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Federal State Budgetary Educational Institutionhigher professional education
"Russian State University physical culture, sports,youth and tourism (GTSOLIFK)"
Abstract work
on the topic of: " Human age morphology»
Completed:
Kostylenko Igor
Moscow 2016
Introduction
2. Biological age
Conclusion
Application
Introduction
IN last years interest in anthropology has noticeably increased: the achievements of human science are becoming, on the one hand, the subject of close attention from various industries science, and on the other hand, the general public. This phenomenon is quite natural: anthropological knowledge forms the necessary foundation for a modern specialist in any field of human activity, be it medicine, psychology, sports, pedagogy, ecology, economics, sociology, political science, etc. The range of issues studied by anthropology includes the following , as the history of the formation of the species Homo sapiens and its uniqueness, the relationship between the biological and the social in human evolution, the patterns and mechanisms of individual human development, the influence of heredity and the environment at different stages of human ontogenesis, the impact of environmental factors on morphofunctional characteristics on an individual and population levels and etc.
Anthropology is a special biological discipline that occupies a borderline position between natural and social sciences about a human. The subject of anthropology, according to domestic experts, is variations biological type man in time (evolution) and in space (race studies and morphology); In the above formulation, we see the difference between anthropology and other branches of biology and medicine, which study the fundamental structure of the human body (anatomy) and the peculiarities of the functioning of its organs (physiology). Against their background, anthropology appears as a dynamic biological science. A simple comparison of anthropological and biological-medical textbooks makes it possible to establish the difference in the interests of anthropologists and other human researchers: in the first case - a real man in his biological diversity, in the second - an abstract, “generalized” person.
Man is a biosocial being, therefore anthropology is distinguished from other sciences about man by close attention to the connection between his biological properties and various social factors. Thus, anthropology differs significantly from the socio-historical sciences about man - archeology and ethnography, although it is closely related to them and relies on their data, in particular, in the study of the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the world.
The main branches of anthropology are anthropogenesis, ethnic anthropology (race studies), human morphology. Anthropogenetic studies create a picture of the evolution of the biological nature of higher anthropomorphic primates, which are the closest predecessors of humans, as well as the actual representatives of the hominid family (fossils and modern humans) during the end of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods.
Auxology is a branch of age-related anthropology that studies the patterns of growth and development in normal conditions and in various pathological conditions, and is called “human auxology.” The term “auxology” itself (from the Greek. auxano -- grow) refers to the study of biological growth and is used in other biological disciplines to characterize various aspects of the growth process. For example, in botany the term “auxins” is widely used to refer to hormones that stimulate plant growth.
Human auxology as an independent scientific discipline within the framework of biological anthropology (human biology) was formed in the second half of the 20th century, although the history of growth research goes back more than two centuries. The term “auxology” in relation to the study of growth processes in humans was first proposed in 1919 by the famous French growth researcher Paul Godin, but came into scientific use only in the 70s, after the founding of the International Association of Human Auxologists and the 1st International Auxological Congress (1977). Much credit for the new scientific discipline gaining independent status belongs to the outstanding British physiologist, anthropologist and auxologist J.M. Tanner.
Auxology includes three most significant aspects of research: 1) study of the patterns of the growth process, with the involvement of mathematical description and modeling; 2) monitoring of individual growth in connection with practical tasks of medicine (detection and treatment of growth disorders, etc.); 3) population aspects (epidemiological, environmental, epochal, etc.) - growth as a reflection of the living conditions of a particular human population. It combines the results of extensive measurement programs, experimental studies, and hypotheses and models to better understand and explain growth processes.
1. Methods for studying human post-natal growth
The main method for studying postnatal somatic growth remains anthropometric(from the Greek “anthropos” - man, “met-ros” - measurements), which makes it possible to study changes in body size with age. There are two main “tactical” techniques in the study of growth processes. These are already mentioned "transverse" And “longitudinal” (longitudinal) research.
In a cross-sectional study, a cross-section of a population is taken (hence the name) when measuring big number children of different ages, but each individual is included in the total sample only once.
In a longitudinal study, the same children are measured sequentially at each age at various, usually regular intervals, over a certain period of time - depending on the strategy of the research project.
