Eastern Slavs in the 5th - 8th centuries briefly. Eastern Slavs

In today's lesson you will get acquainted with the ancient Slavic tribes, the peculiarities of their economy and life, and learn the names of the gods worshiped by the Eastern Slavs and their neighbors.

Topic: Old Russian state

Lesson:Eastern Slavs inVII - IXcenturies

In the 7th - 9th centuries. The Slavs occupied a vast territory of Eastern Europe. They settled in the territory from Lake Ladoga to the middle reaches of the Dnieper River, from the Bug River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. The peculiarity of the settlement of the Slavs was that tribal unions Eastern Slavs formed in the basins large rivers, where centers of tribal principalities subsequently arose. The Ilmen Slavs settled in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen and the Dvina River. The Dregovichi and Drevlyans settled in the area of ​​the Pripyat River. In the upper reaches of the Dnieper along the Sozh and Seim rivers lived the Radimichi. In the middle reaches of the Dnieper, glades settled. In the Desna River basin there are northerners. In the northeast, in the Oka River basin, there are Vyatichi.

Rice. 1. Settlement of the Eastern Slavs ()

The main occupations of the Slavs were based on the characteristics of the land. Slash-and-burn agriculture was practiced in the forests. The steppe land was developed through fallow land. But still the yield was low due to the harsh continental climate. Other industries of the Slavs were fishing, hunting, and beekeeping was also common. The Novgorod-Ilmen region was rich in forests, and the fur trade flourished there. IN southern regions Hunting for moose and bears was practiced. The abundance of rivers, lakes, and a well-branched water transport system contributed to the development of shipping, trade, and various crafts that provided products for exchange. Large cities and tribal centers such as Kyiv and others were founded at the crossroads of trade routes.

Rice. 2. Slash-and-burn farming ()

On the eve of the formation of statehood, the Eastern Slavs lived as a neighboring community, in which private property took shape. Each family had the right to cleared land - lyadina. In Slavic society, military leaders were identified and a squad was formed. A squad is a special group of the population engaged only in military activities, in particular campaigns. For defense, there was a militia of free community members. The warriors not only participated in campaigns of conquest, but also ruled the annexed lands. At its head was a prince, to whom the squad and governors were subordinate. Lower in position were smerds or, as they were also called, husbands (heads of patriarchal families who had the right to participate in the army). Even more low status had servants - these were members of the husbands' families and slaves who did not have the right to participate in the army.

The religion of the Eastern Slavs was complex, varied, with detailed customs. Its origins go back to Indo-European ancient beliefs, to Paleolithic times. The religion that existed in different nations before they adopted Christianity or Islam, it was called paganism (polytheism). The Slavs populated the world with different gods and goddesses. At their head was the great Svarog, the god of the universe. His sons - Svarozhichi - the sun and fire, were carriers of light and warmth. The sun god Dazhdbog was highly revered by the Slavs. The Slavs prayed to the clan and women in labor - the god and goddesses of fertility. This cult was associated with the agricultural activities of the population and therefore was especially popular. God Veles was revered by the Slavs as the patron of cattle breeding, Stribog commanded the winds. As the Slavs merged with some Iranian and Finno-Ugric tribes, their gods migrated to the Slavic pantheon. Thus, in the 8th - 9th centuries, the Slavs revered the Iranian sun god Khoros. With the beginning of military campaigns among the Slavs, the god of thunder and lightning, Perun, borrowed from the Balts, increasingly came to the fore. A special attitude towards dead soldiers appears (funeral pyres, burial mounds, and so on). The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays: Kolyada, the day of the vernal equinox, Maslenitsa, on May 1-2 they celebrated the appearance of the first spring shoots, the holiday of Ivan Kupala, and so on. Many of these holidays have survived to this day. In every house the Slavs had idols of gods, and there was also a cult of Shurov, small family idols of houses.

The Slavs did not have friendly relations with all their neighbors. Slavic legends tell about the attack of the Turkic-speaking nomads Avars on the Slavic tribe of Dulebs. In the 8th century eastern Slavic tribes the Khazars conquered the Polans, Northerners, Vyatichi and Radimichi, forcing them to pay tribute.

So, living surrounded by various tribes and peoples, the Eastern Slavs formed a special civilization.

1. Mavrodin V.V. Where did the Russian land come from? M., 1986.
2. Rybakov B.A. World of history. The initial centuries of Russian history. M., 1984

1. WWW.GRANDARS.RU ().
2. Academician ().
3. TAREFER.RU ().

1. When did the Slavs appear on the territory of our country?
2. How did nature influence the activities and beliefs of the Eastern Slavs?
3. What were the relationships between the Slavs and neighboring tribes and peoples?

In the VII-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of decomposition of the tribal system: a transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one. The community members lived in half-dugouts designed for one family. Private property already existed, but the land, forest lands and livestock remained in common ownership.
At this time, tribal nobility emerged - leaders and elders. They surrounded themselves with squads, i.e. armed force, independent of the will of the people's assembly (veche) and capable of forcing ordinary community members to obey. Each tribe had its own prince. The word "prince" comes from the common Slavic " knez" meaning "leader"». One of these tribal princes was Kiy (5th century), who reigned among the Polyan tribe. The Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” called him the founder of Kyiv. Thus, the first signs of statehood were already appearing in Slavic society.

Religion, life and customs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon of Slavic gods emerged, each of which personified various forces of nature or reflected social relations of that time. The most important gods of the Slavs were Perun - the god of thunder, lightning, war, Svarog - the god of fire, Veles - the patron of cattle breeding, Mokosh - the goddess who protected female part tribe. The sun god was especially revered, who was called differently by different tribes: Dazhd-bog, Yarilo, Khoros, which indicates the absence of stable Slavic inter-tribal unity.

The Slavs lived in small villages along the banks of rivers. In some places, to protect themselves from the enemy, villages were surrounded by a wall around which a ditch was dug. This place was called a city.

The Slavs were hospitable and good-natured. Each wanderer was considered a dear guest. According to Slavic customs, it was possible to have several wives, but only the rich had more than one, because... For each wife, a ransom had to be paid to the bride's parents. Often, when a husband died, the wife, proving her fidelity, killed herself. The custom of burning the dead and erecting large earthen mounds over funeral pyres was widespread - mounds. The more noble the deceased, the higher the hill was built. After the burial, a “funeral funeral” was celebrated, i.e. had feasts, fighting games and horse lists in honor of the deceased.
Birth, wedding, death- all these events in a person’s life were accompanied by spell rituals. The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and various seasons. The purpose of all rituals was to ensure the harvest and health of people, as well as livestock. In the villages there were idols depicting deities to whom “the whole world” (that is, the whole community) made sacrifices. Groves, rivers, and lakes were considered sacred. Each tribe had a common sanctuary, where members of the tribe gathered for especially solemn holidays and to resolve important matters.

