Is Islam, whose birth dates back to 7th century and is associated with the name of the prophet Muhammad, who professed monotheism. Under his influence, a community of co-religionists was formed in Hadjiz, on the territory of Western Arabia. Further conquests by Muslims of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran and a number of other states led to the emergence of the Arab Caliphate - a powerful Asian state. It included a number of conquered lands.
Caliphate: what is it?
The word “caliphate” itself translated from Arabic has two meanings. This is both the name of that huge state created after the death of Muhammad by his followers, and the title of the supreme ruler under whose rule the countries of the caliphate were. The period of existence of this public education, marked by a high level of development of science and culture, went down in history as the Golden Age of Islam. It is conventionally accepted to consider its borders to be 632-1258.
After the death of the caliphate there are three main periods. The first of them, which began in 632, is due to the creation of the Righteous Caliphate, headed by four caliphs in turn, whose righteousness gave the name to the state they ruled. The years of their reign were marked by a number of major conquests, such as the capture of the Arabian Peninsula, the Caucasus, the Levant and large parts of North Africa.
Religious disputes and territorial conquests
The emergence of the caliphate is closely connected with the disputes about his successor that began after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. As a result of numerous debates, a close friend of the founder of Islam, Abu Bakr al-Saddik, became the supreme ruler and religious leader. He began his reign with a war against the apostates who deviated from the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad immediately after his death and became followers of the false prophet Musailima. Their army of forty thousand was defeated at the Battle of Arkaba.
Subsequent ones continued to conquer and expand the territories under their control. The last of them - Ali ibn Abu Talib - became a victim of rebellious apostates from the main line of Islam - the Kharijites. This put an end to elections supreme rulers, since Muawiya I, who seized power by force and became caliph, at the end of his life appointed his son as successor, and thus a hereditary monarchy was established in the state - the so-called Umayyad Caliphate. What is it?
New, second form of caliphate
This period in the history of the Arab world owes its name to the Umayyad dynasty, from which Muawiyah I came. His son, who inherited supreme power from his father, further expanded the boundaries of the caliphate, winning high-profile military victories in Afghanistan, North India and in the Caucasus. His troops even captured parts of Spain and France.
Only the Byzantine emperor Leo the Isaurian and the Bulgarian Khan Tervel were able to stop his victorious advance and put a limit to territorial expansion. Europe owes its salvation from the Arab conquerors primarily to outstanding commander VIII century to Charles Martel. The Frankish army led by him defeated the hordes of invaders in the famous Battle of Poitiers.
Restructuring the consciousness of warriors in a peaceful way
The beginning of the period associated with the Umayyad Caliphate is characterized by the fact that the position of the Arabs themselves in the territories they occupied was unenviable: life resembled the situation in a military camp, in a state of continuous combat readiness. The reason for this was the extremely religious zeal of one of the rulers of those years, Umar I. Thanks to him, Islam acquired the features of a militant church.
The emergence of the Arab Caliphate gave rise to numerous social group professional warriors - people whose only occupation was participation in aggressive campaigns. To prevent their consciousness from being rebuilt in a peaceful way, they were forbidden to take possession land plots and become settled. By the end of the dynasty, the picture had changed in many ways. The ban was lifted, and, having become landowners, many of yesterday's warriors of Islam preferred the life of peaceful landowners.
Abbasid Caliphate
It is fair to note that if during the years of the Righteous Caliphate for all its rulers, political power in its importance gave way to religious influence, then now she has taken a dominant position. In terms of its political greatness and cultural flourishing, the Abbasid Caliphate deservedly acquired the greatest fame in the history of the East.
Most Muslims know what it is these days. Memories of him strengthen their spirit to this day. The Abbasids are a dynasty of rulers that gave their people a whole galaxy of brilliant statesmen. Among them were generals, financiers, and true connoisseurs and patrons of art.
Caliph - patron of poets and scientists
It is believed that the Arab caliphate under Harun ar Rashid, one of the most prominent representatives of the ruling dynasty, reached highest point its heyday. This statesman went down in history as the patron of scientists, poets and writers. However, having devoted myself entirely spiritual development of the state he headed, the caliph turned out to be a bad administrator and a completely useless commander. By the way, it is his image that is immortalized in the century-old collection of oriental tales “A Thousand and One Nights.”
“The Golden Age of Arab Culture” is an epithet that to the greatest extent It was the caliphate headed by Harun ar Rashid that deserved. What it is can be fully understood only by becoming familiar with the layering of Old Persian, Indian, Assyrian, Babylonian and partly Greek cultures, which contributed to the development of scientific thought during the reign of this enlightener of the East. He was able to combine all the best that was created by the creative mind of the ancient world, making the Arabic language the basis for this. That is why the expressions “Arab culture”, “Arab art” and so on have come into our everyday life.
Trade development
In the vast and at the same time orderly state, which was the Abbasid Caliphate, the demand for the products of neighboring states increased significantly. This was a consequence of the increase general level life of the population. Peaceful relations with neighbors at that time made it possible to develop barter trade with them. Gradually circle economic contacts expanded, and even countries located at a considerable distance began to be included in it. All this gave impetus to further development crafts, art and navigation.
In the second half of the 9th century, after the death of Harun ar Rashid, in political life the caliphate, processes emerged that ultimately led to its collapse. Back in 833, the ruler Mutasim, who was in power, formed the Praetorian Turkic Guard. Over the years, it became such a powerful political force that the ruling caliphs became dependent on it and practically lost the right to make independent decisions.
The growth of national self-awareness among the Persians subject to the caliphate also dates back to this period, which was the reason for their separatist sentiments, which later became the reason for the breakaway of Iran. General decay The caliphate also accelerated due to the separation from it in the west of Egypt and Syria. The weakening of centralized power made it possible to assert their claims to independence and a number of other previously controlled territories.