Both methods are widely used in auxology. The results of cross-sectional studies are used mainly to compile population growth standards, in comparative studies comparing the nature of growth depending on the influence of certain environmental factors. On the other hand, information about true growth rates can only be obtained by analyzing longitudinal surveys.
The choice of examination method depends entirely on the task at hand: in order to characterize the status physical development For a growing portion of a population, a well-conducted cross-sectional survey will suffice. If the purpose of the study is to monitor certain growth patterns, for example, manifestations seasonal changes etc., the ideal method would be a longitudinal survey.
First of all, we note that the number of measurements carried out on a living person can be almost infinite, so the choice of a specific measurement program always depends on the objectives of the study and the capabilities of the research group. Most widespread measuring total dimensions - body length and weight. The length of the body, as well as its proportions (length of the body, length of the limbs, their segments, etc.) are measured, as a rule, with an anthropometer (Fig. 1). In this case, the position in which the person being measured must be carefully observed: straight, but without much tension, feet touching the heels if possible (the exception is individuals with a pronounced X-shaped legs), the distance between the toes is 10-15 cm, the back is straightened ; the chest protrudes slightly forward; belly tucked; arms are straightened; fingers pressed to the body; the shoulders are in a natural position - they should not be excessively lowered or raised, extended forward or pulled back; the head is oriented so that the orbital-auricular horizontal line (the line passing through the tragus of the ear and the outer edge of the orbit) is parallel to the floor. The person being measured, stripped down to his underpants, must stand still and not change his position during the entire measurement process. It is also necessary to take into account daily changes in body length: due to the flattening of the intervertebral discs, it can decrease in the evening.
The next group of measurement characteristics based on skeletal dimensions is: body diameters: shoulders, pelvis, transverse and longitudinal diameters of the chest. They are measured with a special tool - a large thick compass. Often, to account for the growth of the bone component, the diameters of the articular condyles - elbow, wrist, knee and ankle - are also measured using a sliding compass.
Information about the development of soft tissues, primarily muscles, can be obtained by measuring circles, or girths, chest, shoulder, forearm, thigh, lower leg, etc. Measurements are made with a measuring tape and also require special care and clear standardization.
Fat folds on the torso and limbs are measured with a caliper that provides standard pressure on soft tissues. By size
not fat folds and body circumferences, the fat and muscle components of the body are calculated.
Summarizing the above, it should be noted that the length and weight of the body provide information about the growth of the child as a whole, and the remaining dimensions provide information about the height individual parts and body tissues. Bone diameters describe the overall dimensions of the skeleton, limb girths give an idea of the development of muscle tissue, fat folds give an idea of the amount and distribution of subcutaneous fat. Children who have the same body length and even weight can vary greatly in proportions, body shape and soft tissue development.
Measuring characteristics serve as the basis for the calculation and calculation of a number of derived characteristics, as well as size ratios - indices. Although there is great amount various indices*, we will mention here only one of them: body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index. This is one of the many weight-height indices, calculated using the formula P/L2, Where R -- body weight, L -- body length. IN last decade this index has become widespread in growth studies and is included in all textbooks on auxology, published mainly in the West.
2. Biological age
The described patterns of postnatal growth and maturation are characteristic of all people without exception, although there is significant individual (and population) variability regarding the time of passage of certain stages, rates of growth and maturation, as well as the timing of achievement and magnitude of definitive sizes. It is well known that in any group of children of the same passport (chronological) age there are those who seem much older, and vice versa.
Chronological age does not allow us to assess differences between children in terms of the stage of maturity they have reached. Simple measurements of body length and weight seem quite useless in this regard. To assess differences in the rate of maturation of children, there are various criteria for “biological age”. In general, the concept of “biological age” can be successfully used throughout human ontogenesis, and not just the period associated with growth and development. skeletal age hereditary height
“Biological age” can be defined as the degree of compliance (discrepancy) of the morphofunctional status of a given individual with a certain average level of development in a particular “reference” group (age-sex, ethno-territorial, etc.). Thus, biological age provides an estimate of an individual's age status. In principle, such an assessment can be made using almost any body system, since they are all characterized by certain changes throughout postnatal ontogenesis. However, experts do not use all of them. There are clear criteria for assessing biological age, which allow its comparison at a variety of levels.
