A collection of ready-to-write essays in Russian and foreign literature, abstracts, summary works on the site site on a wide variety of topics, different writers, poets: foreign, domestic and world, who with their works conquered not only the whole world but also an entire era, whose works remain relevant to this day. The essays offered on the site differ fundamentally in their development and depth of analysis. Essays are your small work of art based on the material you have read in which you convey and describe those feelings, moments of life and situations that the character in the work experienced. Let's take a look at ready-made essays on literature and the Russian language through the eyes of a schoolchild. The Internet is so filled with information that you don’t know where to stop and how to make the right choice: someone clicks at random and starts delving into the incomprehensible structure of sites, and ultimately goes to another site and so on ad infinitum, while someone goes to your favorite site.

Abstracts and Works on Russian and foreign literature

But, unfortunately, this makes the situation a little more difficult to implement. homework. Therefore, you can easily choose what you need from the selected essay material. All you have to do is add a few of your thoughts or put together one essay from several, since the site provides essays in several versions on the same topic, but under different names. As a result, you will not waste a lot of time writing your essay and will receive an excellent essay, unlike any other. Essays on the theme of famous Russians and foreign writers, poets different eras, generations and directions of L. N. Tolstoy, M. Yu. Lermontov, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. S. Pushkin, A. Akhmatova, M. Sholokhov, Homer, and other writers from capital letters. Collected and presented abstracts on the main academic disciplines selected according to all rules and regulations school programs. This will be for you additional material for classes, tests etc. I will describe to users a little about how to use the site correctly. Simple, convenient and free. You do not need to make a lot of effort to find the necessary essays, you just need to select the required section, hover your cursor over it and click the left mouse button. After this, a menu will open where you can select the section you are interested in, and in order to make it easier to search in the categories necessary essays you can use the search on the site which is located in the right top corner. That's all in a nutshell!!! We wish you great success, easy study and we hope that you enjoy visiting our site. Come in, we will always be glad to see you.

“Beliefs...in essence, are based on deeds, on experiences and observations; therefore they are incorrectly called superstitions; they are true and fair, they constitute the experienced wisdom of the people, and therefore it is useful to know them and conform to them. These beliefs must undoubtedly be all explainable from general laws nature: but some seem strange and dark for a time.”
V.I. Dal "On beliefs, superstitions and prejudices of the Russian people."

Speaking about the life and activities of the Guard Major General tank troops Lebedev Viktor Grigorievich, one cannot remain silent about the ideas he developed on Russian folk culture, expressed in Russian folk wisdom. According to him, he was interested in this issue even in the pre-war and war years. Interesting fact is that Viktor Grigorievich went through all his military trials with a volume of “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.” The very first copy of this book burned down along with his tank in defensive battles near Kyiv. After the war, Viktor Grigorievich acquired a new copy of “Life ...” present moment this copy, with the general’s notes, is located in the Prokhorovskoe Field museum-reserve. Viktor Grigorievich was particularly active in taking up Russian folk wisdom in post-war period already retired. In the article below, the author made an attempt to present the general’s views on this issue in the most accessible way to the general readership.

1. Russian folk proverbs.

The Russian person “doesn’t go to great lengths for words.” Everywhere, in transport, at home and at work, we say and hear ourselves: “Everything that is not done is for the better”; “Make a fool pray to God, he will hurt his forehead”; “Prepare the sleigh in the summer and the cart in the winter”; “The jug got into the habit of walking on water, and there he broke his head”; “A pig will find dirt everywhere”; “There was no happiness, but misfortune helped”; “Don’t get into your own sleigh”; “Measure twice, cut once”; “Well, where can we fools drink tea”; “On the World, and death is red”; “You can’t have two deaths, you can’t avoid one”; “They don’t seek goodness from goodness,” etc. All this with a grin or mockery, often with sarcasm, but, as a rule, not in literally, but figuratively, by analogy. The Russian proverb is biting, optimally short to the point of grace, figurative and emotional, always hitting the target, still alive and not going to fade into oblivion. And this is under conditions of severe pressure from the global mass urbanized “culture”. Its vitality, when many folk cultures acquired not even ethnographic, but archaeological interest, is explained by the fact that it literally permeated the flesh and blood of the Russian people, their life, their speech.