Increased religious pressure
The caliphs, who had lost their former power, tried to enlist the support of the faithful clergy and take advantage of their influence on the masses. The rulers, starting with Al-Mutawakkil (847), made the fight against all manifestations of freethinking their main political line.
In the state, weakened by the undermining of the authority of the authorities, active religious persecution began against philosophy and all branches of science, including mathematics. The country was steadily plunging into the abyss of obscurantism. The Arab Caliphate and its collapse were a clear example of how beneficial the influence of science and free thought is on the development of the state, and how destructive their persecution is.
The end of the era of the Arab caliphates
In the 10th century, the influence of the Turkic military leaders and emirs of Mesopotamia increased so much that the previously powerful caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty turned into petty Baghdad princes, whose only consolation were the titles left over from previous times. It got to the point that the Shiite Buyid dynasty, which had risen in Western Persia, having gathered a sufficient army, captured Baghdad and actually ruled there for a hundred years, while representatives of the Abbasids remained the nominal rulers. There could be no greater humiliation for their pride.
In 1036, a very difficult time came for all of Asia. difficult period— the Seljuk Turks began an aggressive campaign unprecedented at that time, which became the reason for the destruction of Muslim civilization in many countries. In 1055, they drove the Buyids who ruled there out of Baghdad and established their dominance. But their power also came to an end when, at the beginning of the 13th century, the entire territory of the once powerful Arab caliphate was captured by the countless hordes of Genghis Khan. The Mongols finally destroyed everything that had been achieved eastern culture over the previous centuries. The Arab Caliphate and its collapse are now just pages of history.
The beginning of the history of the Arab Caliphate can be considered the accession to the throne of the successor of the Prophet Muhammad, and the end is the murder of the last caliph by the Mongols in 1258.
Caliph or caliph is Arabic for “successor.” It was this title that the heirs of the prophet, who headed this state for more than six centuries, had the right to bear. They created a huge empire in the Middle East and North Africa and served to spread Islam over vast territories.
In world history there were states that called themselves this way, but this name could truly have been borne by the caliphate, whose history ended in the thirteenth century.
The era of the “Righteous Caliphate”
The first caliph was Muhammad's father-in-law and his associate Abu Bakr. Since the prophet did not leave an heir, the leaders of the Muslim community chose him after the death of Muhammad that year in Medina, which the prophet chose as his capital.
This was the beginning of the era of the "Rightly Guided Caliphate", during which four "Rightly Guided Caliphs" ruled.
After the news of the death of Muhammad, almost all of Arabia moved away from Islam, with the exception of Medina and several regions. Abu Bakr returned the apostates to the fold of Islam and immediately set out on a campaign against Byzantium and Persia.
Abu Bakr, who took the title “Commander of the Faithful” and passed it on to all his heirs, reigned for only two years: from 632 to 634. Before his death, he appointed Umar ibn Khattab as caliph. He continued his conquests and annexed Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Syria, western Iran...
He reigned and fought for about ten years. He died in 644, then a council of Muslim leaders enthroned Uthman Ibn Affan, who annexed eastern Iran up to the Amu Darya. His assassination caused civil strife and halted the conquest and spread of Islam.
The last of the four “righteous caliphs,” Ali ibn Abu Talib, son-in-law, cousin and comrade-in-arms of Muhammad, who reigned in 656, ruled for 6 years. After his assassination, the era of the Umayyad Caliphate began and lasted until the mid-eighth century.
Era of the Umayyad Caliphate
Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan - became the first of the Umayyads to ascend the throne in 661, proclaimed his son heir to the throne, thus transforming the state with an elective form of government into a hereditary monarchy.
The new ruler, who took the name Muawiyah I, moved the capital from Medina to Syrian Damascus.
The empire grew, expanding into the territories of Spain, Portugal, and Western India. But Byzantium stood in the way. Two attempts to storm Constantinople were made by the soldiers of the caliphate, and both were unsuccessful.
Emperor Leo II and the Bulgarian Khan Terwell acted bravely and stopped the invaders in 717-718, thereby saving Byzantium and Asia Minor. The Arab campaign to capture also failed. European territories. Charles Martel repelled an attack on France in 732 and thus stopped the invasion of Europe.
Despite these setbacks, the Umayyads ruled vast territories, it was one of largest empires in world history. But such expansion could not do without internal upheaval.
In one state there were peoples with different ways of life, traditions and, finally, religion, who had previously perceived each other as hostile. There was an urgent need to form a management system that would allow millions of people to be effectively governed.
In this matter, the Arabs adopted the experience of the Persian and Byzantine empires. Muslims were in the minority in the conquered territories for a long time. But gradually the local population began to Islamize. This led to increased tension between Arab Muslims and Muslims of other nationalities.
Religious contradictions within Islam itself added complexity to already tense relations. It was then that two Islamic movements emerged - Sunnis and Shiites. The Shiites were supporters of Ali's rule, considering the existing government to be usurper.
Abbasid Dynasty
All these strife ultimately led to the collapse of the Umayyad dynasty. Throughout their reign, they had to not only fight their ideological opponents, but also suppress rebellions of the local population and army, pacify rebellious provincial rulers, and overcome tribal conflicts and palace intrigues.
747 - the beginning of the collapse of the Umayyads. The rebellion broke out in the east of the Caliphate, and then spread to Iran and Iraq. In 749, the rebels proclaimed Abu Al-Abbas a descendant of Muhammad, and in 750 the government army was defeated, and the Abbasids, as the new ruling dynasty was now called, gained control of most of the Caliphate.
All members of the ruling dynasty were destroyed. Only one representative of this family survived and went to Spain, where he founded a state - an emirate, which later became known as the caliphate.
This dynasty first chose Kufa, a city in southern Iraq, as its capital, and then, in 762, began building Baghdad. The Abbasids relied on those who were previously considered “second-class” people - non-Arab Muslims, receiving widespread support in seizing power. That is why they decided to build a completely new capital for a new dynasty.
