrying out a union, since in this way they spiritually subjugated the Ukrainian people and significantly increased their possessions and income. However, for the Ukrainian peasantry, petty bourgeoisie, and part of the middle and small gentry, preserving the religion of their parents was a symbol of preserving their independence. The Catholic Church was for them an instrument of foreign enslavement.

The defeat of the church reformation by the authorities and the Jesuits strengthened the Catholic Church in the early 90s of the 16th century, and this contributed to the implementation of the union. And the Jesuits played an active role in the implementation of this idea; they were also at the forefront of this movement.

It should be noted that the schism of Christianity, which dates back to 1054 p., caused discontent among some believers. In this regard, the idea of ​​a church union was repeatedly expressed in the XIV-XV centuries. For many, it seemed fair to restore the unity of the Church of Jesus Christ. However, the Polish king and the Pope gravitated not towards unification, but towards the annexation and conquest of Orthodoxy. The union was supported by a significant part of the bishops of Ukraine - Lviv, Lutsk, Vladimir, Kholmsky and Turov, as well as Metropolitan of Kiev Mikhail Rogoza.

In 1591, the bishops worked out the conditions for the unification of churches and expressed their readiness for this.

In October 1596, the Polish king Sigismund III and Michael Rogoza, by proxy of Pope Clement VIII, convened a church council in Brest (Berest) to officially proclaim the union.

However, the cathedral split into two separate councils - Uniate and Orthodox. On October 18, 1596, the apostate bishops signed an act of union without agreeing with the eastern patriarchs, to whom they were subordinate, and without receiving authority from them to do so. With this act, in Ukraine and Belarus, instead of the Orthodox Church, a Uniate (Greek Catholic) church was formed, subordinate to the Pope. The basic tenets of Catholicism were recognized, but the rituals remained Orthodox.

The Uniate clergy, along with the Catholic clergy, were exempt from taxes, the Ukrainian gentry received the right to hold positions in the administrative apparatus, and the Uniate philistines were equal in rights with the Catholic philistines. Uniate bishops were promised seats in the Senate.

The Orthodox Council rejected the union and declared the apostate hierarchs deprived of power, placing a curse on them. The Polish king Sigismund, despite the protests of the Orthodox Council, recognized the Uniate Church as compulsory and outlawed the Orthodox Church. He enforced union through violence. In fact, there was a process of defeating Orthodoxy, the faith of millions of Ukrainians, one of the most brilliant and profound religions of the world.

Despite threats to the government, Orthodox Christians came out in defense of their faith. The arena of struggle was the Sejm. However, debates on this issue at several diets did not produce results. Only unfavorable foreign policy situation for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the beginning of the 17th century. forced her government to make concessions to the Orthodox, and by resolutions of the Sejm in 1607 their persecution was stopped. The “Greek” faith retained its long-standing rights, and an amnesty was proclaimed for the clergy who did not accept the union.

However, the Catholic reaction continued the persecution, causing raging uprisings in Lutsk in 1620, in the city of Ostrog in 1638, etc. An important role in the fight against the union was played by brotherhoods, which widely developed cultural and educational activities, opened printing houses, schools, printed books, financially supported churches and monasteries.

At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. A new social force entered the religious struggle - the Cossacks, which gradually became the support of the Orthodox Church and the Ukrainian people. At first, the Cossacks, like the Ukrainian gentry, wrote protests against the efforts of the Uniates to seize the property of the Orthodox Church. But this did not help much, and they resorted to defending their church by force of arms. In particular, when emissaries of the Uniate metropolitan seized rich Kyiv monasteries in Kyiv, the Cossacks defended them with weapons in their hands. This stopped the Uniate-Catholic expansion in Kyiv, while in Leo the Uniates were imposing their power. Therefore, in the 20s of the XVII century. the center of Ukrainian religious and cultural life moves again to Kyiv, some outstanding cultural figures from Galicia move here and occupy important church positions.