To date, a lot of collections of Russian proverbs have been compiled. Collection, study and interpretation of Russian folk proverbs Many lovers of Russian literature devoted themselves. They gave her their tribute and famous teacher K.D. Ushinsky (1824 - 1870), and the famous folklorist, historian and literary critic A.N. Afanasyev (1826–1871). A special place to understand Russian folk culture took over the works of V.I. Dahl (1801 – 1872). Ours was also a great connoisseur of Russian proverbs. famous historian IN. Klyuchevsky, who in his lectures on Russian history [(5), XVII lecture] connected the formation of Russian folk wisdom with the psychology of Russian people, formed under the influence of the nature of his habitat: “Great Russia... with its forests, swamps and swamps at every step presented the settler (Russian man, N.L.) with thousands of small dangers, unforeseen difficulties and troubles, among which he had to find himself, with which he had to fight every minute. This taught the Great Russian to vigilantly monitor nature, to keep an eye on both, as he put it, to walk, looking around and feeling the soil, not to venture into the water without looking for a ford, developed in him resourcefulness in small difficulties and dangers, the habit of a patient struggle with adversity and deprivation " “Moreover, by the very nature of the region, every corner of it, every locality asked the settler a difficult economic riddle: wherever the settler settled here, he, first of all, needed to study his place, all its conditions in order to look out for land, the development of which could be the most profitable. Hence this amazing observation, which is revealed in the Great Russian folk superstitions.” The historian claims that in the signs and proverbs of the Russian man “his meteorology, and his economic textbook, and his everyday autobiography; in them all of him was cast, with his life and outlook, with his mind and heart; in them he reflects, and observes, and rejoices, and grieves, and he himself laughs at both his sorrows and his joys.”
With Russian folk wisdom, the author of this article I know him firsthand, and what is called first-hand, from my grandmother Anna. A.M. Lebedeva (1875 - 1954) lived her entire life in a remote forest corner of the Serpukhov district of the Moscow region, in a village with the seemingly non-Slavic name Terekhun (in common folk, according to Dahl’s dictionary, terekhun is a forgotten, abandoned land). Like most village women of that time, she kept and passed on oral folk traditions. I remember that all her actions were always accompanied by lamentations and teachings: “Eh, the bird started singing early, lest the cat eat it.” “Patience and work will grind everything down.” “If you chase two hares, you won’t catch either.” “When a chicken pecks a grain, it becomes full.” “Every cricket, know your nest.” “Live life, don’t cross the field.” “Man proposes, but God disposes.” “Every cloud has a silver lining,” etc.
The author’s father, V.G. Lebedev, was also a great connoisseur of oral folk culture. In particular, in his ideas he refuted the opinion that the Russian folk wisdom a simple collection of disparate, unrelated expressions, born on one occasion or another, but considered it to be a holistic worldview, possessing the necessary breadth and detail. To see this, just look at Dahl's collection. This collection contains more than 30 thousand proverbs, arranged in 180 (!) headings, carefully checked for their true meaning. folk origin. Here are simple, everyday issues, such as housekeeping, weddings, children. Here there are universal questions, such as the Universe, Peace, Life. He saw the detail of the elaboration of themes in the imaginary paradox of Russian proverbs, such as: “Even water does not run under a lying stone,” “But in one place the stone is overgrown with moss,” or: “To the big, big,” “But the spool is small, yes.” expensive." It is precisely this versatility of shades that testifies to the constant, repeated return of the Russian person to each of the topics considered. According to V.G., Russian folk wisdom, having ideological content, has a “pyramidal” structure, in which there are a number of proverbs that complete the generalization natural patterns observed by the Russian people throughout its history. After spending thorough analysis Russian proverbs, he identified four basic rules of Russian folk wisdom, which we will discuss below.