Their reign lasted from 750 with the accession of the Bloodshed - this is how the founder of the dynasty called himself, not without pride, and ended in 1258 with the destruction of this state and the murder of the last caliph.
Even seasoned contemporaries called cruelty, treachery and heartlessness the main features characterizing these intelligent and subtle rulers, diplomats and warriors.
However, having taken possession of a disunited country that was often engulfed in rebellion, such qualities were more necessary for governance than harmful. But it was during the reign of this dynasty that the “golden age” of Arab culture occurred.
They were not supporters of the aggressive policies of previous sovereigns. Much attention Representatives of this dynasty paid attention to science and art. Peaceful relations with neighbors facilitated trade, cultural exchange. The well-being of farmers increased, crafts, medicine, astronomy, and philosophy developed. Baghdad is becoming not only one of the most big cities world, but also the center of science.
In particular, the caliphs provided patronage to the House of Science, a prototype of a modern research institute. Knowledge in all industries from all over the world flocked there, was systematized, and on the basis of this new research was done.
The vast territories of the state did not allow for effective and quick resolution of emerging problems: tension between Sunnis and Shiites, arbitrariness in local government, unfairness of the courts... Those who initially supported ruling dynasty, having become disillusioned, became a formidable force that began to threaten the Abbasids themselves.
The further fate of the caliphate
In Spain, the descendants of the only surviving Umayyad ruled; regional governors began to transfer their power from generation to generation, essentially becoming local princelings, little controlled by the supreme authority of Baghdad; they even had their own armies at their disposal. Some felt their impunity so much that they even stopped paying taxes to the treasury of the caliphate.
The eighth century saw the emergence of regional dynasties in North Africa, India, Egypt, Syria, and Central Asia.
The Shia support that had brought the Abbasids to power gradually waned. A number of sectarian movements emerged, particularly in North Africa, whose leaders considered themselves rivals to the current dynasty.
In the tenth century, the caliphs gradually lost their influence over vast territories, becoming increasingly dependent on their guards, which did not save them from external invasions.
The Seljuk Turks, who converted to Islam, began their conquest of Syria, Iran, Iraq, and Anatolia in the eleventh century. Having founded their state, capturing many regions of the caliphate, they retained the caliph in Baghdad as iconic figure Islam. But within a few decades, Turks from Central Asia replaced the Seljuk influence in the territories of the once powerful caliphate.
The state experienced its last rise in the twelfth century, restoring its influence in the territories neighboring Baghdad. But in the thirteenth century it turned out to be powerless before the new formidable force from Central Asia: The Mongols conquered Iran and Iraq.
In 1258, the Mongol warlord Hulagu Khan captured and sacked Baghdad, the last caliph was rolled into a carpet and trampled by horses, and his family members were executed.
Historical background
The initial core of the caliphate was the Muslim community created by the prophet Muhammad at the beginning of the 7th century in Hijaz (Western Arabia) - the umma. As a result of the Muslim conquests, a huge state was created, which included the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran, most of Transcaucasia (in particular the Armenian Highlands, Caspian territories, Colchis Lowland, as well as areas of Tbilisi), Central Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, Sind.
From the founding of the caliphate () to the Abbasid dynasty ()
This period includes the era of the first 4 caliphs who “walked the right path” (al-Rashidin) - Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar (634-644), Uthman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) and the dominance of the Umayyads (661-750).
Arab conquests
In terms of size, their empire, which was formed in less than a hundred years, surpassed the Roman one, and this turned out to be all the more amazing because at first, after the death of Muhammad, one could fear that even the small successes of Islam that it had achieved in Arabia would collapse. Muhammad, dying, did not leave an heir, and after his death (632) a dispute arose between the Meccans and Medinans over the issue of his successor. During the discussions, Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph. Meanwhile, with the news of Muhammad's death, almost all of Arabia, except Mecca, Medina and Taif, immediately abandoned Islam. With the help of the believing Medinans and Meccans, Abu Bakr managed to return vast but divided Arabia back to Islam; What helped him most in this was the so-called Saifullah “sword of Allah” - the experienced commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, who only 9 years ago defeated the prophet at Mount Departure; Khalid defeated the 40,000-strong army of followers of the false prophet Musailima in the so-called. “death fence” at Aqrab (633). Immediately after the Arab uprising was pacified, Abu Bakr, continuing the policy of Muhammad, led them to war against the Byzantine and Iranian possessions.
The boundaries of the caliphate narrowed somewhat: the escaped Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman I laid the first foundation in Spain () for the independent Emirate of Cordoba, which since 929 has been officially titled “caliphate” (929-). 30 years later, Idris, the great-grandson of Caliph Ali and therefore equally hostile to both the Abbasids and the Umayyads, founded the Alid Idrisid dynasty (-) in Morocco, whose capital was the city of Toudgah; the rest of the northern coast of Africa (Tunisia, etc.) was actually lost to the Abbasid caliphate when the governor of Aghlab, appointed by Harun al-Rashid, became the founder of the Aghlabid dynasty in Kairouan (-). The Abbasids did not consider it necessary to resume their foreign policy of conquest against Christian or other countries, and although from time to time military clashes arose both on the eastern and northern borders (like Mamun’s two unsuccessful campaigns against Constantinople), however, in general, the caliphate lived peacefully.