At the end of the 16th century. - at the beginning of the 17th century, when almost all Orthodox bishops and Metropolitan Rogoza converted to Uniateism, the Orthodox Church was left without leadership (diocese), which threatened its complete disorganization. Then Hetman P. Sagaidachny, taking advantage of the visit of the Eastern Patriarch Feofan, secretly organizes the consecration of the new metropolitan - Job Boretsky and five bishops, thereby strengthening the position of the Orthodox Church, in essence, saving it from collapse. Metropolitan Job Boretsky goes to the Cossacks, gives a sermon to them and takes an oath from them to defend their faith “right to the throat.”

On the eve and at the beginning of Turkey's war against Poland in 1621, the Cossacks agreed to defend Poland, but demanded that the Polish government improve the situation of the Orthodox. A Cossack delegation, which included P. Sagaidachny, arrives in Warsaw. The king agreed to approve the new leadership of the Orthodox Church and promised to “calm down” religious affairs. However, he did not fulfill his promises, although the Cossacks, led by Hetman Sagaidachny, paid big casualties saved Poland from Turkish defeat.

In the 20s of the XVII century. Negotiations were held between the Cossacks and the Polish government to improve the position of the Orthodox Church, but they did not have significant results. The Ukrainian population remained divided into Orthodox and Uniates, who were at enmity with each other. Only the Poles benefited from this. It should be noted that the Ukrainian Uniate Church after the Berestey (Brest) Union found itself in a tragic situation: the Orthodox hated the Uniates for treason, and the Catholic (Polish) Church did not consider them to be full citizens, since the main thing for them was the issue of national origin. However, over time, everything changed. The Uniate Church became a fighter against polonization, for the national rights and freedoms of the Ukrainian people.

In 1633, Vladislav IV became the king of Poland, who, in order to use the Cossacks in wars in the interests of Poland, was predisposed to compromises and reconciliation with the Orthodox religion. Peter Mogila, the son of a Moldavian owner, a man with European education, who in 1633 held the position of archimandrite of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. He was given to the Orthodox Church and even used his personal material resources in its favor. The new metropolitan concentrated large land wealth in the hands of the metropolis and on this basis launched extensive religious and educational activities, implementing a number of reforms. First of all, he focused his efforts on strengthening discipline among the clergy, introducing a spiritual court-consistory, which considered the illegal actions of priests.

Kyiv shrines were updated, in particular, the Church of St. Sofia, St. Michael's Monastery, Church of the Trekhsvyatitelskaya, Spas, etc.

3. Kozachina in Ukraine

During the second half of the 16th century. Due to the intensification of heavy feudal and national-religious oppression in the western and northern lands of Ukraine, the number of fugitives - peasants and townspeople near the Dnieper and Bug region - increases significantly. Poor, disadvantaged people, the so-called “gultai”, flock here, as well as part of the small gentry, who experienced oppression by the big magnates and gentry. All of them poured into the lavas of the Cossacks, increasing and strengthening them. The Cossacks grew rapidly and territorially. Many Cossacks lived in villages, farmsteads, towns of the Chernihiv region, Kiev region and other lands - in the “volost” - and were called “volosnye”, policemen. And those who flowed further south, into the steppes, the Trans-Dnieper rapids, were called “grassroots”, “Zaporozhye”.

Already in mid-16th century V. The Cossacks are being united under the leadership of the most energetic and talented of them into a military organization. Magnates, nobles and elders and governors of border cities played a certain role in this process. An important place in the process of formation of the military-political Cossack organization belongs to Prince Dmitry Vishnevetsky - 60s of the 16th century. (popularly he had the name of the Cossack Baida). He was a bright historical figure, outstanding diplomat and a commander whose activities left a significant mark in the history of the fight against the Turks and Tatars. Although he was a tycoon and a large landowner, he helped the Cossacks in the common struggle against the Turkish-Tatar danger.

The Zaporozhye Sich was a purely military camp. There were only Cossacks here, and women and children were not allowed there. The Cossacks obeyed only their elders, who were elected from among themselves. In the Sich there were two councils (two circles): one large, in which all Cossacks had the right to take part; and had it - with the participation of only the elders. The highest authority in the Sich was considered the general Great Council. This division into a large and small circle indicates that there was no complete equality in resolving all issues. The division between the poor and wealthy Cossacks. Mostly wealthy Cossacks were elected to leadership positions.