On the settlement of East Slavic tribes The ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” can tell a lot. She tells us about the Polyans who lived in the Middle Dnieper region in the Kyiv region, their neighbors - the Drevlyans, who settled in the swampy and wooded Pripyat Polesie. At the northern end of the East Slavic world lived the Ilmen Slovenes, who settled along the shores of Lake Ilmen; the Dregovichi lived between Pripyat and the Western Dvina; their neighbors were Krivichi, a huge array of which over time split into three branches: the Krivichi of Smolensk, Polotsk and Pskov; the neighbors of the clearings on the side of the steppe were the northerners, the Radimichi lived in the Sozh River basin, and the Vyatichi lived in the Oka basin. At the southernmost tip of the East Slavic territory, almost on the Black Sea coast, the Ulichs and Tivertsy settled.

For a long time, historians did not trust this chronicle geographical scheme, but archeology at the beginning of the 20th century confirmed it. Helped here... women's jewelry. It turned out that one of the most common types of female jewelry among the Eastern Slavs - temple rings - varies throughout the Russian Plain. It turned out that certain varieties of these decorations correspond to a certain settlement of one or another East Slavic “tribe”. These observations were later confirmed by studying other elements material culture Eastern Slavs.

Spread over such a vast space, the Eastern Slavs encountered and entered into one relationship or another with the peoples who inhabited Eastern Europe before them or came here at the same time. It is known that the Balts lived right up to the area of ​​modern Moscow, as evidenced by the study of toponymy ( geographical names), which turn out to be very stable, persisting for centuries. The regions of the northeast were inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples, and the south has long been inhabited by Iranian-speaking tribes - descendants of the Sarmatians already known to us. Military clashes gave way to periods of peaceful relations, assimilation processes took place: the Slavs seemed to draw these peoples into themselves, but they themselves changed, acquiring new skills, new elements of material culture. Synthesis, interaction of cultures - the most important phenomenon the time of settlement of the Slavs across the Russian Plain, perfectly illustrated by data from archaeological excavations.

Relations with those ethnic groups were more complex, who were able to create quite strong tribal unions or even early state formations. One of these formations in the middle of the 7th century. was created by the Bulgarians. As a result of internal turmoil and external pressure, part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Asparuh, migrated to the Danube, where they subjugated the local South Slavic tribes. Another part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Batbai, moved to the northeast and settled in the middle reaches of the Volga and on the lower Kama, creating the state of Bulgaria. This state has long represented real threat for the Eastern Slavs.

The Khazars were also Turkic tribes, which in the second half of the 7th century. began to press the Bulgarians. Over time, they also settled on the earth, creating their early state formation, which covered huge territories Northern Caucasus, Lower Volga region, Northern Black Sea region and partly Crimea. Center Khazar Khaganate, as this formation came to be called (the Khazar ruler was called Kagan), was located in the lower reaches of the Volga. There were not many ethnic Khazars-Turks, but the main population consisted of representatives of the so-called Saltovo-Mayak culture, which consisted of representatives of the multi-ethnic population of Eastern Europe, including the Slavs. Basically, the population of the Kaganate was pagan, but the Khazar elite adopted Judaism. Part of the East Slavic tribes, adjacent to the (very vague) borders of the Kaganate, had, according to the chronicle, to pay tribute to the Khazars.

A terrible danger for the Eastern Slavs also hung from the northwest. The meager land of the Scandinavian Peninsula pushed large detachments of “seekers of glory and prey, drinkers of the seas” into Europe - the Normans, who were called in Rus' Varangians. The troops were led by Vikings who originated mostly from noble families. Battle-hardened and sea ​​travel Armed with an effective weapon - an ax with a pointed bayonet, the Normans were a terrible danger for many European countries. Peak of Varangian raids on Slavic territories falls on the 9th century.

In the fight against enemies The military organization of the Slavic population, whose roots go back centuries, strengthened. Like many other nations, this is a system of hundreds, when each tribe fielded a hundred warriors led by a “sotsky,” and the union of tribes was, apparently, supposed to field a thousand, which is where the position of “thousand” comes from. The prince was one of the military leaders. The word “prince” is a common Slavic word, borrowed, according to linguists, from the ancient German language. This word originally meant the head of a clan, an elder. From sources we know about tribal leaders-princes. Over time, with the growth of the population, the tribe, divided into several clans, split into a number of related tribes, which formed a tribal union. Such tribal unions most likely were the chronicle “tribes” of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, etc. At the head of these unions were leaders towering above the leaders of the individual tribes that were part of the union.

Historical evidence The chronicle legend about Kiy and his descendants contains information about such princes. The chronicle says: “And to this day the brothers (Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv. - Author) often kept their reign in the fields, and in ancient times, theirs, and the Dregovichi, theirs, and their slavs in Novgorod, and the other in Polot, etc. Polotsk residents."

The Arab historian Masudi reports about the ancient Slavic prince Majak, and the Gothic historian Jordan, already known to us, about Prince God. Thus, in addition to the leaders of the tribes, there were also leaders of the tribal unions. These princes had different functions. The prince of the tribe could be elected for a time, during the period of hostilities. His power is small compared to the power of the leader of the tribal union. The power of the latter is constant, the functions are more varied. Such a prince had to deal with the internal construction of the union, collect, organize and lead the army, and be in charge in general foreign policy. These princes also performed some religious and judicial functions. In this they were helped by the council of elders, or, as ancient Russian monuments often call it, the city elders (chronicles use the terms “elders” and “city elders” as equivalent). In chronicle reports, the city elders act as authorized leaders of society, with whom the princes were forced to reckon. Even in the second half of the 10th century. - the turning point of Vladimir's reign - they still participated in governance and influenced the course of events. The elders-advisers took part in the princely Duma, princely feasts, which performed an important social function - communication between the population and the prince. The elders of the city were the tribal nobility who dealt with civil affairs.

The prince was assisted in military affairs by his squad. It also originates in the depths of the primitive communal system, without in any way violating the pre-class social structure. The squad grew together with the prince and, just like the prince, carried out certain social useful features. Among the warriors, the prince was not a master, but first among equals.

Another important element the socio-political structure was stronger. Tribal veche - people's assemblies - originate in ancient times. The Byzantine writer-historian Procopius of Caesarea (VI century) wrote about them, telling about the Antes and Sklavens. The study of the oldest documents about the veche indicates that the entire population, including the nobility, took part in it. The People's Assembly functioned continuously throughout the 9th-11th centuries, but over time, as tribal ties disintegrated, it became more active. The fact is that clan ties fetter a person; clan protection, which in ancient times was a blessing for any member of the clan, over time becomes an obstacle to the development of democratic government.

This triad - prince, council of elders and popular assembly - can be found in many societies that experienced an archaic stage of development.

Eastern Slavs - large group related peoples, which today numbers more than 300 million people. The history of the formation of these nationalities, their traditions, faith, relations with other states is important points in history, since they answer the question of how our ancestors appeared in ancient times.

Origin

The question of the origin of the Eastern Slavs is interesting. This is our history and our ancestors, the first mentions of which date back to the beginning of our era. If we talk about archaeological excavations, scientists find artifacts indicating that the nation began to form before our era.

All Slavic languages belong to a single Indo-European group. Its representatives emerged as a nationality around the 8th millennium BC. The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs (and many other peoples) lived along the shores of the Caspian Sea. Around the 2nd millennium BC Indo-European group split into 3 nationalities:

• Pro-Germans (Germans, Celts, Romans). Filled Western and Southern Europe.
• Baltoslavs. They settled between the Vistula and the Dnieper.
• Iranian and Indian peoples. They settled throughout Asia.