The characteristics used to estimate biological age must satisfy a number of requirements. First of all, they must reflect clear age-related changes that can be described or measured. The method for assessing these changes should not harm the health of the subject and cause him discomfort. Finally, it must be suitable for screening large numbers of individuals (Borkan, 1986).
In auxology, various systems for assessing biological age are used that satisfy the listed requirements. These are the so-called bone age, dental age, sexual development, general morphological development, physiological maturity, mental and mental development and some others.
Bone age serves good indicator biological age for all periods of ontogenesis, from uterine to aging. During the growth process, bones undergo a number of characteristic changes that can be recorded on radiographs. The main indicators of age differentiation are ossification nuclei and the formation of synostoses.
The radiographic method makes it possible to determine at what stage in relation to the definitive (adult) state the child is based on one or another characteristic. The hand is usually chosen to determine skeletal maturity because it contains a large number of ossification centers. The method gives accurate indicators, and nothing threatens the child’s health, since the dosage x-rays is taken to be minimal: it approximately corresponds to the dose of natural radiation received by a person, for example, during a week’s stay in the mountains. To assess bone age, the time and sequence of appearance of foci of ossification are determined, as well as the degree of development and timing of the formation of synostoses using atlases of evaluation radiographs, standardized according to age.
Although, due to their convenience, atlases are still widely used in research on the physical development of children and adolescents, they contain a number of fundamental methodological shortcomings that limit their use. In addition to the fact that there is significant variation between children from different socioeconomic and racial groups, there is also significant genetic determination in the order in which ossification centers appear. Therefore, the failure of one or another ossification center to appear at the “right” (“standard”) time does not necessarily mean a lag in bone age, and the final assessment should take into account All without exception bones. The second significant drawback is that the series of radiographs in the atlas are organized by annual intervals, although the concept of a “skeletal year” is fundamentally different from a chronological year.
The relationship between puberty and physical and somatic maturity has traditionally been the subject of much research.
Be that as it may, there is no doubt that the puberty of girls is associated with the achievement of a certain physical status. Proof of this can be cases of absence of menstruation (primary or secondary amenorrhea) during heavy physical exertion, weight loss, fasting, and the “anorexia nervosa” syndrome, which is often found in modern developed countries, when not only women, but also girls deliberately refuse food for fear of losing figure. An undoubted physical sign associated with the onset of puberty in girls is an increase in the size of the pelvis. Changing the ratio of the large and small pelvis in women in order to expand the birth canal is one of the last elements of bone maturation before a complete stop in skeletal growth.
In boys, as already noted, the onset of puberty is in no way connected with the parameters of physical maturity. On the contrary, the growth of physical parameters and muscle strength occurs after they reach sexual maturity, which may be associated with various selective mechanisms that determined the development of the sexes in anthroposociogenesis.
When assessing biological age, it is also of interest to see the relationship between various indicators of maturation and the problems faced by early and late maturing children.
Characterizing intragroup variability, approximately six types of growth and skeletal maturation can be distinguished (Sinclair, 1989):
1) children of the “average” type;
2) tall children due to early maturation - “accelerated”, who will not necessarily become tall adults;
3) children not only mature early, but also have the genetic prerequisites for tallness: they are distinguished by their large body length throughout childhood and adolescence and remain tall as adults;
4) in contrast to children of the 2nd group, they mature late and are stunted in growth, but later they level off and reach an average body length by adulthood;
5) in contrast to the 3rd group, this includes those who mature slowly and have genetically low growth potential;
6) children who, for one reason or another, enter puberty either earlier or later than usual.
Both late and early maturing children face a number of problems. Late-maturing boys are inferior to their accelerated peers in strength, agility and other parameters related to physical strength. It is these latter, with rare exceptions, who are recognized leaders in children's groups. Late-maturing girls lag behind their friends in the development of secondary sexual characteristics and often also feel like “outcasts” in a group of peers with higher physical and psychosexual development.