The Zaporozhye Sich had its own territory, which gradually increased, and was later administratively divided into so-called palancas (districts). It included large areas of the Right Bank and Left Bank. The Zaporozhye Sich was also called the Basket. Here was the center of military, administrative and judicial power of the entire Cossack territory - Zaporozhye. At the head of the Basket was an elected chieftain, who was elected by the Great Council. It also elected general elders - judge, clerk, baggage officer, osaul and cornet, who, if necessary, were re-elected and sentenced to death for their guilt, and the sentence was carried out here. This testified to the high responsibility of the leaders to the Cossacks. The Cossacks were judged according to traditional law. There were no written codes or legal collections. This political and administrative order changed somewhat over the three centuries of the existence of Cossack statehood, but was basically preserved to last years her activities.

Conclusions

In the process of growing feudal land tenure, the establishment of the filvark management system (production and processing of agricultural products, based on weekly corvée and clearly market-oriented) brought about a rapprochement between different categories of the peasantry, and its feudal dependence gradually outgrew and legally took shape into serf dependence.

The separation of the Cossacks into a separate social state was also facilitated by the socio-economic situation, when the Polish magnates and gentry enslaved the peasantry in new regions of Ukraine. Fleeing from the master's yoke, many peasants flowed into the Sich, replenishing and strengthening it. At the end of the 16th century. The Cossacks were finally formed, grew significantly and became a separate military socio-political state, which consisted of two closely interconnected parts - the legalized register, quantitatively small, and the mass, free Zaporozhye and city (volosny). It continued at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. resist the attacks of the Tatars and, at the same time, became increasingly drawn into a struggle of a social and religious nature - with the Polish feudal-serf and Catholic offensive.

It must be emphasized that the relations of the Cossacks with the Moscow state were complex. Having the same religion, origin, language, whole in the fight against Tatar-Turkish aggression, they often acted together. However, Muscovy tried to annex Ukrainian lands, and Poland and Lithuania, repelling its advance, used the Ukrainian Cossacks to their advantage. Therefore, at the end of the XVI - at the beginning of the XVII century. these relations were hostile. At the same time, in relations with Don Cossacks Strong military twinning, common military actions against Crimea and Turkey, and mutual assistance prevailed.

List of used literature

1. Alekseev Yu. History of Ukraine: Primary sourcebook/ Yuriy Alekseev, Andriy Vertegel, Viktor Dani-lenko. - K.: Karavela, 2007. - 254 p.

2. Bilotserkovsky V. History of Ukraine: Primary sourcebook / Vasyl Bilotserkovsky. - 3rd version, corrected and supplemented. - K.: Center for Educational Literature, 2007. - 535 p.

3. Boyko O. History of Ukraine: Primary handbook / Oleksandr Boyko. - 3 types, vipr., additional.. - K.: Academvidav, 2004. - 687 p.

4. Gubarev V. History of Ukraine: Evidence of a schoolboy and student / Viktor Gubarev. - Donetsk: BAO, 2005. - 622 p.

5. History of Ukraine: Primary handbook / M. O. Skrypnyk, L. F. Dombrovska, V. M. Krasovsky and in.; Ed. M. O. Skripnik; Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, Odessa State. ekon. univ. - K.: Center for Basic Literature, 2003. - 366 p.

6. Kormich L. History of Ukraine: Pidruchnik / Lyudmila Kormich, Volodymyr Bagatsky; Learn about the sciences of Ukraine. - 2nd view, additional and processed.. - K.: Alerta, 2006. - 412 p.

7. Kotova N. History of Ukraine: Primary sourcebook / Natalia Kotova. - Kharkiv: Odissey, 2005. - 413 p.

8. Lanovik B. History of Ukraine: Basic handbook / Bogdan Lanovik, Mykola Lazarovich,. - 3rd version, corrected and supplemented. - K.: Znannya-Press, 2006. - 598 p.