Around the 5th century BC, the Balotoslavs are divided into Balts and Slavs; already in the 5th century AD, the Slavs, in short, are divided into eastern (eastern Europe), western ( central Europe) and southern (Balkan Peninsula).

Today, the Eastern Slavs include: Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians.

The invasion of the Hun tribes into the Black Sea region in the 4th century destroyed the Greek and Scythian states. Many historians call this fact the root cause of the future creation of the ancient state by the Eastern Slavs.

Historical background

Settlement

An important question is how the Slavs developed new territories, and how their settlement occurred in general. There are 2 main theories of the appearance of the Eastern Slavs in Eastern Europe:

• Autochthonous. It suggests that the Slavic ethnic group was originally formed on the East European Plain. The theory was put forward by historian B. Rybakov. There are no significant arguments in its favor.
• Migration. Suggests that the Slavs migrated from other regions. Soloviev and Klyuchevsky argued that the migration was from the territory of the Danube. Lomonosov spoke about migration from the Baltic territory. There is also a theory of migration from the regions of Eastern Europe.

Around the 6th-7th centuries, the Eastern Slavs settled in Eastern Europe. They settled in the territory from Ladoga and Lake Ladoga in the North to the Black Sea coast in the south, from the Carpathian Mountains in the West to the Volga territories in the East.

13 tribes lived in this territory. Some sources talk about 15 tribes, but this data does not find historical confirmation. The Eastern Slavs in ancient times consisted of 13 tribes: Vyatichi, Radimichi, Polyan, Polotsk, Volynians, Ilmen, Dregovichi, Drevlyans, Ulichs, Tivertsy, Northerners, Krivichi, Dulebs.

Specifics of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs on the East European Plain:

• Geographical. No natural barriers, which made movement easier.
• Ethnic. A large number of people with different ethnic composition lived and migrated in the territory.
• Communication skills. The Slavs settled near captivity and alliances, which could influence the ancient state, but on the other hand they could share their culture.

Map of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs in ancient times

Tribes

The main tribes of the Eastern Slavs in ancient times are presented below.

Glade. The most numerous tribe, strong on the banks of the Dnieper, south of Kyiv. It was the glades that became the drain for the formation of the ancient Russian state. According to the chronicle, in 944 they stopped calling themselves Polyans, and began to use the name Rus.

Slovenian Ilmenskie. The northernmost tribe that settled around Novgorod, Ladoga and Lake Peipsi. According to Arab sources, it was the Ilmen, together with the Krivichi, who formed the first state - Slavia.

Krivichi. They settled north of the Western Dvina and in the upper reaches of the Volga. The main cities are Polotsk and Smolensk.

Polotsk residents. They settled south of the Western Dvina. A minor tribal union that did not play an important role in the Eastern Slavs forming a state.

Dregovichi. They lived between the upper reaches of the Neman and the Dnieper. They mostly settled along the Pripyat River. All that is known about this tribe is that they had their own principality, the main city of which was Turov.

Drevlyans. They settled south of the Pripyat River. The main city of this tribe was Iskorosten.

Volynians. They settled more densely than the Drevlyans at the sources of the Vistula.

White Croats. The most western tribe, which was located between the Dniester and Vistula rivers.

Duleby. They were located east of the white Croats. One of the weakest tribes that did not last long. They voluntarily became part of the Russian state, having previously split into Buzhans and Volynians.

Tivertsy. They occupied the territory between the Prut and the Dniester.

Uglichi. They settled between the Dniester and the Southern Bug.

Northerners. They mainly occupied the territory adjacent to the Desna River. The center of the tribe was the city of Chernigov. Subsequently, several cities were formed on this territory that are still known today, for example, Bryansk.

Radimichi. They settled between the Dnieper and Desna. In 885 they were annexed to the Old Russian state.

Vyatichi. They were located along the sources of the Oka and Don. According to the chronicle, the ancestor of this tribe was the legendary Vyatko. Moreover, already in the 14th century there are no mentions of the Vyatichi in the chronicles.

Tribal alliances

The Eastern Slavs had 3 strong tribal unions: Slavia, Kuyavia and Artania.

In relations with other tribes and countries, the Eastern Slavs attempted to capture raids (mutual) and trade. Mainly connections were with:

• Byzantine Empire (Slav raids and mutual trade)
• Varangians (Varangian raids and mutual trade).
• Avars, Bulgars and Khazars (raids on the Slavs and mutual trade). Often these tribes are called Turkic or Türks.
• Fino-Ugrians (the Slavs tried to seize their territory).

What did you do

The Eastern Slavs were mainly engaged in agriculture. The specifics of their settlement determined the methods of cultivating the land. IN southern regions, as well as in the Dnieper region, chernozem soil dominated. Here the land was used for up to 5 years, after which it was depleted. Then people moved to another site, and the depleted one took 25-30 years to recover. This farming method is called folded .

Northern and central region the East European Plain were characterized a large number forests Therefore, the ancient Slavs first cut down the forest, burned it, fertilized the soil with ashes, and only then began field work. Such a plot was fertile for 2-3 years, after which it was abandoned and moved on to the next one. This method of farming is called slash-and-burn .

If we try to briefly characterize the main activities of the Eastern Slavs, the list will be as follows: agriculture, hunting, fishing, beekeeping (honey collection).

The main agricultural crop of the Eastern Slavs in ancient times was millet. Marten skins were primarily used by the Eastern Slavs as money. Much attention devoted to the development of crafts.

Beliefs

The beliefs of the ancient Slavs are called paganism because they worshiped many gods. Mainly deities were associated with natural phenomena. Almost every phenomenon or important component of life that the Eastern Slavs professed had a corresponding god. For example:

• Perun - god of lightning
• Yarilo - sun god
• Stribog - god of the wind
• Volos (Veles) – patron saint of cattle breeders
• Mokosh (Makosh) – goddess of fertility
• And so on

The ancient Slavs did not build temples. They built rituals in groves, meadows, stone idols and other places. Noteworthy is the fact that almost all fairy-tale folklore in terms of mysticism belongs specifically to the era under study. In particular, the Eastern Slavs believed in the goblin, brownie, mermaids, merman and others.

How were the activities of the Slavs reflected in paganism? It was paganism, which was based on worship of the elements and elements influencing fertility, that shaped the Slavs’ attitude to agriculture as the main way of life.

Social structure

The first evidence about the Slavs. The Slavs, according to most historians, separated from the Indo-European community in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The ancestral home of the early Slavs (Proto-Slavs), according to archaeological data, was the territory to the east of the Germans - from the Oder River in the west to the Carpathian Mountains in the east. A number of researchers believe that Proto-Slavic language began to take shape later, in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e.

The first written evidence about the Slavs dates back to the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. e. Greek, Roman, Arab, and Byzantine sources report on the Slavs. Ancient authors mention the Slavs under the name of the Wends (Roman writer Pliny the Elder, historian Tacitus, 1st century AD; geographer Ptolemy Claudius, 2nd century AD).

During the era of the Great Migration of Peoples (III-VI centuries AD), which coincided with the crisis of slave civilization, the Slavs developed the territory of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe. They lived in forest and forest-steppe zones, where, as a result of the spread of iron tools, it became possible to conduct settled farming. Having settled the Balkans, the Slavs played a significant role in the destruction of the Danube border of Byzantium.