3. The role of hereditary and environmental factors in the control of growth
The processes of growth, development and formation of the body occupy a significant part of human ontogenesis. Knowledge of the details of the normal course of these processes, their possible disruptions under the influence of various factors, as well as epochal trends in the process of evolution depends on how healthy and active future generations will become.
It is obvious that growth is caused by the interaction of genetic (hereditary, internal, endogenous) and environmental (external, exogenous) factors, and at each stage of ontogenesis its implementation is the result of a probabilistic process and significantly depends on the influence of environmental conditions. Environmental (exogenous) factors include environmental - biogeographical (climate, seasonality, etc.), socio-economic (education and profession of parents, income and socio-economic status of the family, living conditions, etc.), psychological (for example, psychological climate in family, children's team, among neighbors), anthropogenic (urbanization, industrialization, industrial pollution, noise, etc.). Factors influencing growth and development are general view are shown in Fig. 6
Environmental factors The study of the influence of environmental factors on the human body is nowadays, in addition to academic interest, a purely practical task related to the survival of humans as a biological species.
The term "environment" is used to refer to the physical (biogeographic), social, cultural and economic conditions of life. Let's look at some of them that have the greatest impact on growth and development.
Biographical factors
This group of factors includes such characteristics as the chemical composition of water and soil, temperature, humidity, the amount of oxygen in the inhaled air, insolation, etc.
In a more or less “pure form,” the influence of climatic and geographical factors can be traced in the example of populations living in extreme conditions, such as the tropics or highlands, with their rarefied atmosphere.
At high altitudes, not only linear growth slows down, but also the processes of puberty.
Socio-economic factors.
There is a serious anthropological tradition of studying the influence of social factors on various biological parameters, primarily related to the processes of growth and development, since they serve as a kind of indicator, a “mirror” of processes occurring in society.
As already mentioned, differences between children belonging to different social strata were first noted in the 18th century. In the 19th century similar facts were revealed in other countries, for example, in Italy, the USA, Russia, where it was noted that the body length of children whose parents are engaged in physical labor is lower than that of their peers from families of a higher social level.
For residents of almost all countries of the world, the following pattern has been identified: children from wealthier families are taller and heavier than children from low-income families, but the scale of the differences varies greatly and depends on the choice of criteria used as the basis social stratification, and on the actual living conditions in the populations under consideration.
Urbanization and growth.
Research in recent years irrefutably indicates the existence of a connection between socio-economic factors and the somatic development of the younger generation. This is also confirmed by morphological differences between children living in cities and rural areas. Urbanization is one of the most powerful processes experienced by modern humanity. Here are some numbers: over two centuries, the urban population of the Earth has increased 128 times, compared to 6 times natural increase for this period. The urban population is formed under the influence of various genetic and environmental factors, the latter being mainly anthropogenic in nature. The complex of conditions characteristic of a modern city forms an ecosystem, specific features which are characterized by the influence various influences as positive (social and hygienic conditions, health care etc.) and negative (environmental pollution, psycho-emotional stress etc.).
Nutrition.
Adequate intake of nutrients -- necessary condition to implement a program of normal growth and growth potentials.
Nutrition also greatly influences the speed of maturation. With malnutrition, not only growth is stunted, but also the rate of development slows down.
A decrease in physical activity, or physical inactivity, is considered as one of the factors for increasing body size in urban children and increasing fat deposition. This is also one of the accelerating factors influencing the direction of the secular trend. On the other hand, there is a large number of studies indicating a slowdown in growth and puberty with regular excessive physical activity, sports training, etc.
Acceleration, or secular trend The problem of acceleration, or secular trend, is closely related to the environmental factors discussed in the previous chapter that influence growth and development.
Acceleration refers to the acceleration of somatic development and physiological maturation of children and adolescents relative to similar indicators in previous generations. However, since the same term is often used to characterize intragroup stratification according to the pace of development within a particular child population (for example, “accelerated” or “retarded” children, i.e. those whose biological age is ahead of their passport age and vice versa.
The largest number of studies are devoted to acceleration processes in children and adolescents of school age. An increase in body size and shifts in the level of age-related development were also noted for them. On average for the period from the 40s to the 80s. The body length of adolescents 13-15 years old, both in our country and abroad, increased by an average of 2.7 cm, and body weight by 2.3 kg for each decade. The acceleration process took place especially intensively from the late 50s to the mid-70s.