2. The depth of memory of the Russian people.

The people's worldview is inextricably linked with the depth of memory of peoples, stemming from the time of its origin and development. And here, specifically about the Russian people, the opinions of researchers differ. According to the officially recognized point of view, based mainly on Russian chronicles of the 11th – 15th centuries, it is believed that the Russian people began to take shape from the end of the 1st millennium AD. from the local Finno-Ugric population and newcomer Slavs [Klyuchevsky (5), lecture IV]. Therefore, he is relatively young and the depth of his collective memory is determined by thirty to forty generations. From this the conclusion is drawn that during the period of its formation, the Russian people could not by themselves form a holistic worldview tied to the place of their development. And the one that exists on at the moment, is an incorporated worldview, a direct consequence of the introduction of the Russian people to Christianity (according to Karamzin, Solovyov, etc.) Naturally, this idea is supported by the Russian Orthodox Church. Of course, it is difficult to deny its role in shaping the psychology of the Russian people. She's really great. For a number of centuries, belonging to Orthodoxy was the most important principle of self-identification of the Russian people, which contributed to national unity in one of the most difficult periods of existence, at the moment Tatar-Mongol yoke. But still, in this case, it is necessary to answer why throughout the entire “Christian” millennium the Russian Church made so many efforts in the fight against the “remnants” of paganism. What are these relics, and where are their sources?
Another academician A.I. Sobolevsky drew attention to, as he put it, the “Scythian” names of the rivers of the Russian Plain, which before him were indiscriminately perceived as Finno-Ugric. Considering that the Volga-Oka interfluve, with the adjacent areas of the upper reaches of the Don, Volga and Sukhona, is considered a historical and cultural place for the development of the Russian people in general, this is a significant remark. As a result of the lately calculations have established that about 40% of the names of rivers in this territory have Indo-European origin. These are the rivers: Dvina, Sukhona, Kubena, Tiksna, Lizna, Sheksna, Desna, Don, Pra, Pronya and many others. Their etymology is read from Dahl's dictionary, and most of the given names are adjectives in the abbreviated form that is widespread in the Russian language. So, we say a charming girl, a vast country, but... the girl is charming, a vast country. Hence the Dvina is a wondrous river, the Sukhona is a dry river (longing for Dahl), Kubena is a cube river (from the word cube, egg-little), Desna is a gum river (right according to Dahl), etc. Many authors attribute the origin of the names of these rivers to final stage Mesolithic, that is, by the 6th millennium BC. As for the majority of the so-called Finno-Ugric names, they make up about 50%. The time of their origin is determined by researchers to be the first half of the first millennium AD. . Researchers suggest that these names, as a rule, have an Indo-European root and a Finno-Ugric ending. The author of this work suggests that most of them, like the name of the village of Terekhun, are too common, and therefore quite far from the Slavic sound. Examples are the names of the rivers Vazuza and Yauza, which, according to Zabelin, have the root uz, us - long and narrow, or the Volga and Oka, which have the root ogha - stream (in Hebrew), etc. For more details on the origin of the names of the rivers of the Russian North, see the work of S. Ukhov.