9. Oliynyk M. History of Ukraine: Basic handbook for students of distance and correspondence forms of education / Mykola Oliynyk, Ivan Tkachuk,. - 3rd view, corrected and supplemented. - Lviv: New World-2000, 2007. - 262 p.

10. Chutky A. History of Ukraine: Basic handbook for students. top chief mortgages/ Andriy Chutky; Interregional Academy of Personnel Management. - K.: MAUP, 2006. - 345 p.

Description

UKRAINIANS (self-name), people, the main population of Ukraine (37.4 million people). They also live in Russia (4.36 million people), Kazakhstan (896 thousand people), Moldova (600 thousand people), Belarus (over 290 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (109 thousand people), Uzbekistan (153 thousand . people) and other states in the territory former USSR.

The total population is 46 million people, including in Poland (350 thousand people), Canada (550 thousand people), the USA (535 thousand people), Argentina (120 thousand people) and other countries. They speak Ukrainian as a language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

Ukrainians, along with the closely related Russians and Belarusians, are classified as Eastern Slavs. Ukrainians include Carpathian (Boikos, Hutsuls, Lemkos) and Polesie (Litvins, Polishchuks) ethnographic groups.

Historical background

The formation of the Ukrainian nationality (origin and formation) occurred in the 12-15 centuries on the basis of the southwestern part of the East Slavic population, which was previously part of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus (9-12 centuries). During the period of political fragmentation, due to the existing local peculiarities of language, culture and way of life (in the 12th century the toponym “Ukraine” appeared), the prerequisites were created for the formation of three East Slavic peoples on the basis of the Old Russian nationality - Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian.

The main historical center of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality was the Middle Dnieper region - the Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernigov region. A significant integrating role was played by Kyiv, which rose from the ruins after the defeat by the Golden Horde invaders in 1240, where the most important shrine of Orthodoxy was located - the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. Other southwestern East Slavic lands gravitated towards this center - Siverschyna, Volyn, Podolia, Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina and Transcarpathia. Beginning in the 13th century, Ukrainians were subjected to Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish and Moldavian conquests.

From the end of the 15th century, raids began that established themselves in the Northern Black Sea region Tatar khans, accompanied by mass captivity and hijacking of Ukrainians. In the 16th and 17th centuries, during the struggle against foreign conquerors, the Ukrainian people significantly consolidated. The most important role The emergence of the Cossacks (15th century), which created a state (16th century) with a unique republican system - the Zaporozhye Sich, which became a political stronghold of the Ukrainians, played a role in this. In the 16th century, book Ukrainian (the so-called Old Ukrainian) language emerged. On the basis of the Middle Dnieper dialects at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, the modern Ukrainian (new Ukrainian) literary language was formed.

Defining Moments ethnic history Ukrainians of the 17th century were further development crafts and trade, in particular in cities that enjoyed Magdeburg law, as well as the creation as a result of the liberation war under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky of the Ukrainian state - the Hetmanate and its entry (1654) on the rights of autonomy into Russia. This created the preconditions for the further unification of all Ukrainian lands.

In the 17th century, significant groups of Ukrainians moved from the Right Bank, which was part of Poland, as well as from the Dnieper region to the east and southeast, their development of empty steppe lands and the formation of the so-called Slobozhanshchina. In the 90s of the 18th century, Russia included Right Bank Ukraine and southern, and in the first half of the 19th century - the Danube Ukrainian lands.

The name "Ukraine", used back in the 12th-13th centuries to designate the southern and southwestern parts of ancient Russian lands, by the 17th-18th century it meant "kraina", i.e. country, entrenched in official documents, became widespread and served as the basis for the ethnonym “Ukrainians”. Along with the ethnonyms that were originally used in relation to their southeastern group - “Ukrainians”, “Cossacks”, “Cossack people”, “Russians”. In the 16th - early 18th centuries, in official documents of Russia, Ukrainians of the Middle Dnieper and Slobozhanshchina were often called “Cherkasy”, later, in pre-revolutionary times, “Little Russians”, “Little Russians” or “South Russians”.