A pronounced tendency to increase growth is accompanied by some asthenia, when indicators of body strength, such as chest girth, even decrease somewhat compared to previous decades. The growth of the body in length outpaces the growth of transverse dimensions and the increase in body weight.
The increase in muscle strength in the past went parallel to the acceleration of growth in body length and weight. In recent years, there has been a decrease in dynamometry indicators (Fig. 7). Suffice it to mention that the GTO school norms that existed a couple of decades ago seem completely insurmountable for modern children. In the population of Moscow schoolchildren, the frequency of occurrence of the muscular type of constitution has sharply decreased. The reason for these changes, in addition to physical inactivity and lack of training, may be a change in value orientations - at least, this is the conclusion that scientists from one of the Japanese universities came to.
Conclusion
From all of the above, we can conclude that anthropology plays a huge role in human life, controlling the entire ontogenesis. In children's and youth sports, it helps to monitor the development of the body, taking into account all factors.
Application
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In a broad sense - the doctrine of structure human body in connection with its development and life activity; includes human anatomy, embryology and histology. 2) In a narrow sense, a branch of anthropology that studies variations in gender, age, ethnoterritorial, constitutional, professional and other characteristics of the human body, as well as its individual parts and organs. Methods of morphological research are used in ethnic anthropology and in the study of Anthropogenesis. Without morphological data, it is impossible, for example, to correctly determine the degree of similarity and difference between human races, to understand the history of their formation, and it is impossible to assess the relationship between modern man and his fossil ancestors. M. h. is usually divided into two subsections: merology, or anatomical anthropology, which studies the variations and connections of individual organs and tissues, and somatology, which studies the variability and dependencies of the structural characteristics of the entire body of a living person. In merology, the integument of the human body, external parts of the sense organs, viscera, teeth, blood vessels, muscles, skeleton and skull, and brain are usually considered. The subject of somatology is the analysis of total body dimensions (length and weight of the body, chest circumference, surface and volume of the body) and their relationships, body proportions, external forms of its individual parts, sexual characteristics, some blood characteristics, constitutional features, etc. In the 1960-1970s. great development received age-related M. h., especially in connection with the problem of acceleration (See Acceleration). Introduction into the practice of morphological research of methods of physical and chemical analysis allows you to obtain data on body composition, i.e. about the tissue components that make up the body of a living person. The connections between morphological characteristics and biochemical, physiological, endocrinological characteristics, the genetics of morphological characteristics, and the influence of environmental factors on the human morphotype are also studied. These morphologies are widely used in anthropological standardization and ergonomics, for example, in the construction of size standards for maximum satisfaction of the population with consumer goods, as well as for the rational design of the workplace, etc.
Every living form, as we said, is an expression of an idea. Smooth round shapes express that the creature to which they belong must move slowly; muscular and very bony forms inspire the idea of strength and power.
Every physical quality expressed through form corresponds to at least one mental inclination, which introduces its own characteristics into the nature of a living being.
For example, a severe form means slowness of movement, but at the same time a meek disposition. You can't be excitable and fast if you don't have agility. An experienced observer will see speed and innate timidity in the impetuous form of the chamois.
He who can move easily and quickly finds his salvation in flight, especially since the tenderness of his body does not allow him to have any other means of defense. If you look at the massive forms of the sea crayfish and its highly developed attack weapons, you can easily conclude that we have before us a creature that pays serious attention to defense. Fabulists read greatness in the imposing figure of a lion, cunning in the elongated shape of a fox.
IN clean lines a trained athlete reads physical strength, and since energy is needed to maintain muscle strength, moral strength can also be read in them.
In the wavy and careless lines of lymphatic types one can read not only slow digestion and slow metabolism of vital substances, but also mental relaxation, carelessness, a tendency to passive daydreaming and the need for large quantities sleep.
The big belly and wide lower part of the butcher's face reveal not only his love for meat food, his large liver and good digestion, a tendency to gluttony, but also the predominance of the sexual instinct in him.