Such a feature of the first Abbasids is noted as their despotic, heartless and, moreover, often insidious cruelty. Sometimes, as the founder of the dynasty, it was an open source of caliphic pride (the nickname “Bloodbringer” was chosen by Abul Abbas himself). Some of the caliphs, at least the cunning al-Mansur, who loved to dress up before the people in the hypocritical clothes of piety and justice, preferred to act with treachery where possible and executed dangerous people on the sly, first lulling their caution with oaths of promises and favors. Among al-Mahdi and Harun ar-Rashid, cruelty was obscured by their generosity, however, the treacherous and ferocious overthrow of the vizier family of the Barmakids, which was extremely useful for the state, but imposed a certain bridle on the ruler, constitutes for Harun one of the most disgusting acts of eastern despotism. It should be added that under the Abbasids, a system of torture was introduced into legal proceedings. Even the tolerant philosopher Mamun and his two successors are not free from the reproach of tyranny and cruelty towards people unpleasant to them. Kremer finds (“Culturgesch. d. Or.”, II, 61; cf. Müller: “Ist. Isl.”, II, 170) that the very first Abbasids showed signs of hereditary Caesarian madness, which became even more intensified in their descendants.
In justification, one could only say that in order to suppress the chaotic anarchy in which the countries of Islam found themselves during the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, agitated by the adherents of the overthrown Umayyads, bypassed Alids, predatory Kharijites and various Persian sectarians of radical persuasions who never ceased to rebel on the northern outskirts of the state, the , terrorist measures were perhaps a simple necessity. Apparently, Abul Abbas understood the meaning of his nickname “Bloodbringer.” Thanks to the formidable centralization that the heartless man, but the brilliant politician al-Mansur, managed to introduce, the subjects were able to enjoy internal peace, and public finances were managed in a brilliant manner. Even the scientific and philosophical movement in the caliphate dates back to the same cruel and treacherous Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”), who, despite his notorious stinginess, treated science with encouragement (meaning, first of all, practical, medical goals) . But, on the other hand, it remains undeniable that the flourishing of the caliphate would hardly have been possible if Saffah, Mansur and their successors had ruled the state directly, and not through the talented vizier family of the Persian Barmakids. Until this family was overthrown () by the unreasonable Harun ar-Rashid, who was burdened with its tutelage, some of its members were first ministers or close advisers to the caliph in Baghdad (Khalid, Yahya, Jafar), others were in important positions. government positions in the provinces (like Fadl), and all together managed, on the one hand, to maintain for 50 years the necessary balance between the Persians and Arabs, which gave the caliphate its political fortress, and on the other hand, to restore the ancient Sasanian life, with its social structure, with its culture, its mental movement.
"Golden Age" of Arab culture
This culture is usually called Arabic, because the Arabic language became the organ of mental life for all the peoples of the caliphate, and therefore they say: "Arabic art", "Arab science”, etc.; but in essence these were most of all the remnants of the Sassanian and generally Old Persian culture (which, as is known, also absorbed much from India, Assyria, Babylon and, indirectly, from Greece). In the Western Asian and Egyptian parts of the caliphate, we observe the development of the remnants of Byzantine culture, just as in North Africa, Sicily and Spain - Roman and Roman-Spanish culture - and the homogeneity in them is imperceptible, if we exclude the link that connects them - the Arabic language. It cannot be said that the foreign culture inherited by the caliphate rose qualitatively under the Arabs: Iranian-Muslim architectural buildings are inferior to the old Parsi ones, and similarly, Muslim products made of silk and wool, household utensils and jewelry, despite their charm, are inferior to ancient products.
But during the Muslim, Abbasid period, in a vast united and ordered state with carefully arranged communication routes, the demand for Iranian-made items increased, and the number of consumers increased. Peaceful relations with neighbors made it possible to develop remarkable foreign barter trade: with China through Turkestan and - by sea - through the Indian archipelago, with the Volga Bulgars and Russia through the Khazar kingdom, with the Spanish Emirate, with all Southern Europe(with the possible exception of Byzantium), with the eastern shores of Africa (from where, in turn, ivory and blacks were exported), etc. Main port the caliphate was Basra. The merchant and the industrialist are the main characters of Arabian tales; various high-ranking officials, military leaders, scientists, etc. were not ashamed to add to their titles the nickname Attar (“mosque maker”), Heyyat (“tailor”), Jawhariy (“jeweler”), etc. However, the nature of Muslim-Iranian industry is not so much the satisfaction of practical needs as of luxury. The main items of production are silk fabrics (muslin-muslin, satin, moiré, brocade), weapons (sabers, daggers, chain mail), embroidery on canvas and leather, gimp works, carpets, shawls, embossed, engraved, carved ivory and metals, mosaic works, earthenware and glass products; less often, purely practical products - materials made of paper, cloth and camel wool.
The well-being of the agricultural class (for reasons, however, of taxation, and not of democracy) was increased by the restoration of irrigation canals and dams, which were neglected under the last Sassanids. But even according to the consciousness of the Arab writers themselves, the caliphs failed to bring the people's taxability to such a height as was achieved by the tax system of Khosrow I Anushirvan, although the caliphs ordered specifically for this purpose to translate the Sasanian cadastral books into Arabic.
The Persian spirit takes over and Arabic poetry, which now, instead of Bedouin songs, gives the refined works of the Basri Abu Nuwas (“Arab Heine”) and other court poets of Harun al-Rashid. Apparently, not without Persian influence (Brockelmann: “Gesch. d. arab. Litt.”, I, 134) correct historiography emerges, and after the “Life of the Apostle”, compiled by Ibn Ishak for Mansur, a number of secular historians also appear. WITH Persian language Ibn al-Muqaffa (circa 750) translates the Sasanian Book of Kings, the Pahlavi adaptation of Indian parables about “Kalila and Dimna” and various Greco-Syro-Persian philosophical works, with which Basra, Kufa, and then Baghdad first become acquainted. The same task is performed by people of a language closer to the Arabs, former Persian subjects, Christian Aramaicians of Jondishapur, Harran, etc. Moreover, Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”) also takes care of the translation of Greek medical works into Arabic, as well as mathematical and philosophical works. . Harun gives the manuscripts brought from the Asia Minor campaigns for translation to the Jondishapur doctor John ibn Masaveyh (who even practiced vivisection and was then the life physician of Mamun and his two successors), and Mamun established, especially for abstract philosophical purposes, a special translation board in Baghdad and attracted philosophers (Kindi). Under the influence of Greco-Syro-Persian philosophy, commentary work on the interpretation of the Koran turns into scientific Arabic philology (Basrian Khalil, Basrian Persian Sibawayhi; teacher of Mamun, Kufic Kisaiy) and the creation takes place Arabic grammar, philological collection of works of pre-Islamic and Umayyad folk literature (Muallaqat, Hamasa, Khozaili poems, etc.).