The first information about the political history of the Slavs dates back to the 4th century. n. e. From the Baltic coast Germanic tribes Ready made their way to the Northern Black Sea region. The Gothic leader Germanarich was defeated by the Slavs. His successor Vinithar deceived 70 Slavic elders led by God (Bus) and crucified them. Eight centuries later, the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” unknown to us, mentioned “the time of Busovo.”

A special place in the life of the Slavic world was occupied by relations with nomadic peoples steppes. Along this steppe ocean, stretching from the Black Sea region to Central Asia, wave after wave of nomadic tribes invaded Eastern Europe. At the end of the 4th century. The Gothic tribal union was broken by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Huns who came from Central Asia. In 375, hordes of Huns occupied the territory between the Volga and Danube with their nomads, and then advanced further into Europe to the borders of France. In their advance to the west, the Huns carried away some of the Slavs. After the death of the leader of the Huns, Atilla (453), the Hunnic state collapsed, and they were thrown back to the east.

In the VI century. Turkic-speaking Avars (the Russian chronicle called them Obra) created their own state in the southern Russian steppes, uniting the nomadic tribes there. Avar Khaganate was defeated by Byzantium in 625. The great Avars, “proud in mind” and in body, disappeared without a trace. “They perished like obras” - these words from the light hand of the Russian chronicler became an aphorism.

The largest political formations of the 7th-8th centuries. in the southern Russian steppes there were the Bulgarian kingdom and the Khazar Khaganate, and in the Altai region there was the Turkic Khaganate. The nomadic states were fragile conglomerates of steppe dwellers who lived on war booty. As a result of the collapse Bulgarian kingdom part of the Bulgarians, under the leadership of Khan Asparukh, migrated to the Danube, where they were assimilated by the southern Slavs who lived there, who took the name of the warriors of Asparukh, that is, the Bulgarians. Another part of the Turkic Bulgarians with Khan Batbai came to the middle reaches of the Volga, where a new power arose - Volga Bulgaria (Bulgaria). Her neighbor, who occupied from the middle of the 7th century. the territory of the Lower Volga region, the steppes of the North Caucasus, the Black Sea region and partly the Crimea, there was the Khazar Khaganate, which collected tribute from the Dnieper Slavs until the end of the 9th century.

In the VI century. The Slavs repeatedly carried out military campaigns against the largest state of that time - Byzantium. From this time, a number of works by Byzantine authors have reached us, containing unique military instructions on how to fight the Slavs. So, for example, the Byzantine Procopius from Caesarea in the book “War with the Goths” wrote: “These tribes, the Slavs and Ants, are not ruled by one person, but from ancient times they have lived in the rule of people (democracy), and therefore for them happiness and misfortune in life are considered a matter of common... They believe that only God, the creator of lightning, is the ruler over everyone, and they sacrifice bulls to him and perform other sacred rituals... Both have the same language... And once upon a time even the name of the Slavs and Ants was the same Same".

Byzantine authors compared the way of life of the Slavs with the life of their country, emphasizing the backwardness of the Slavs. Campaigns against Byzantium could only be undertaken by large tribal unions of the Slavs. These campaigns contributed to the enrichment of the tribal elite of the Slavs, which accelerated the collapse of the primitive communal system.

The formation of large tribal associations of the Slavs is indicated by a legend contained in the Russian chronicle, which tells about the reign of Kiya with his brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid in the Middle Dnieper region. Kyiv, founded by the brothers, was allegedly named after his older brother Kiy. The chronicler noted that other tribes had similar reigns. Historians believe that these events occurred at the end of the 5th-6th centuries. n. e.

Territory of the Eastern Slavs (VI-IX centuries).

The Eastern Slavs occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north. To the Middle Dnieper region in the south. The Slavs, who developed the East European Plain, came into contact with a few Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. There was a process of assimilation (mixing) of peoples. In the VI-IX centuries. The Slavs united into communities that no longer had only a tribal, but also a territorial and political character. Tribal unions are a stage on the path to the formation of statehood of the Eastern Slavs.

In the chronicle story about the settlement of the Slavic tribes, one and a half dozen associations of the Eastern Slavs are named. The term "tribes" in relation to these associations has been proposed by historians. It would be more accurate to call these associations tribal unions. These unions included 120-150 separate tribes, whose names have already been lost. Each individual tribe, in turn, consisted of large quantity childbirth and occupied a significant territory (40-60 km across).

The chronicle's story about the settlement of the Slavs was brilliantly confirmed archaeological excavations in the 19th century Archaeologists noted the coincidence of the excavation data (burial rites, women's jewelry - temple rings, etc.), characteristic of each tribal union, with the chronicle indication of the place of its settlement.

The Polyans lived in the forest-steppe along the middle reaches of the Dnieper (Kyiv). To the north of them, between the mouths of the Desna and Rosi rivers, lived the northerners (Chernigov). To the west of the glades, on the right bank of the Dnieper, the Drevlyans “sedesh in the forests.” To the north of the Drevlyans, between the Pripyat and Western Dvina rivers, the Dregovichi (from the word “dryagva” - swamp) settled, who along the Western Dvina adjacent to the Polotsk people (from the Polota River, a tributary of the Western Dvina). To the south of the Bug River were the Buzhans and Volynians, as some historians believe, descendants of the Dulebs. They inhabited the area between the Prut and Dnieper rivers. The Tiverts lived between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug. The Vyatichi were located along the Oka and Moscow rivers; to the west of them lived the Krivichi; along the Sozh River and its tributaries - Radimichi. The northern part of the western slopes of the Carpathians was occupied by the White Croats. The Ilmen Slovenes (Novgorod) lived around Lake Ilmen.

Chroniclers noted the uneven development of individual tribal associations of the Eastern Slavs. At the center of their narrative is the land of the glades. The land of glades, as the chroniclers pointed out, also bore the name “Rus”. Historians believe that this was the name of one of the tribes that lived along the Ros River and gave the name to the tribal union, the history of which was inherited by the glades. This is just one possible explanation for the term “Rus”. The origin of this name is not completely clear.

The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs in the north-west were the Baltic Letto-Lithuanian (Zhmud, Lithuania, Prussians, Latgalians, Semigallians, Curonians) and Finno-Ugric (Chud-Ests, Livs) tribes. The Finno-Ugrians neighbored the Eastern Slavs both in the north and in the northeast (Vod, Izhora, Karelians, Sami, Ves, Perm). In the upper reaches of the Vychegda, Pechora and Kama lived the Yugras, Meryas, Cheremis-Marys, Muroms, Meshcheras, Mordovians, and Burtases. In the east, from the confluence of the Belaya River with the Kama to the Middle Volga, was the Volga-Kama Bulgaria, its population was Turkic. Their neighbors were the Bashkirs. South Russian steppes in the 8th-9th centuries. occupied by the Magyars (Hungarians) - Finno-Ugric cattle breeders, who, after their resettlement to the area of ​​Lake Balaton, were replaced in the 9th century. Pechenegs. In the Lower Volga and steppe expanses between the Caspian and Azov seas the Khazar Khaganate dominated. The Black Sea region was dominated by Danube Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire.