He who saw the pampered appearance of the Persians who invaded Ancient Greece, would have predicted the result of their battle at Thermopylae under the pressure of 300 Spartans of King Leonidas, men with strong muscles and sun-scorched faces.
Bodily forms are so connected with the general physical and mental health, that everything that affects the body concerns both its vitality and spiritual harmony.
When the form of a living being is normal, it is endowed with innate, soulful qualities, and has all the advantages that nature has endowed it with. If some changes in life modify this form, then in parallel with morphological changes, changes occur in the health and abilities of this living creature.
An intense “sport” that one is forced to engage in wild animals to find food or avoid their enemies, brilliantly maintains their physical shape and maintains an active and alert disposition.
Home life, on the contrary, worsens the shape of animals, suppresses their resistance to disease, and also changes their character. Ruminants are efficient couch potatoes; their forms are often hypertrophied. They are lazy and prone to tuberculosis. The wild horse in the steppes has a magnificent form and an indomitably violent temperament. Compare it with the pathetic lethargy of some “Rossinante” who pulls a cart or phaeton and is disfigured by 20 years of life in a stable.
“Wild animals placed in cages undergo such degeneration as a result of an involuntary sedentary lifestyle that their life is almost halved. They quickly fall into an inert state, from which they emerge only to fall into another state of feverish excitement, accompanied by violent trembling" (Dr. Gaston Durville. "La Cure Naturiste").
Give back freedom to the poor gouty dog, which our elegant ladies keep in a closed, warm room, and you will see how the natural refinement of its legs and the normally elongated line of its belly returns, how it again acquires a lively look and natural cheerfulness and courage.
Gouty nodes and accumulations of fat mean for a person not only the inability to move, but they mean, for those who can read these signs, the inability to think straight.
Only movements consistent with the purpose of a living being are able to preserve natural shape bodies. Nutrition also plays a primary role. And truly, as soon as a creature deviates from the laws of its nutrition, it harms both its health and its form. By eating more than necessary for fear of weakening, by consuming very concentrated foods (meat, alcoholic drinks, sugar) under the pretext that they better support the body, a person violates not only his gastro-hepato-intestinal functions, that is, the functions of the stomach, liver and intestines, but also its natural beauty and optimism.
Have you noticed the physical form of chronic neurasthenics? Not only do they have poor digestion, but they are also degenerate in form. Their shoulders are dropped down and poorly attached to the chest, the stomach is not surrounded by that natural belt of muscles that preserves it and maintains elasticity.
Completeness often masks the degeneration of form, but do not think that a prophetic physiognomist can be deceived by this. A loose contour of fullness does not prevent the trained eye from seeing bad musculature underneath. Convex muscles, demarcated by beautiful grooves, look completely different from flabby layers of fat.
What are the main anatomical elements that make up the natural shape of the spine? This is known: the skeleton and the muscles that cover it. If we exclude animals from northern countries and animals that hibernate in winter, normally developed vertebrates usually have little fat. A small amount of adipose tissue is found only in the intermuscular grooves. The normal lines of the human body are formed by the skin covering the musculoskeletal substrate.
A normal human being has well-developed muscles. He has a very a small amount of adipose tissue. Our statement is so true that it would be possible only by reviving the form to restore health to the body and balance to the spirit.
How many discouraged people, having undergone our nature-based treatment method, could regain their mental strength and restore the normal shape of their body by following a healthy naturopathy regimen.
A muscle is not only a tool for an animal, it is also one of the health workers. Without muscles there is no sustainable health, no true beauty, no true happiness.
“For more than a thousand years, Greece was able to maintain its supremacy in the world thanks to its brilliant understanding of how to educate a person. Gladiator, discus thrower, i.e. The discus thrower, admirable in its robust strength and optimism, were the ideals of beauty.
It's a pity that correct understanding beauty was replaced by another understanding, which assumed as a model the dead, crucified, self-denying Christ, a symbol of passive contemplation and alienation from life. If church Christianity had borrowed from paganism not only its altars, but also its love of beauty, the Middle Ages would have been a bright era.
There is a parallel between the strength of a muscle and the beauty of its line, because nature is essentially logical. Beauty and health (in body and in spirit) are two sides of the same coin; more precisely, beauty is the outer side of the coin, and health is its inner content.” (Dr. Gaston D'Urville. "Naturology Course")
The main morphological features that underlie the determination of the external shape of the human body include: total, or general dimensions, proportions, physique and posture.