Academician B.A. Rybakov [(10), chapter II], examining the elements of paganism of a ritual nature, expressed in objects of Russian folk life, came to the conclusion that they are common to huge territory between Pskov Arkhangelsk and Tambov. These items include: the bride's wedding decoration, valances, bedspreads, towels, spinning wheels, many vessels, details of the external interior - platbands and roof ridges and much more. On them, in the form of embroidery, carving and colorful painting, there are motifs (svatichny, meander, diamond-dot patterns, the theme of heavenly deer), which, based on archaeological materials, can be traced through a number of intermediate stages to the Mesolithic era (VI – IX millennium BC). .BC). This is the time, the academician notes, “when overweight mammoths and rhinoceroses went to the edge of the melting glacier going north, away from the viscous, soggy soil of the south, followed by people who were accustomed to hunting them.” But if for Western Europe the disappearance of the glacier meant the release of only a relatively small strip ( Northern England, the Netherlands, Denmark, Scandinavia), then on the Russian Plain new lands opened up 2,000 km to the north, from the upper reaches of the Don to Arctic Ocean. The events of that time are also reflected in the plots of Russian fairy tales, which usually feature a forest, dense, dense, dark, impassable and a thread-path through it. Behind the vast forests is the sea and islands. Ahead of the hero await crystal or glass mountains and palaces, colored with gems (ice massifs).
According to Zharnikova, this time corresponds to Butovskaya archaeological culture(IX – VI millennium BC), which, according to Koltsov and Zhilin, is the background for the Mesolithic of the Volga-Oka interfluve. In turn, the Butovo culture without visible interruptions precedes the Upper Volga and Lyalovo Mesolithic cultures (VI – IV millennia BC). And they, in turn, directly pass into the Fatyanovo culture (Eneolithic - bronze age, IV – II millennium BC), the center of which was also located in the Volga-Oka interfluve. By modern ideas The Fatyanovo culture was part of a large cultural and historical community - “the cultures of battle axes and corded ceramics,” the ancestors of the Slavs, Balts and Germans. Thus, perhaps our distant ancestors, who lived in the Mesolithic era, and us, living in the era of space exploration, are connected by a life of 240 - 300 generations (eight to ten thousand years). This is the probable depth historical memory Russian people.
Thus, without denying the participation of the Slavs and Finno-Ugrians in the formation of the Russian people, it is necessary to admit that main role In this process, the autochthonous Indo-European population played a role, from which we, modern Russian people, received such a rich inheritance as Russian folk wisdom. This population, in its ethnocultural characteristics, was close to the newcomer Slavs. Therefore, neither their writing contemporaries nor subsequent historians “noticed” him. However, Zharnikova reasonably notes: “Look carefully at the map of the north of Eastern Europe, at the names of rivers, lakes, settlements. All these names are preserved only if there are people who remember them. Otherwise, a new population comes and calls everything new.” Only from the indicated positions can one explain the visible line between the “living Great Russian language”, which retained its original Indo-European basis, and Russian literary language, mostly carefully strained from this base.
Grandmother Anyuta said that according to ancient legends, Russians used to call themselves Raz, after the name of their first ancestor Raza. According to these legends, caring for his people, Raz (Rod according to Rybakov), showed special love and care for the weak, first of all, for children and women in labor. Therefore, unlike the cruel, vengeful and bloodthirsty gods of many other countries and peoples, for example, Odin of the ancient Germans, Zarina of the ancient Wends, Tina of the ancient Etruscans, Zeus of the ancient Greeks, Jupiter of the ancient Romans, he is infinitely kind. His divinity was manifested in a special high Wisdom, which aroused boundless respect for him by everyone living on the Russian Land, even those who have a “bad conscience” and who therefore try to avoid meeting with Raz. Embodying all Russian Nature as a whole, he is Truth itself. From his name, according to these legends, came the word Reason, that is, the mind of Raza. After the fall of a thousand years of church censorship and seventy years of party censorship, a lot of literature appeared that mentioned oldest name the supreme Russian god - Raza. For example, “Russia in Time” by A.N. and V.N. Sentinels. It’s difficult to say what is “new” in what is written and what is hoary antiquity. But as the Russian people say - “on empty space and the grass does not grow.” The above belief is hardly a simple invention. Suffice it to remember that the Persians, and at their instigation the majority of the peoples of the Middle East, still call us the people of Rush (ruz). For Western Europeans, we are Russian. But in the common language our country is called Raceya, that is, born of Raz.