The age of the first Abbasids is also known as the period high voltage religious thought of Islam, as a period of strong sectarian movement: the Persians, who were now converting to Islam en masse, took Muslim theology almost completely into their own hands and aroused a lively dogmatic struggle, among which heretical sects, which had emerged under the Umayyads, received their development, and orthodox theology -legislation was defined in the form of 4 schools, or interpretations: under Mansur - the more progressive Abu Hanifa in Baghdad and the conservative Malik in Medina, under Harun - the relatively progressive al-Shafi'i, under Mamun - ibn Hanbal. The government's attitude towards these orthodoxies was not always the same. Under Mansur, a supporter of the Mu'tazilites, Malik was flogged to the point of mutilation. Then, during the next 4 reigns, orthodoxy prevailed, but when Mamun and his two successors elevated (from 827) Mu'tazilism to the level of state religion, followers of orthodox beliefs were subjected to official persecution for “anthropomorphism”, “polytheism”, etc., and when al-Mu'tasim was flogged and tortured by the holy Imam ibn-Hanbal (). Of course, the caliphs could patronize the Mu'tazilite sect without fear, because its rationalistic teaching about the free will of man and the creation of the Koran and its inclination towards philosophy could not seem politically dangerous. To sects of a political nature, such as the Kharijites, Mazdakites, extreme Shiites, who sometimes raised very dangerous uprisings(the false prophet Persian Mokanna in Khorasan under al-Mahdi, 779, the brave Babek in Azerbaijan under Mamun and al-Mutasim, etc.), the attitude of the caliphs was repressive and merciless even during the times of the highest power of the caliphate.
Collapse of the Caliphate
Loss of political power of the caliphs
Witnesses to the gradual collapse of X. were the caliphs: the already mentioned Mutawakkil (847-861), the Arab Nero, much praised by the faithful; his son Muntasir (861-862), who ascended the throne, killing his father with the help of the Turkic guard, Mustain (862-866), Al-Mutazz (866-869), Mukhtadi I (869-870), Mutamid (870-892 ), Mutadid (892-902), Muqtafi I (902-908), Muqtadir (908-932), Al-Qahir (932-934), Al-Radi (934-940), Muttaqi (940-944), Mustakfi (944-946). In their person, the caliph from the ruler of a vast empire turned into the prince of a small Baghdad region, warring and making peace with his sometimes stronger, sometimes weaker neighbors. Within the state, in their capital Baghdad, the caliphs became dependent on the willful Praetorian Turkic Guard, which Mutasim considered it necessary to form (833). Under the Abbasids, the national consciousness of the Persians came to life (Goldzier: “Muh. Stud.”, I, 101-208). Harun's reckless extermination of the Barmakids, who knew how to unite the Persian element with the Arab, led to discord between the two nationalities. Under Mamun, the strong political separatism of Persia was expressed in the founding of the Tahirid dynasty in Khurasan (821-873), which turned out to be the first symptom of the coming apostasy of Iran. After the Tahirids (821-873), independent dynasties were formed: the Saffarids (867-903; see), the Samanids (875-999; see), the Ghaznavids (962-1186; see) - and Persia slipped out of the hands of the caliphs. In the West, Egypt, along with Syria, seceded under the rule of the Tulunids (868-905); True, after the fall of the Tulunids, Syria and Egypt were again governed by Abbasid governors for 30 years; but in 935 Ikhshid founded his dynasty (935-969), and since then not a single region west of the Euphrates (Mecca and Medina also belonged to the Ikhshids) was subject to the temporal power of the Baghdad caliphs, although their rights as spiritual rulers were recognized everywhere (except , of course, Spain and Morocco); A coin was minted with their name and a public prayer (khutbah) was read.
Persecution of free thought
Feeling their weakening, the caliphs (the first - Al-Mutawakkil, 847) decided that they should gain new support for themselves - in the orthodox clergy, and for this - to renounce Mu'tazili freethinking. Thus, since the time of Mutawakkil, along with the progressive weakening of the power of the caliphs, there has been a strengthening of orthodoxy, the persecution of heresies, free-thinking and other faiths (Christians, Jews, etc.), religious persecution of philosophy, natural and even exact sciences. A powerful new school of theologians, founded by Abul-Hasan al-Ash'ari (874-936), who left Mu'tazilism, leads scientific controversy with philosophy and secular science and wins in public opinion. However, the caliphs, with their increasingly declining political power, were not able to actually kill the mental movement, and the most famous Arab philosophers (Basri encyclopedists, Farabi, Ibn Sina) and other scientists lived under the patronage of vassal sovereigns precisely at that time the era (-c.) when officially in Baghdad, in Islamic dogmatics and in the opinion of the masses, philosophy and non-scholastic sciences were recognized as impiety; and literature, towards the end of the said era, produced the greatest free-thinking Arab poet, Maarri (973-1057); at the same time, Sufism, which was very well grafted onto Islam, turned into complete freethinking among many of its Persian representatives.