Peculiarities historical development various territories Ukraine, their geographical differences determined the emergence of historical and ethnographic regions of Ukrainians - Polesie, Central Dnieper, South, Podolia, Carpathians, Slobozhanshchina. Ukrainians have created a vibrant and original national culture.

Food varied greatly different layers population. The basis of the diet was vegetable and flour foods (borscht, dumplings, various yushkas), porridge (especially millet and buckwheat); dumplings, dumplings with garlic, lemishka, noodles, jelly, etc. Fish, including salted fish, occupied a significant place in the food. Meat food was available to the peasantry only on holidays. The most popular were pork and lard.

Numerous poppy cakes, cakes, knishes, and bagels were baked from flour with the addition of poppy seeds and honey. Drinks such as uzvar, varenukha, sirivets, various liqueurs and vodka, including the popular vodka with pepper, were common. The most common ritual dishes were porridges - kutya and kolyvo with honey.

National holidays

Traditions, culture

Ukrainian folk costume is varied and colorful. Women's clothing consisted of an embroidered shirt (shirt - tunic-like, polikovoy or with a yoke) and unstitched clothing: dergi, reserve, plakhta (since the 19th century, a sewn skirt - spidnitsa); in cool weather they wore sleeveless jackets (kersets, kiptari, etc.). Girls braided their hair in braids, laying it around their heads and decorating them with ribbons, flowers, or putting a wreath of paper flowers and colorful ribbons on their heads. Women wore various caps (ochipka), towel-shaped headdresses (namitki, obrus), and later - scarves.

A man's suit consisted of a shirt (with a narrow stand-up collar, often embroidered with a cord), tucked into wide or narrow trousers, a sleeveless vest and a belt. In summer, the headgear was straw fringes, at other times - felt or astrakhan fur, often the so-called smushkovi (from smushki), cylinder-like hats. The most common footwear was stols made of rawhide, and in Polesie - lychak (bast shoes), among the wealthy - boots.

In the autumn-winter period, both men and women wore retinue and opancha - long-skirted clothing of the same type as the Russian caftan, made of homespun white, gray or black cloth. The women's suite was fitted. In rainy weather they wore a retinue with a hood (kobenyak), in winter - long sheepskin coats (casings) made of sheepskin, which were covered with cloth among wealthy peasants. Rich embroidery, appliqué, etc. are typical.

The people living “against the sun, with their heads towards the Chumatsky cart, with their feet towards blue sea", as it is sung in an old song. Whitewashed huts surrounded by gardens, beautiful stove tiles and pottery, bright, cheerful fairs - all these are recognizable signs of a rich traditional culture Ukrainians...

Settlement and formation of ethnicity

Group of girls and married women in festive outfits

In the southwest Eastern Europe“against the sun, head to the Chumatsky cart (Ursa Major), feet to the blue sea,” as the people sang, the ancient Slavic land Ukraine.

The origin of the name in the meaning of “edge, extreme” dates back to the time of the existence of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. So in the XII-XIII centuries. the southerners called it southwestern lands- right bank Dnieper region: Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernigovo-Severshchyna, which became the center of formation of the Ukrainian nationality. Subsequently, the name Ukraine was assigned to the entire ethnic territory.

Main activity

The main occupation of Ukrainians - agriculture - regulated the way of life of the peasant family and the community as a whole. Grain and products prepared from it (porridge, kutia, loaf) were present as attributes in almost all rituals of the calendar cycle and rituals associated with life cycle person. For Ukrainians, like for many other peoples, bread was a symbol of hospitality. There was always bread and salt on the table in the house. Eyewitnesses noted that the Ukrainians received their guests cordially and kindly, sparing nothing for their dear guest. Cattle breeding predominated in the mountainous regions of the Carpathians.

Settlements and housing

Ukrainian villages were located near rivers, occupying lands not suitable for arable land. Farm settlements were built in the steppe regions.