From such ancient times, the Russian people brought their vision of the world around them and the changes taking place in it. This is the vision of V.G. Lebedev formulated a lengthy phrase made up of well-known proverbs:
“God is not in power, but in truth (the saying is traditionally attributed to Prince Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky), since,
– nothing passes without a trace, something always remains (we will call this judgment the first rule of Russian folk wisdom);
- everything goes on as usual, every thing has its place, every vegetable has its time (second rule);
– everything that has a beginning also has an end; No matter how much the rope curls, there will be a tip (third rule);
– everything returns to normal; as much and as it arrives, so many will go away, a holy place is never empty, and for every strength there will be more great strength(fourth rule)."
This phrase contains a number of generalized images – categories, both explicitly and implicitly. Functionally, they are combined into two logically interconnected trinities: place - primordial - trace and sequence - beginning - end. A purely Russian, folk interpretation of them can be read in Dahl. But since the Russian worldview has, first of all, an ethical orientation, let’s consider another trinity of categories that directly reflect human consciousness the first two: fate - conscience - character.
DESTINY, in Russian, is a sequence of events, a sequence that contains “fate, lot, share, fate, part, happiness, predestination, inevitable in earthly life, the path of providence.” CONSCIENCE is a measure, a natural limitation of being, which determines “moral consciousness, moral sense or feeling in a person; inner consciousness good and evil; the hiding place of the soul, in which approval or condemnation of every action is echoed; the ability to recognize the quality of an action; a feeling that encourages truth and goodness, turning away from lies and evil; involuntary love for good and truth.” CHARACTER, “in general, one half or one of the two main properties of the human spirit. Mind and character unite to form the Spirit (soul, in highest value). Character is treated as the concept of submission: will, love, mercy, passions and others. And to the mind - reason, reason, memory and so on. The harmonious union of character and mind, heart and thought, forms harmony, perfection of the spirit. The discord of these principles leads to decline. There cannot be such discord in an animal. There, character and mind, will and reason, are fused inseparably into one, impulses (instinct). Man must achieve the same unity, but the highest way: by conviction, curbing passions and cleverness, consciousness of duty.” Hence the concept MORAL, “in contrast to the bodily, carnal - spiritual, spiritual. The moral life of a person is more important than the material life. Pertaining to one half spiritual life, is opposed to the mental, but has a common spiritual principle with it. The mental includes truth and falsehood. To the moral – good and evil.” Hence the concept of DEBT, “everything that must be fulfilled, an obligation. The general duty of a person includes his debt to God, the duty of a citizen and the duty of a family man (burden, N.L.). By fulfilling these duties, he is in debt, they constitute his debt, like money or things borrowed from someone, or everything that he owes, according to a promise or some condition.”
From the above it is clear that Russian concept morality does not coincide with the Western European concept of morality. The French moralitte is the law that determines human behavior. This law comes from the person himself and, as a rule, is sanctified by some supreme power, by the king, God, society and sent down to all other people for execution, under the conditions of the deepest conviction of the European that he personally owes nothing to anyone. A Russian man carries his god inside himself, it is to him that he always owes, and this god is the essence of his life. Therefore, in Russian, morality and duty are an integral part of the human soul. Another conversation, how specific person listens to this inner, natural call.
Thus, it is permissible to assert that the high vitality of Russian folk wisdom is ensured, first of all, by its antiquity, which, in turn, by providing an empirical database of unlimited breadth, provides Russian folk wisdom with maximum approximation to the truth. But this base is not in a frozen state, but in constant reconfirmation during the life of each of several hundred generations of Russian people. Russian folk wisdom, due to the same antiquity, has a comprehensive literary elaboration, as a result of which its formulations acquired characteristic sharpness and completeness. Unlike other worldview systems, which, as a rule, have an elitist character, Russian folk wisdom is a collective product of the entire people, where each person is allowed to add from his point of view what is necessary, established, and discard what is unnecessary and incorrect.