The path “from the Varangians to the Greeks”

The great waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks” was a kind of “highway” connecting Northern and Southern Europe. It arose at the end of the 9th century. From the Baltic (Varangian) Sea along the Neva River, caravans of merchants reached Lake Ladoga(Nevo), from there along the Volkhov River to Lake Ilmen and further along the Lovat River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. From Lovat to the Dnieper in the area of ​​Smolensk and on the Dnieper rapids they crossed by “portage routes”. West Bank The Black Sea reached Constantinople (Constantinople). The most developed lands of the Slavic world - Novgorod and Kyiv - controlled the northern and southern sections of the Great Trade Route. This circumstance gave rise to a number of historians, following V. O. Klyuchevsky, to assert that trade in fur, wax and honey was the main occupation of the Eastern Slavs, since the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” was “the main core of economic, political, and then cultural life Eastern Slavs."

Economy of the Slavs. The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. This is confirmed by archaeological excavations that discovered seeds of cereals (rye, wheat, barley, millet) and garden crops (turnips, cabbage, beets, carrots, radishes, garlic, etc.). Man in those days identified life with arable land and bread, hence the name of grain crops “zhito”, which has survived to this day. The agricultural traditions of this region are evidenced by the adoption by the Slavs of the Roman grain standard - quadrantal (26.26 l), called a quadrant in Rus' and which existed in our system of weights and measures until 1924.

The main farming systems of the Eastern Slavs are closely related to natural and climatic conditions. In the north, in the area of ​​taiga forests (the remnant of which is Belovezhskaya Pushcha), the dominant farming system was slash-and-burn. In the first year, trees were cut down. In the second year, the dried trees were burned and grain was sown using the ash as fertilizer. For two or three years, the plot produced a high harvest for that time, then the land was depleted, and it was necessary to move to a new plot. The main tools there were an axe, as well as a hoe, a plow, a harrow and a spade, which were used to loosen the soil. Harvesting was done with sickles. They threshed with flails. The grain was ground with stone grain grinders and hand millstones.

In the southern regions, the leading farming system was fallow. There was a lot of fertile land there, and plots of land were sown for two, three or more years. As the soil became depleted, they moved (transferred) to new areas. The main tools used here were a plow, a ralo, a wooden plow with an iron ploughshare, i.e., tools adapted for horizontal plowing.

Livestock breeding was closely related to agriculture. The Slavs raised pigs, cows, and small cattle. In the south, oxen were used as draft animals, and horses were used in the forest belt. Other occupations of the Slavs include fishing, hunting, beekeeping (collecting honey from wild bees), which had a large share in northern regions. Industrial crops (flax, hemp) were also grown.

Community

The low level of productive forces in farming required enormous labor costs. Labor-intensive work that had to be carried out within a strictly defined time frame could only be completed by a large team; his task was also to ensure the proper distribution and use of land. Therefore, the community - mir, rope (from the word “rope”, which was used to measure the land during divisions) acquired a large role in the life of the ancient Russian village.

By the time the state was formed among the Eastern Slavs, the clan community was replaced by a territorial, or neighborhood, community. The community members were now united, first of all, not by kinship, but by common territory and economic life. Each such community owned a certain territory on which several families lived. There were two forms of ownership in the community - personal and public. The house, personal land, livestock, and equipment constituted the personal property of each community member. Arable land, meadows, forests, reservoirs, and fishing grounds were in common use. Arable land and meadows were to be divided between families.

Community traditions and orders determined the way of life and characteristic features of the life of the Russian peasantry for many, many centuries.

As a result of the transfer of the right to own land by the princes to the feudal lords, some of the communities came under their authority. (A fief is a hereditary possession granted by the prince-lord to his vassal, who is obliged to bear the court fee for this, military service. A feudal lord is the owner of a fief, a land owner who exploited the peasants dependent on him.) Another way of subjugating neighboring communities to feudal lords was to seize them by warriors and princes. But most often the old tribal nobility turned into patrimonial boyars, subjugating the community members.

Communities that did not fall under the power of feudal lords were obliged to pay taxes to the state, which in relation to these communities acted both as the supreme power and as the feudal lord.

Peasant farms and the farms of feudal lords were of a subsistence nature. Both of them sought to provide for themselves from internal resources and were not yet working for the market. However, completely without a market feudal economy couldn't live. With the advent of surpluses, it became possible to exchange agricultural products for handicraft goods; Cities began to emerge as centers of craft, trade and exchange, and at the same time as strongholds of feudal power and defense against external enemies.

City

The city, as a rule, was built on a hill at the confluence of two rivers, as this provided reliable defense against enemy attacks. Central part The city, protected by a rampart, around which a fortress wall was erected, was called the Kremlin, Krom or Detinets. There were palaces of princes, courtyards of the largest feudal lords, temples, and later monasteries. The Kremlin was protected on both sides by a natural water barrier. A ditch was dug from the base of the Kremlin triangle and filled with water. Behind the moat, under the protection of the fortress walls, there was a market. Settlements of artisans adjoined the Kremlin. The craft part of the city was called posad, and its individual areas, inhabited, as a rule, by artisans of a certain specialty, were called settlements.

In most cases, cities were built on trade routes, such as the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” or the Volga trade route, which connected Rus' with the countries of the East. Communication with Western Europe was also maintained via land roads.

The exact dates of the founding of ancient cities are unknown, but many of them existed at the time of the first mention in the chronicle, for example Kyiv (the legendary chronicle evidence of its foundation dates back to the end of the 5th-6th centuries), Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereslavl Yuzhny, Smolensk, Suzdal, Murom and others. According to historians, in the 9th century. in Rus' there were at least 24 major cities which had fortifications.

Social order

At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were princes from the tribal nobility and the former clan elite - “deliberate people”, “ best men" The most important issues of life were decided at public meetings - veche gatherings.

There was a militia (“regiment”, “thousand”, divided into “hundreds”). They were led by thousands and sotskys. Special military organization there was a squad. According to archaeological data and Byzantine sources, East Slavic squads appeared already in the 6th-7th centuries. The squad was divided into the senior squad, which included ambassadors and princely rulers who had their own land, and the junior squad, which lived with the prince and served his court and household. The warriors, on behalf of the prince, collected tribute from the conquered tribes. Such trips to collect tribute were called polyudye. The collection of tribute usually took place in November-April and continued until the spring opening of the rivers, when the princes returned to Kyiv. The unit of tribute was the smoke (peasant household) or the area of ​​land cultivated by the peasant household (ralo, plow).

Slavic paganism

The ancient Slavs were pagans. At an early stage of their development, they believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon of Slavic gods emerged, each of which personified various forces of nature or reflected social and public relations of that time. The most important gods of the Slavs were Perun - the god of thunder, lightning, war; Svarog - god of fire; Veles is the patron of cattle breeding; Mokosh is a goddess who protected the female part of the household; Simargl - god underworld. The sun god was especially revered, who was called differently by different tribes: Dazhdbog, Yarilo, Khoros, which indicates the absence of stable Slavic inter-tribal unity.

Formation of the Old Russian State

The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large super-unions, revealing features of early statehood.