"Rushnik" - a towel. Late XIX century. Kharkov province, Zmeevsky district

The main dwelling of the Ukrainians was a whitewashed adobe hut with a high hipped roof, covered with straw or reeds, the edges of which protruded significantly above the walls, protecting the inhabitants of the hut from the cold in winter and from the heat in summer. For additional insulation in winter, the walls of the hut were lined with straw. Clean, whitewashed huts were almost always surrounded by gardens, and light fences and narrow gates made of poles made it possible to see the courtyard and its inhabitants.

The owner and her daughters whitewashed the hut after every rainstorm, and also three times during the year: for Easter, Trinity and Intercession.

Interior of the hut

Painted stove and painting on the wall near the stove

The stove occupied almost a quarter of the hut and was located in the left corner from the entrance. This corner was called “bake”, and the empty space under the stove - “pidpichcha” - served to store fuel or a cage for chickens was placed there - “kuku”.

Opposite the stove corner there was a red corner - “pokuttya”. Here, on the shelves - shrines, there were icons that were called blessed, since they were used to bless the owner, the hostess and their sons before the wedding. The icons were covered with patterned towels - “gods”.

The corner to the right of the doors, called “deaf,” had exclusively economic purposes. The space above the door and top part A blind corner was occupied by a shelf - a “polytsia”, on which stood spare pots, turned upside down. Closer to the corner, numerous women's jewelry was kept in pottery. Below were shelves with the best tableware placed in a prominent place: painted clay and wooden bowls, spoons, plates and flasks.

Hutsul ceramics

Ceramic Kandiyka bowls. Poltava province, Zenkovsky u., metro station Opashnya.

The natural and geographical conditions of the Carpathian region predetermined the unique culture of its population, known as the Rusyns, or Hutsuls. Despite the fact that this group of the Ukrainian people lived in isolation from them due to territorial and political alienation, they did not lose their cultural and historical unity with their ethnic group. The Hutsul region was famous for its ceramic products.

The stove made a special impression on those entering the Hutsul hut. inner part the chimney of which - the fireplace - was lined with tiles - "kahls". The fireplace consists of two or three tiers of tiles, closed at the top and bottom with rows of narrow cornices. The upper edge of the fireplace was completed by two or three pediments - “hidden” and “bumps” at an angle. The tiles depicted scenes from the life of the Hutsuls, churches, crosses, faces of saints, the Austrian coat of arms, and flowers.

Vessel. Eastern Galicia, p. Pistyn. End of the 19th century. Ukrainians are Hutsuls

The decoration of the stove fireplace was consistent with the “mysnik” - a cabinet of three or four shelves, placed in the partition between the door to the hut and the side wall, and the “mysnik” - a shelf above the door where pottery stood: “gleki” (“dzbanki”), “chersaki” (pots), bathhouses, vessels for drinks - rolls, “pleskanki”, bowls, etc. The most elegant bowls, serving exclusively as interior decoration, were placed on the “mysnik”, which for the same reason was decorated with carvings and burnt patterns.

Clay products attracted attention with the perfection of forms, variety of decor and color scheme- brown, yellow and green. All products were covered with glaze, which glittered, creating a cloudy days atmosphere of festivity and elegance.

The production of ceramics was carried out by Hutsul potters from Kosovo and Pistyn. The most famous of them: I. Baranbk, O. Bakhmatyuk, P. Tsvilik, P. Koshak. As a rule, they were all hereditary potters who embodied in their products not only best achievements predecessors, but, of course, revealed their individuality.

Despite the fact that the main occupations of the Hutsuls were cattle breeding and, first of all, sheep breeding, as well as logging and rafting of timber, many of them were also engaged in trades, especially those who lived in towns and had neither land nor livestock. For a Hutsul girl there was nothing more honorable than to marry a craftsman.

Ukrainian fair

Fair in the village of Yankovtsi. Poltava province, Lubensky district. Ukrainians.

In most Ukrainian villages there were fairs on major temple holidays. The busiest of them took place in the fall, after the harvest. The marketplace was located on the temple square or on a pasture outside the village.