But the penetration of Russian folk wisdom into the essence of what is happening in the world around us is not limited to ethics. Really. The main objects of study of Russian folk wisdom are sequences of events. Under modern concept An event is understood as the fact of a material-energy transformation - a fixation of the occurrence, change, movement or cessation of something that is not repeated further, and at the same time, a period of time that fixes the moment of the fact that happened on a time scale. According to Hartley, any account of an event that has already occurred or may occur, represented by “the totality of communications between corresponding parties, and carried out by wire, by oral speech, writing or in another way using words, (letters, numbers L.N.), dots, dashes and so on, is called information. Such a story replenishes the manifested ignorance and removes the resulting uncertainty. Such uncertainty is measured by the probability of an event, since “any message (about an L.N. event) carries the more information the less probable it is." Therefore, an event whose probability is equal to one, and the amount of information about this event is equal to zero, is the goal of a series of events. Naturally, such reasoning is applicable only for finite sequences. In infinite ones, the goal is simply not achievable, which is equivalent to its absence. In this case, the evolution of most known natural systems: chemical, biological, economic and social is targeted. The processes occurring in these systems at the early stages of evolution represent the ordering of events following each other in accordance with the increase in their probability, i.e. their organization, where each transformation has its time and place (1st and 2nd rules of Russian folk wisdom). Upon achieving the goal, in the later stages of evolution, the goal itself is lost and, if not set, new goal, uncertainty arises. This uncertainty can only be removed by attracting additional information. The emergence of this information reduces the likelihood of subsequent events and introduces disorganization into organized systems. The phenomenon of bifurcation (splitting, stratification) occurs. Systems begin to multiply, degenerate and collapse, and in their place new systems arise (3rd and 4th rules of Russian folk wisdom).
Organization of natural systems, or rather self-organization of Nature - amazing property matter, the understanding of which is persistently moving modern science since the appearance of the works of W. Ashby in 1948. The study of its mechanism has not only theoretical, but also great practical significance, since self-organization is precisely the universal mechanism that underlies the evolution of all natural systems: chemical, biological, economic and social. Obviously, the same mechanism can be used to create modern technical devices. Thus, Russian folk wisdom should serve as the key to solving this problem.

LITERATURE.
1. Big Soviet Encyclopedia. M. 1968-72.
2. Dal V.I. Collected works. Email version (P) 2000-2001. IDDK.
3. Zharnikova S.V. “Rivers are repositories of memory.” M. "Veche" 2003.
4. Zabelin I.E. History of the city of Moscow 2007. M. "Firm STD".
5. Klyuchevsky V.O. Lectures on Russian history. M. "Thought". 1988.
6. Kotousov A.S. Information theory. M, 2003.
7. Kuznetsov A.V. "Pre-Slavic toponyms of the Totem region." 2007. El. version http://www.booksite.ru/fulltext/1to/tma/alm/ana/3.htm.
8. Larina E.A., Piskarev V.A., Timoshchuk A.S. "On the question of the Aryan roots of the Slavs." M., El. No. 77-6567, pub. 11970, 15.04. 2005.
9. Lebedev N.V. Life of natural elements. M. “White Alva” 2000.
10. Rybakov B.A. “The Paganism of the Ancient Slavs” M. M. Sofia, Helios, 2001.
11. Rybakov B.A. "Paganism ancient Rus'» M. Sofia, Helios, 2001.
12. Storozhevy A.N. and V.N. Russia in time. M. "Veche" 1997.
13. Sobolevsky A.I. “Names of rivers and lakes of the Russian North”, M. 1927.
14. Ukhov S.. “The history of Vyatka as part ethnic history Eastern Europe" 2006. El. version http://julycat.narod.ru/histukhov.
15. Formozov A.A. Problems of ethnocultural history of the Stone Age on the territory of the European part of the USSR. M. Science. 1977.
16. R. Hartley. Transfer of information, Sat. GIFML. Information Theory and Its Applications, 1957.