Cairo Caliphate
The last caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty
The Abbasid Caliph, that is, essentially a petty Baghdad prince with a title, was a toy in the hands of his Turkic military leaders and Mesopotamian emirs: under Al-Radi (934-941), a special position of majordomo (“emir-al-umar”) was established. Meanwhile, next door, in western Persia, the Shiite dynasty of the Buyids, which broke away from the Samanids in 930, advanced (see). In 945, the Buyids captured Baghdad and ruled it for more than a hundred years, with the title of sultans, and at that time the nominal caliphs there were: Mustakfi (944-946), Al-Muti (946-974), Al-Tai (974-991 ), Al-Qadir (991-1031) and Al-Qaim (1031-1075). Although, for political purposes, to counterbalance the Fatimids, the Shiite Buyid sultans called themselves vassals, “emirs of al-Umar” of the Sunni Baghdad Caliphate, but, in essence, they treated the caliphs as captives, with complete disrespect and contempt, patronized philosophers and freethinkers sectarians, and in Baghdad itself Shiism made progress.
Seljuk invasion
A ray of hope for deliverance from the oppressors flashed to the caliphs in the person of the new conqueror, the Turkic Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030), who, having created his own huge sultanate instead of the Samanid state that he had overthrown, showed himself to be an ardent Sunni and introduced orthodoxy everywhere; however, he only took away Media and some other possessions from the small Buyids, and avoided clashes with the main Buyids. IN culturally Even Mahmud’s campaigns turned out to be very disastrous for the countries he conquered, and in 1036 a terrible misfortune struck all of Muslim Asia: the Seljuk Turks began their devastating conquests and dealt the first mortal blow to the Asian-Muslim civilization, already shaken by the Ghaznavid Turks. But things got better for the caliphs: in 1055, the Seljuk leader Toghrul Beg entered Baghdad, freed the caliph from the power of the Buyid heretics and instead of them became the sultan; in 1058 he solemnly accepted investiture from Al-Qaim and surrounded him with outward signs of respect. Al-Qa'im (d. 1075), Muhtadi II (1075-1094) and Al-Mustazhir (1094-1118) lived in material comfort and respect as representatives of the Muslim church, and Al-Mustarshid (1118-1135) Seljukid Mas'ud granted independent secular governance to Baghdad and most of Iraq, which remained to his successors: Ar-Rashid (1135-1136), Al-Muqtafi (1136-1160), Al-Mustanjid (1160-1170) and Al-Mustadi (1170 -1180).
The end of X. Fatimid, so hated by the Abbasids, was put by the faithful Sunni Saladin (1169-1193). The Egyptian-Syrian Ayyubid dynasty (1169-1250) founded by him revered the name of the Baghdad caliph.
Mongol invasion
Taking advantage of the weakness of the collapsed Seljuk dynasty, the energetic Caliph An-Nasir (1180-1225) decided to expand the boundaries of his small Baghdad X. and ventured into a fight with the powerful Khorezmshah Muhammad ibn Tekesh, who advanced instead of the Seljuks. Ibn Tekesh ordered a meeting of theologians to transfer X. from the Abbas clan to the Ali clan and sent troops to Baghdad (1217-1219), and An-Nasir sent an embassy to the Mongols of Genghis Khan, inviting them to invade Khorezm. Neither An-Nasir (d. 1225) nor the caliph Az-Zahir (1220-1226) saw the end of the catastrophe they brought about, which destroyed the Islamic countries of Asia both culturally, materially, and mentally. The last Baghdad caliphs were Al-Mustansir (1226-1242) and the completely insignificant and mediocre Al-Mustasim (1242-1258), who in 1258 surrendered the capital to the Mongols to Hulagu and 10 days later was executed along with most of the members of his dynasty. One of them fled to Egypt, and there the Mamluk Sultan Baybars (-), in order to have spiritual support for his sultanate, elevated him to the rank of “caliph” under the name Mustansir (). The descendants of this Abbasid remained nominal caliphs under the Sultans of Cairo until the power of the Mamluks was overthrown by the Ottoman conqueror Selim I (1517). In order to have all the official data of spiritual leadership over the entire Islamic world, Selim I forced the last of these caliphs and the last in the Abbasid family, Motawakkil III, to solemnly renounce his caliphic rights and title in favor of
Arab tribes of nomads and farmers have inhabited the territory of the Arabian Peninsula since ancient times. Based on agricultural civilizations in southern Arabia already in the 1st millennium BC. e. early states similar to the ancient eastern monarchies arose: the Sabaean kingdom (VII-II centuries BC), Nabati (VI-I centuries). In large trading cities city self-government was formed according to the type of the Asia Minor polis. One of the last early South Arab states, the Himyarite kingdom, fell under the blows of Ethiopia and then Iranian rulers at the beginning of the 6th century.
By the VI–VII centuries. the bulk of the Arab tribes were at the stage of supra-communal administration. Nomads, traders, and farmers of oases (mainly around sanctuaries) united family by family into large clans, and clans into tribes. The head of such a tribe was considered an elder - a seid (sheikh). He was both the supreme judge, the military leader, and the general leader of the clan assembly. There was also an elder assembly - the Majlis. Arab tribes also settled outside Arabia - in Syria, Mesopotamia, on the borders of Byzantium, forming temporary tribal unions.
The unification of the Arab tribes into a supranational community and the acceleration of the formation of the early state was facilitated by the emergence of a new monotheistic religion - Islam. Its founder was the son of a merchant from the city. Mecca Muhammad (570-632). Having first united the tribes of two rival cities - Mecca and Yathrib (Medina) - under his rule, Muhammad led the struggle to unite all Arabs into a new semi-state-semi-religious community (umma). This attracted wide social strata, dissatisfied with the dominance of the tribal aristocracy, into supporters of the new religion and the new organization. In the early 630s. a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula recognized the power and authority of Muhammad. Under his leadership, a kind of proto-state emerged with the spiritual and political power of the prophet at the same time, relying on the military and administrative powers of new supporters - the Muhajirs.