The fair for peasants was a kind of “club” where they supported public relations and dating. The fair rows were located in strict sequence: in one row they sold pottery, factory utensils and icons, and there were also grocery and tea shops; in another row - textiles, haberdashery, caps, women's scarves, shoes; in the next - wood products - wheels, arches, chests, etc.; in the latter - tar and fish.

There were separate places where cattle and horses were sold. Here the gypsies acted as intermediaries. After a successful purchase and sale business as usual there was drinking magarych: “The beggars exchanged crutches, and even then they drank magarych for three days,” - that’s what the people said.

At fairs, people were entertained by traveling gymnasts or comedians, but more often by performers of folk songs to the accompaniment of the lyre or blind musicians playing the harmonium. The trade lasted three to four hours, then everything was cleared away, and by evening there was not a trace left of the motley noisy crowd and crush except the fair's litter. The big fair lasted two or three days.

Russia: formation great power

At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia established itself as a great power. During the 18th century alone, its population increased from approximately 15.6 million people to 37.3 million. This was more than in France and England combined. After the creation of metallurgical enterprises in the Urals in the 18th century, Russia smelted more cast iron and iron than England.

Russia and Ukraine in the 17th century

The most significant changes in the position of Russia and the nature of its development occurred during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (reigned 1645-1676).

During these years, Russia waged almost continuous wars with its traditional opponents - the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Crimean Khanate.

In 1648, a war began between Poland and the Zaporozhye Cossack army. In 1649, the Cossacks turned to Russia for help. She was not yet ready to fight, but promised to support the Cossacks with money, weapons and volunteers.

The Zaporozhye army was unique public education, which arose in the 16th century on the vast territory of the middle and lower Dnieper region. These lands, bordering the Crimean Khanate from the south and constantly subject to its raids, and Russia from the north

They were considered to belong to Poland, but she had no real power over them. Peasants from Russian, Polish and Lithuanian lands settled here for decades, escaping the tyranny of the landowners. They mixed with the local population, started farming, and fought back Crimean Tatars, themselves carried out raids on the Crimea, and sometimes on Polish lands. Ukrainian Cossacks who lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper received money for their service from the Polish crown. The hetman, colonels, and captains they chose were established in Warsaw. The Cossacks who lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper - “beyond the rapids” (hence Zaporozhye) were formally subjects of the Polish crown, but considered themselves independent of it. Their support was a fortified settlement - Zaporozhye Sich.

Poland's attempts to subjugate all the Cossacks to its power became the cause of the war, which continued with varying success until 1654. In 1653, the hetman of the Zaporozhye army, Bogdan Khmelnitsky (1595 - 1657), officially appealed to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine “under the high royal hand.” The Zemsky Sobor in 1654 decided to join Ukraine to Russia. The agreement signed and approved by the All-Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslavl provided for the preservation of broad rights for the Ukrainian Cossacks, in particular the election of all officials.

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia became the reason Russian-Polish war 1654-1667 It went poorly for Poland, which was also attacked by Sweden. Under these conditions, Russia signed a truce with Poland in 1656 and opposed Sweden, which it saw as a more dangerous enemy.

Meanwhile, the situation in Ukraine has worsened. B. Khmelnitsky's successor, Hetman I. Vygovsky, in 1658 terminated the agreement with Russia and entered into an alliance with Poland and Crimea, they jointly began military operations against Russia. In a difficult situation for itself, the Russian government was forced, at the cost of returning all conquered territories to Sweden, to urgently make peace with it. The problem of accessing Baltic Sea again remained unresolved.

The situation of Russia, whose army suffered big losses, worsened the split of Ukraine into Right Bank and Left Bank. In 1667, Russia concluded a truce with Poland. Right Bank Ukraine remained under her rule.

The war in the south did not end there. In 1672, the armies of Turkey and the Crimean Khanate invaded Ukraine. The outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia proceeded with varying degrees of success. Only in 1681 was a peace treaty signed, according to which Kyiv and Left Bank Ukraine remained with Russia.