One of these associations was a union of tribes led by Kiy (known from the end of the 5th century). At the end of the VI-VII centuries. there was, according to Byzantine and Arab sources, a “Power of the Volynians”, which was an ally of Byzantium. Novgorod chronicle reports about the elder Gostomysl, who headed in the 9th century. Slavic unification around Novgorod. Eastern springs suggest the existence on the eve of the formation Old Russian state three large associations of Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Cuyaba (or Kuyava), apparently, was located around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen, its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania is determined differently by different researchers (Ryazan, Chernigov). The famous historian B. A. Rybakov claims that at the beginning of the 9th century. On the basis of the Polyansky Tribal Union, a large political association “Rus” was formed, which included some of the northerners.

Thus, the widespread spread of agriculture using iron tools, the collapse of the clan community and its transformation into a neighboring community, the growth in the number of cities, and the emergence of squads are evidence of the emerging statehood.

The Slavs developed the East European Plain, interacting with the local Baltic and Finno-Ugric populations. The military campaigns of the Antes, Sklavens, and Rus against more developed countries, primarily against Byzantium, brought significant military booty to the warriors and princes. All this contributed to the stratification of East Slavic society. Thus, as a result of economic and socio-political development, statehood began to emerge among the East Slavic tribes,

Norman theory

Russian chronicler beginning of XII c., trying to explain the origin of the Old Russian state, in accordance with medieval tradition, included in the chronicle a legend about the calling of three Varangians as princes - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired for service and swore an oath of allegiance to the ruler. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians to be a Russian tribe that lived on south coast Baltic Sea and on the island of Rügen.

According to this legend, on the eve of formation Kievan Rus northern tribes The Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, Vse) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (the Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians “expelled the Varangians overseas,” which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who gathered for the council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order - Author) in it. Come reign and rule over us.” Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik, as the chronicler believed, laid the foundation princely dynasty. After the death of Rurik, another Varangian prince, Oleg (there is information that he was a relative of Rurik), who ruled in Novgorod, united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882. This is how the state of Rus' (also called Kievan Rus by historians) was formed, according to the chronicler.

The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the emergence of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. It was first formulated by German scientists G.-F. Miller and G.-Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov was an ardent opponent of this theory.

The very fact that the Varangian squads, by which, as a rule, Scandinavians are understood, were in the service of the Slavic princes and their participation in the life of Rus' is beyond doubt, as are the constant mutual connections between the Scandinavians and Russia. However, there are no traces of any noticeable influence of the Varangians on the economic and socio-political institutions of the Slavs, as well as on their language and culture. In the Scandinavian sagas, Rus' is a country of untold riches, and service to Russian princes is the surest way to gain fame and power. Archaeologists note that the number of Varangians in Rus' was small. No data has been found on the colonization of Rus' by the Varangians. The version about the foreign origin of this or that dynasty is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Suffice it to recall the stories about the calling of the Anglo-Saxons by the Britons and the creation of the English state, about the founding of Rome by the brothers Romulus and Remus, etc.

IN modern era The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory, which explains the emergence of the Old Russian state as the result of foreign initiative, has been fully proven. However, her political meaning still poses a danger today. The “Normanists” proceed from the position of the supposedly primordial backwardness of the Russian people, who, in their opinion, are incapable of independent historical creativity. It is possible, as they believe, only under foreign leadership and according to foreign models.

Historians have convincing evidence that there is every reason to assert: the Eastern Slavs had strong traditions of statehood long before the calling of the Varangians. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The actions of individual major individuals, conquests or other external circumstances determine the specific manifestations of this process. Consequently, the fact of the calling of the Varangians, if it really took place, speaks not so much about the emergence of Russian statehood as about the origin of the princely dynasty. If Rurik was a real historical figure, then his calling to Rus' should be considered as a response to real need in the princely power of Russian society of that time. In historical literature, the question of Rurik’s place in our history remains controversial. Some historians share the opinion that the Russian dynasty is of Scandinavian origin, like the name “Rus” itself (“Russians” were the Finns’ name for the inhabitants of Northern Sweden). Their opponents are of the opinion that the legend about the calling of the Varangians is the fruit of tendentious writing, a later insertion caused by political reasons. There is also a point of view that the Varangians-Rus and Rurik were Slavs, descended either from south coast Baltic (Rügen Island), or from the Neman River area. It should be noted that the term “Rus” is repeatedly found in relation to various associations, both in the north and in the south of the East Slavic world.

The formation of the state of Rus' (the Old Russian state or, as it is called after the capital, Kievan Rus) is a natural completion long process the decomposition of the primitive communal system among one and a half dozen Slavic tribal unions that lived on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” The established state was at the very beginning of its journey: primitive communal traditions retained their place in all spheres of life of East Slavic society for a long time.

The settlement of the Slavs in Eastern Europe occurred in the VI-XI centuries as a result Great Migration- a grandiose migration movement that swept through the 1st millennium AD. European continent.

The basis of the economic life of the Slavs was agriculture. Those tribes that inhabited fertile forest-steppe areas practiced fallow (fallback) farming system: they burned the grass in a certain area, fertilized the soil with ash, and then used the land until it was completely depleted. In forest areas, the Slavs resorted to slash (slash-and-burn) a system in which large areas of forest had to be cut down and burned. A significant role among the activities of the Slavs was played by fur hunting, fishing, beekeeping(collecting honey from wild bees). The Slavs actively participated in the slave trade. The “goods” were usually prisoners of war.

In labor-intensive and low-productivity environments similar works vital role played peasant community (rope). The land was collectively owned by the entire community and was divided into plots that were transferred for the use of individual families.

All issues of managing society were concentrated in the hands evening(people's assembly), which was presided over by peacetime- elder, in the military - military leader.

The development of the East European Plain by the Slavs took place through infiltration– without bloody clashes with the Baltic (modern Latvians and Lithuanians) and Finno-Ugric (Sum, Perm, Karelians, Chud, Merya, etc.) tribes that inhabited it, while in the course of constant contacts a significant part local population became glorified. The relationship between the Slavs and their southern neighbors – pastoral peoples who roamed the steppes – was different.

The Turkic tribes were the first to appear in Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 6th century. Avars, who defeated the alliance of Antes in the Northern Black Sea region - agricultural Slavic tribes. At the very beginning of the 7th century. Avars (the Slavs called them Obra) entered into a war with Byzantine Empire and were completely destroyed. This saved the Slavs from their further raids and happened so unexpectedly that our ancestors had a saying “perished like an obry,” that is, suddenly.

Already by the time of the death of the Avars, new nomads appeared on the territory of the Northern Black Sea region, the Northern Caucasus and the Caspian steppes, as well as the Turks - Khazars. They created here a strong state, the Khazar Kaganate, with its capital in the city of Itil (later Sarkel). Most of the Khazars remained pagans, but the nobility adopted Judaism, which became the state religion. The Khazars regularly raided the lands of the Slavic tribes, many of whom (Polyans and Vyatichi, for example) were forced to pay them tribute.

The Slavs became another formidable neighbor in the second half of the 7th century. Volga Bulgaria(or Volga Bulgaria). It was located in the middle reaches of the Volga and on the lower Kama. The majority of the population is Turkic. The capital of the state is Bulgar (on the site of modern Kazan). State religion– Islam. The Bulgars created a complex and unique civilization that lasted until the 13th century.