After the death of Muhammad, the unification of the Arab tribes continued. Power in the tribal union was transferred to the spiritual heir of the prophet - the caliph. Internal conflicts were suppressed. During the reign of the first four caliphs (“righteous”), the Arab proto-state, relying on the general armament of the nomads, began to rapidly expand due to neighboring states. Conquests continued during the reign of caliphs from the clan Umayyads (661-750). At this time, the Arabs subjugated Syria, Iran, North Africa, Egypt, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Afghanistan, and many possessions Byzantine Empire, Spain and even islands in the Mediterranean Sea. A supranational empire emerged, the basis of whose unity was Islam and a new military and tax system. The statehood of the early caliphate was poorly developed; the administration system was adopted from conquered Iran and Byzantium. Most of the land was declared the property of the state, and on this basis (following the Byzantine model) a system of semi-feudal awards was formed under the condition of military service. The basis of its own tax system was the privileged taxation of devout Muslims and the burden of non-believers. At the beginning of the 8th century. Statehood began to take on a more formalized form: the minting of its own coins began, and Arabic became the national language.
After internal unrest, rule in the empire passed to a dynasty of pro-Iranian rulers - Abbasids (750-1258). Baghdad became the capital of the state. The unique relations of state service feudalism were strengthened in the state. The property of Muslim religious institutions (waqf) was separated. In the 9th century. The formation of a centralized national administration was completed. Despite the cessation of conquests, the period of the 9th-10th centuries. became a time of a kind of Muslim renaissance, the flourishing of culture, theology, and jurisprudence.
By the end of the 9th century. centrifugal tendencies emerged in the vast empire. They relied on the feudal aspirations of individual rulers, especially those who asserted their power locally without its recognition by the caliphs. In mid. X century the strengthened rulers of Iran seized power in the central regions of the empire, leaving the caliphs with nominal spiritual power. The deprivation of political power by the caliphs caused a natural process of disintegration of the vast state, which did not possess any internal strength and unity. In the 11th century in Iran and Asia Minor independent sultanates, nominally recognizing the suzerainty of the caliphs. In the 13th century In Central Asia, a vast state of Muslim rulers, the Khorezmshahs, emerged, uniting most of the former possessions of the caliphate. Even earlier, the Cordoba Caliphate in Spain and the sultanates of North Africa became independent states. The final defeat of the Asian possessions of the former Arab empire occurred during Mongol conquest(see § 44.2). The Baghdad Caliphate was abolished. The dynasty and power of the Arab caliphs were still preserved for several centuries in the state of the Mamluk rulers in Egypt, which temporarily became the sacred center of Muslims, until in the 16th century. he did not fall under the rule of the new powerful political force emerging in the Middle East - Ottoman Empire(see § 45).
Organization of power and management
The Arab Empire - both as a whole and the individual states that made it up - was in its purest form theocracy, i.e., statehood, all power and administrative principles of which were determined by the religion of Islam and the indisputable authority of the spiritual head. At the beginning of the caliphate, such a head was the Prophet Muhammad. Him in equally belonged to both secular and spiritual-religious power. The supremacy of the ruler was also based on the state’s supreme ownership of the land: more precisely, the lands belonged only to Allah, in whose name the earthly rulers disposed of them.
After the death of the prophet, the caliphs became the rulers of the Arab state. Caliph(from the Arabic “khalifa” - deputy) was considered the full-fledged deputy of the prophet with all secular and spiritual rights. Later, the caliph began to be considered the direct deputy of Allah himself. His powers were limited only by the instructions of the Koran. Moreover, the decrees and judicial decisions of the first four caliphs, the immediate successors of the prophet, even gained significance sacred tradition(sunnah).
During the first 60 years of the state, caliphs were elected - either by the council of the clan nobility, or by the decision of “all Muslims” (i.e. Mecca and Medina). With the rule of the Umayyads, the power of the caliph became hereditary in the clan, although an absolutely verified tradition did not develop.
Until the 10th century Arab statehood was formed primarily by a military organization (united by constant conquests), a unified tax system and a common political-religious authority. There was no national administration.
By the beginning of the 10th century. under the caliphs, the position of vizier appears - first the senior official, then the head of the government and the entire administration of the empire. The vizier was appointed by the caliph, who presented the ruler with a special robe. The vizier managed the state administration independently, providing the caliph (sultan) with weekly reports on affairs. His position by the end of the 10th century. became hereditary in childbirth, and the “sons of viziers” formed, as it were, a special layer of the highest bureaucracy. By the 11th century. the importance of the post of vizier fell, sometimes even two viziers were appointed, including even Christians.
Regions-provinces existed in the caliphate separately from each other and from central government. The rulers of the regions bore the title of emir (supreme). Often, having secured hereditary power for their family, the emirs also adopted more sonorous titles - Shahinshah, etc. Both politically and legally, they had almost complete power in their province, subordinate to the religious authority of the caliph and the central administration.
Each region-province had its own representative office in the capital of the caliphate, Baghdad, a diwan that dealt with its affairs. In turn, the regional divan was divided into 2 departments: the main (asl), which was in charge of the distribution and collection of taxes, land policy, and the financial (winters). At the end of the 9th century. one of the caliphs united the regional divans into the department of the court, trying to create from this a semblance of a central administration, which would have subdepartments for enlarged regions: the office for Western Affairs, for Eastern Affairs and for Babylonian Affairs. After several transformations associated with a general strengthening of centralized power in the middle. In the 10th century, a centralized administration was formed at the court of the Baghdad caliphs. They never came to a clear distribution of rights and functions, but in total there were up to 11 separate departments.
The most important was the military department (all of them were called divans), where there was a chamber of military expenditures and a chamber of recruiting troops. Individual military units were governed independently. The most extensive was the expenditure department intended to service the courtyard. It had up to 6 special chambers of advisers for miscellaneous matters. The State Treasury was the control department where the treasury books were kept. The confiscation department conducted office work on such an important article in the relationship between the authorities and subjects who violated the order and laws of the service. The preparation of all kinds of documents and letters of appointment was carried out by a special Office of Letters; She also handled the caliph’s correspondence.