In the north of Eastern Europe, indigenous peoples became neighbors of the Slavs, and in the northwest - Vikings ( Varangians) - mostly immigrants from Sweden. The latter attacked coastal settlements. Novgorod especially suffered from the Varangians (the first mention of it was in 853), whose residents paid them tribute. However, relations with the Vikings were ambiguous, since they were not so much enemies of the Slavs as profitable trading partners.

Tribes were formed from individual communities, which in the 7th – 8th centuries. united to jointly develop the territory and protect it from external enemies into tribal alliances. Vast lands in the north, around Lake Ilmen, were in the possession of the union Slovenian Ilmensky(Novgorod). Unions were located in the upper reaches of the Dnieper Dregovichi(between Pripyat and Western Dvina), Polotsk(Polotsk), Drevlyans(Iskorosten), Radimichi(Sozh River basin) and northerners; on the lands in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, where forests gradually gave way to forest-steppe, they lived clearing(Kyiv, founded around the 6th century by the semi-legendary Prince Kiy). Fertile lands along the Dniester were busy White Croats And Volynians, the streets And Tivertsy. In the interfluve Upper Volga and Oki, lived a few tribes Krivichi(Smolensk) and Vyatichi(modern Moscow and Tula regions).

Constant wars contributed to the growth of the influence of military leaders ( princes) and them squads. Thus, the creation of tribal unions creates the preconditions for the emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. in two centers at once - in Kyiv and Novgorod.

Kievan Rus

"The Tale of Bygone Years"(author - Nestor, 1113) contains a story about how the Slovenian Ilmenskys 862 They called on the Varangians to restore order on their land. Three brothers, Varangian princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, responded to this call, and came to Novgorod lands together with his tribe - Russia, which gave its name to the whole of Eastern Europe. From the eldest, Rurik, who “settled” in Novgorod, came the princely genus, who gradually united all Russian lands under his control and created a state centered in Kyiv. The Rurik dynasty ruled in Rus' until 1598.

The Norman theory was based on this chronicle information. Its authors were German historians of the 18th century. Bayer, Schlözer and Miller. They argued that state principles were introduced to the primitive Slavic tribes from the outside by the Normans (Vikings), and were purely artificial for them. The Norman theory was adhered to by many historians of the 18th-19th centuries, although even then it had many opponents. The first anti-Normanist was M.V. Lomonosov. Most modern scientists do not deny that the Normans played a significant role in the formation of the Russian state, but they are not inclined to exaggerate it. Rurik with his strong squad (the existence of Sineus and Truvor is denied by modern science) obviously only completed this long and complex process.

The first Kyiv princes

In 879, Rurik was replaced on the Novgorod throne by his “relative” Oleg ( Prophetic).

IN 882 Oleg made a campaign against Kyiv and killed the ruling princes Dir and Askold, most likely the descendants of Kiy, and then proclaimed himself the ruler of a single Kiev-Novgorod state - Rus'. Later, in the 19th century, it would receive the name Kievan Rus.

Oleg makes campaigns against Constantinople ( Constantinople), takes it by storm ( 907 g), and concludes a trade agreement beneficial for Rus' ( 911, allowed Kyiv merchants to create trading posts in Constantinople). This document is considered the oldest monument Slavic writing in Rus'.

In 912 Oleg handed over Kyiv throne son of Rurik Igor the Old. The new prince organized several campaigns against Byzantium (941-944), concluded a new treaty with Constantinople, and also made the first attempt to create a system government system Old Russian state.

Being an extremely primitive state in its structure, Kievan Rus was a conglomerate of conquered tribes, mostly Slavic. The power of the prince was exercised in two forms:

1. Systematic military campaigns to the outskirts of Rus' with the aim of re-conquering these areas.
2. Performed annually polyudye, i.e. bypassing all Slavic tribes in order to collect tribute.

Wanting to make the state more manageable, Igor allocates six appanages from it, which he distributes to his boyars in feeding, i.e. not as property, but with the right to collect tribute. This is how the first elements of government appeared in Rus'.

IN 945 Igor was killed by the Drevlyans while trying to collect tribute again. The chronicle preserved the words of the Drevlyans: “If a wolf gets into the habit of dragging a flock of sheep, he drags everyone around until they kill him.”

Four-year-old Svyatoslav Igorevich became the new Grand Duke under the regency of his mother, Princess Olga. Having brutally avenged the death of her husband on the Drevlyans (the Drevlyan ambassadors were killed, Iskorosten was burned), Olga carried out a reform of tribute collection (essentially a tax reform). She replaced Polyudye by cart. Now the prince did not travel around all the lands, but only collected the prepared tribute from specially designated places - churchyards. Were introduced lessons, i.e. fixed amount of tribute.

Around 957, Olga visited Constantinople and was baptized under the name Helen. By her order, the first wooden church was built in Kyiv.

From 964 Svyatoslav ruled independently. He showed no interest in the internal problems of Rus' and went down in history as a great East Slavic commander who spent his life in military campaigns ( "Alexander the Great of Eastern Europe"). IN Western Europe the prince was considered one of the models of chivalry, since he always warned his enemies about the start of a campaign against them: “I’m coming against you!” IN 964 – 965 And 966 – 967 gg. he conducted successful campaigns in Bulgaria and the Khazar Kaganate, which was completely destroyed. From 968 to 971 Svyatoslav wages wars in Bulgaria (on the Balkan Peninsula), first against the Bulgarians, and then against Byzantium. Having suffered defeat at Dorostol (971), in 972 Svyatoslav returns to Kyiv, but on the way he dies in a Pecheneg ambush.

From 972 to 980 is happening The first strife in Rus'- the struggle for power of the sons of Svyatoslav - Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir.

The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich

IN 980 Vladimir Svyatoslavich became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who carried out a number of transformations:

1. The Varangian mercenary squad was replaced by him with a Slavic one (apparently his brother Oleg was the first to do this).
2. Along the southeastern border of Rus', a system of defensive fortifications was created to protect against attacks by nomads, primarily the Pechenegs (the so-called “Bogatyr Outposts”).
3. In order to unite the state, Vladimir held religious reform. An attempt was made to create a single pantheon of pagan gods for all tribes, led by Perun. Vladimir himself appropriated the name of the sun god - Khorsa (hence his nickname “Red Sun”). Human sacrifice has been revived. Pogroms of the yards of the main competitors are carried out new faith- Christians. However, the Slavic tribes refused to accept the new pantheon, compiled on the basis of the Polan and North Germanic pantheons.
4. IN 988 (990), convinced of the failure of the previous reform, and also striving for rapprochement with the advanced countries of Europe, Vladimir Svyatoslavich introduced Christianity in Rus'. The baptism of Vladimir and his squad took place in the Byzantine fortress of Korsun (Sevastopol), which the Kiev prince took by storm. At baptism, Vladimir received the name Vasily.

The meaning of the baptism of Rus':

• There is a general humanization of the socio-political system of Rus'.
• Thanks to Christianization, the culture of Rus' came under strong Byzantine influence, which significantly enriched it (stone construction, church architecture, icon painting, etc.).
• Christianization contributed to the mass spread of literacy. The first schools in Rus' were founded by order of Vladimir for the children of the nobility (“deliberate children”) and trained priests.
• Rus' gets the opportunity to enter the club of European states as an equal member.
• Christianity contributed to the unity of the peoples of Rus', although not as much as expected.
• As a result of the baptism of Rus', there is a tendency towards the sacralization of state power (towards the recognition of its sacred nature).
• Thanks to baptism, some ordering of social life occurs.