One of the most important in fact was the Main Department of Roads and Posts, which controlled individual postal and road officials. The officials of this department were responsible for providing explicit and secret information to the authorities about what was happening in the empire, so it was in charge of a network of informants. A special department was represented by the office of the caliph, where paperwork on petitions was carried out. In the press department, after agreement in other departments, the orders of the caliph were given force. There was a separate banking department, the most unique institution where money exchange and other payments were made.
Department managers (sahibs) were divided into three ranks. They were paid according to their ranks. True, over time, a tradition developed of paying state salaries only for 10 of the 12 months of the year. However, the practice of numerous combinations of positions helped out.
The governors of the provinces had their own viziers. The provincial administration was also represented by the commander of the regional troops - the amir and the civil ruler - the amil; the latter's duties mainly included collecting taxes.
Officials could only be recruited from the free and constituted, as it were, a special class. Military officers were primarily recruited from among the unfree. This made them more personally dependent on the supreme commander and the caliph. Receiving significant salaries, officials themselves had to maintain their offices, scribes and other minor employees.
Judicial system
Since the law required accepting testimony only from persons of good reputation, the qadi kept a list of such witnesses, constantly inviting them to court sessions. They testified to the acts, four of them participated in the analysis of cases. Sometimes such “witnesses” were assigned to independently examine minor cases on behalf of the judge.
The positions of judges have largely become hereditary. Largely also because legal proceedings, based on the Koran and Sunnah, retained the character of customary law and were guided by the tradition of judicial practice.
In addition to the spiritual court of qadis, there were also secular courts. They included “every matter that the qadi could not resolve and which should have been resolved by someone with more power.” Criminal and police cases were more often brought to the secular court. The vizier appointed secular judges. It was possible to appeal the decision of the qadi's court in a secular court. The highest authority of secular justice (although there was no strict subordination) was considered court court. It was often performed by viziers, palace managers. From the second half of the 9th century. the caliphs themselves did not participate in resolving specific cases.
The secular court was less limited by the Koran and tradition. Local law prevailed in it, and punishments were applied that were prohibited in the courts of the qadi (for example, corporal). But here peace deals were possible, witnesses were sworn in. The discretion of the court was largely free.
After the death of Muhammad, the Arabs were ruled by caliphs. - heirs of the Prophet. Under the first four caliphs, his closest associates and relatives, the Arabs went beyond the Arabian Peninsula and attacked Byzantium and Iran. The main force their troops were cavalry. The Arabs conquered the richest Byzantine provinces - Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the vast Iranian kingdom. At the beginning of the 8th century. in North Africa they subjugated the Berber tribes and converted them to Islam. In 711, the Arabs crossed to Europe, to the Iberian Peninsula, and almost completely conquered the kingdom of the Visigoths; But later, in a collision with the Franks (732), the Arabs were driven back to south. In the east, they subjugated the peoples of Transcaucasia and Central Asia, breaking their stubborn resistance. Then they conquered Eastern Iran and Afghanistan, and the Arabs penetrated into Northwestern India.
So during the 7th - first half of the 8th century. A huge state arose - the Arab Caliphate, stretching from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of India and China. Damascus became its capital.
In the middle of the 7th century. Under Caliph Ali, Muhammad's cousin, civil strife broke out in the country, leading to a split of Muslims into Sunnis and Shiites.
Sunnis recognize not only the Koran as sacred books, but also the Sunna - a collection of stories from the life of Muhammad, and also believe that the caliph should be the head of the Muslim church. Shiites reject the Sunnah as holy book and demand that believers be led by imams - spiritual mentors from the clan of Ali.
After the assassination of Ali, the caliphs from the Umayyad dynasty, relying on the Sunnis, seized power. The Shiite uprising against the Umayyads began in Central Asia and spread to Iran and Iraq, which the Abbasids - the descendants of Muhammad's uncle, Abbas - took advantage of. The caliph's troops were defeated, the caliph himself fled to Syria, and then to Egypt, where he was killed by the rebels. Almost all the Umayyads were exterminated (one of the fleeing Umayyads created an independent Arab state- Kardov Emirate, from the 10th century. - Cordoba Caliphate). In 750, power in the caliphate passed to the Abbasid dynasty. Iranian landowners who supported the Abbasids received high positions in the state. They could even occupy the post of vizier - a senior official, assistant to the caliph.
All land in the state was the property of the caliph. Emirs (governors) from among his closest relatives collected taxes in the provinces, supported the army at this expense, and led conquests. Tax relief for Muslims forced many residents of conquered countries to convert to Islam. As a result, during her time Islam was adopted by the majority of the population of Syria, Egypt, a large part of Africa, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, parts of Hindustan and Indonesia.
Under the Abbasids, the conquests of the Arabs almost ceased: only the islands of Sicily, Cyprus, Crete and part of the south of Italy were annexed. At the intersection trade routes was founded on the Tigris River new capital- Baghdad, which gave the name to the Arab state under the Abbasids - Baghdad Caliphate. Its heyday occurred during the reign of the legendary Harun al-Rashid (766-809), a contemporary of Charlemagne.
In the VIII-IX centuries. A series of uprisings swept through the caliphate. Particularly significant was the movement of the Qarmatians (one of the branches of the Shiites), who even managed to create their own state, which lasted for about a century and a half.
The huge caliphate did not remain united for long. The guard, recruited from captive Turks (immigrants from Central Asia), and the governor-emirs, who became independent rulers, acquired increasing power in it. In the 9th century. Egypt and other provinces in North Africa, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan separated from the Baghdad Caliphate. Only Mesopotamia was under the rule of the caliph, but the caliph remained the head of the Sunni Muslims.
In the middle of the 11th century. The Seljuk Turks (named after their leader Seljuk), who had by that time captured part of Central Asia, conquered most of the Arab possessions in the Middle East. In 1055 they captured Baghdad. The Caliph crowned the ruler of the Seljuk Turks and gave him the title of Sultan.