Vladimir also organizes successful military campaigns against the Pechenegs, who suffered decisive defeats, and individual peoples of Rus' (primarily against the Vyatichi).

Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise

In 1015 Vladimir Svyatoslavich dies and begins Second strife in Rus'- the struggle for the Kiev throne of the adopted son of Vladimir Svyatopolk the Accursed (son of Yaropolk) and Prince of Novgorod Yaroslav Vladimirovich (Wise). In an effort to get rid of competitors, Svyatopolk killed the brothers Yaroslav - Boris and Gleb - who later became the first Russian saints.

IN 1019 Having won the victory, Yaroslav the Wise becomes the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Yaroslav finally put an end to the Pecheneg raids, but suffered serious defeats from Byzantium, and therefore did not go down in history as a great commander. The glory of the Grand Duke was brought to him by peaceful transformations.

1. In 1016, Yaroslav created the first written code of laws in Rus' - the Pravda of Yaroslav - the first part of the Russian Pravda. Main topic document - a blood feud on which restrictions are introduced. Initially, the effect of Yaroslav's Truth extended only to the Novgorod land.
2. Active stone construction is underway. The first stone church - church Holy Mother of God(Tithe) was built by Vladimir in 996. Now the Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov (1036), St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv (1037, based on the model Sophia of Constantinople) and Novgorod (1045 - 1050)
3. Public secular schools are opened at churches, including for girls. Literacy is becoming universal, as evidenced by numerous birch bark letters household maintenance, marks on handicraft products and marks on logs.
4. The international authority of Rus' is growing. This is facilitated by numerous dynastic marriages of Yaroslav's children with European kings and princesses (Anna Yaroslavna became Queen of France).
5. Under Yaroslav, the first monasteries appeared, the most famous - the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Its founders were Anthony and Hilarion (the future metropolitan).
6. Yaroslav Vladimirovich managed to remove the Russian church from the control of the Patriarch of Constantinople, having achieved the right to independently appoint a metropolitan from among the Russian clergy. Hilarion became the first Russian metropolitan around 1051. He is also known as the author of the first philosophical treatise in Rus' - “Tales about Law and Grace.” The main theme of the work is the substantiation of the spiritual superiority of Orthodoxy over Catholicism and the right of Rus' to a worthy place among European states due to its Christianization.
7. Yaroslav the Wise creates a system of feudal land tenure in Rus'. He carries out stripping, i.e. begins the transfer of land to the boyars on the basis of patrimonial rights (into hereditary possession). The boyars constitute the elite of the squad - the senior squad. Of these, an advisory body under the prince is formed - Boyar Duma. In addition to her, there is also a junior squad, consisting of youths and gridi. In your bets Grand Duke appoints managers - firemen.

The third strife in Rus'. Vladimir Monomakh

IN 1054 Mr. Yaroslav dies, bequeathing Kievan Rus before his death to his three sons - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Initially, the brothers ruled as a triumvirate (together, the three of them).

IN 1068 in the battle on the Alta River the army of the Yaroslavichs was defeated Polovtsians– nomadic tribes – new enemies of Rus'. At the head of the Polovtsian army was Khan Sharukhan. The people of Kiev, seeing the inability of the princes to organize the defense of the capital, demanded that Izyaslav (the Prince of Kyiv) distribute weapons to them. His refusal provoked popular uprising. Izyaslav was expelled from Kyiv, and Vseslav, an old enemy of the Yaroslavichs, sat on the throne.

In 1069, the Yaroslavichs returned the throne to Izyaslav.

IN 1072 the brothers created the second part of the code of laws - Russian Truth - Pravda Yaroslavich. Blood feud has been replaced by a fine for murder - Viroy. The size of the vira depended on the social status of the resident of Rus'. Thus, we obtain information about the social structure of Kievan Rus.

The main stratum of the population in Rus' is "People"- free community peasants.

Categories of the dependent population are presented stinkers(people dependent on the prince), and slaves(slaves). Slaves were divided into whitewash(full) and unwhitewashed. The obelnye had absolutely no rights, but it was from among them that officials were often appointed, in particular, tiuns (managers collecting tribute and conducting trade on behalf of princes or boyars) and klyuchniki (housekeepers). Among the non-white ones stand out procurement(debt slaves, “kupa” – debt) and ryadovichi(slaves under contract, “row” – contract). Slavery in Rus' was patriarchal in nature and had little in common with classical ancient slavery.

IN 1073 begins The third strife in Rus'- the struggle between the Yaroslavichs for power, which ultimately led to destruction single state. The throne is seized by Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, who ruled Kyiv until own death(1076). Izyaslav, with the help of Vsevolod, returns to Kyiv. The son of Svyatoslav Oleg acts against the Yaroslavichs in alliance with the Polovtsians.

1078 - battle on Nezhatina Niva between the Yaroslavichs and Oleg Svyatoslavich. The brothers won, but Izyaslav died.

1078 - 1093 - reign in Kyiv of Vsevolod Yaroslavich.

1093 - 1113 – the reign of Izyaslav’s son Svyatopolk, who, like his predecessors, receives power horizontally ( "ladder") system of succession to the throne, established after Yaroslav the Wise. Power is transferred not from father to son, but “to the eldest in the family” - the next oldest brother, and then the eldest of the nephews.

IN 1097 gg. On the initiative of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (grandson of Yaroslav the Wise), a congress of princes convened in Lyubech. Goals of the congress:

1. Stopping strife.
2. Organization of campaigns against the Steppe (against the Polovtsians).

The princes agreed on joint campaigns. They took place in 1103 - 1111. The campaign of 1111 was called the “Crusade against the Steppe.” The leader of the hikes is Vladimir Monomakh.

To stop the strife, the princes established a new principle for organizing power in Rus': “Everyone should keep his fatherland,” i.e. the princes were asked to rule their own estates without regard to Kyiv. This decision formally proclaimed feudal fragmentation, but did not help stop the strife. Svyatopolk Izyaslavich was actively involved in pitting the princes against each other.

IN 1113 Svyatopolk died and an uprising broke out in Kyiv against the moneylenders and salt speculators whom he supported. Only Vladimir Monomakh, who was invited to the throne, managed to calm the rebels.

Vladimir's events:

1. "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh" ( "Charter on cuts") – addition to Russian Pravda. Together with the Truth of Yaroslav and the Truth of the Yaroslavichs, which made up the first - Brief- edition of Russian Pravda, the Charter forms the second - Extensive. The “Charter” limited the arbitrariness of moneylenders. Purchases received permission to leave their owners to earn money.
2. Campaigns against the Polovtsians are organized. They are not destroyed, but are forced to enter into an alliance with the Russian princes.
3. A literary work was created - “Instructions for Children” - the first political treatise in Rus'.

The colossal authority of Vladimir Monomakh ( 1113 – 1125 gg.) and his son Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132) still allowed to maintain the integrity of Kievan Rus, but with 1132 feudal fragmentation begins.