Any morphological feature of the body is characterized by variability. Form, degree of expression and direction of variability in different signs are different and are determined by the influence of factors such as age, gender, social environment, features of the biochemical activity of the body.
Important is given to the study of human physical development, i.e. the process of changing the size, shape of the body and functions of the human body throughout his life. Physical development goes through a number of successive periods and depends on the age of the person. During the formation of the body, an increase in all signs of physical development is observed. The period of maturity is characterized by stabilization of most morphological characteristics. With the onset of aging, a number of signs regress (decreases).
In the current century, there has been an acceleration in the rate of physical development of children and adolescents - acceleration. It is manifested, in particular, in the fact that, compared with the average values of the last century, a modern newborn has a greater weight and body length, it is noted big sizes children and adolescents of all ages, as well as adults, earlier puberty, earlier growth stabilization, later aging and long duration life.
I. Total (general) morphological characteristics. Total characteristics include the largest dimensional characteristics of the body, which are the most important signs of physical development; body length (height) and chest perimeter (girth), as well as weight.
Body length. In newborns, it is on average 50.5-51.5 cm. In the first years of life, children grow rapidly. The greatest increase in body length in children (equal to an average of about 25 cm) is observed in the first year of life. Then the growth rate gradually slows down, increasing again in girls in the period of 10-12 years, and in boys - 13-14 years.
The body of girls reaches its final length on average at 17-18, and for boys - at 18-20 years. Until the age of 45-50, a person experiences a period of stable body length. In people older than this age, there is a gradual decrease in body length, which is explained by the flattening of the intervertebral cartilaginous discs due to loss of firmness and elasticity, as well as increased curvature of the spine (stooping). In adult women, the average body length is 11-12 cm less than in men. It is believed that body length for all humanity is on average 165 cm for men and 154 cm for women. In CMEA member countries average length body is 170 cm for men and 158 cm for women. Small values of average height for men are considered to be values below 160 cm, large - above 170 cm.
Thus, the peoples of the Far North and Southeast Asia (Vietnamese, Japanese, some peoples of India and Indochina) have a small average body length, the peoples of Northern Europe and Scandinavia (Scots, Norwegians, Swedes), the Balkan Peninsula (Yugoslavs, Albanians, Greeks) have a large average body length. ), peoples of North America (non-indigenous people). The greatest average body length is observed among tribes living in South East Africa(182 cm).
Perimeter (circumference) of the chest. Chest circumference at the end of the first year of life is on average 49 cm in boys and 48 cm in girls. The increase in chest girth occurs unevenly over the years: the maximum increase in chest girth (5-6 cm) is achieved in girls aged 11-12 years, in boys - 13-14 years. By the age of 15-16 years, the average perimeter of the chest in boys is larger than in girls. The increase in chest girth in girls ends at 16-17 years, in boys - by 17-20 years. Stability of chest girth in adults is not observed, since with age there is usually an intensive increase in chest girth due to an increase in the subcutaneous fat layer.
Body mass. The average body weight of a newborn boy is 3.5 kg, and that of a girl is 3.4 kg. Throughout the entire growth period, body weight continuously increases: in women up to approximately 20 years, in men - up to 25, but unevenly over the years. The age of 25-40 years corresponds to a period of relative stability of body weight. After 40 years, there is an increase in weight by an average of 1-1.5 kg per five years due to the strengthening of the fat layer.
The average adult body weight in the world for men is 64 kg, for women - 56 kg.
II. Body proportions. The proportions of the human body are the ratios of the sizes of its individual parts (meaning the so-called projection dimensions of the body). Proportions vary depending on age, gender; they vary among people even within the same age and sex group.
V.V. Bunak identifies three main types of body proportions, which are quite common among both men and women (Figure 3.14):
1. Dolichomorphic - with relatively long limbs and a narrow short body;
2. Brachymorphic - with relatively short limbs and a long, wide body;
3. Mesomorphic (middle) - occupies intermediate position between dolichomorphic and brachymorphic types.
Figure 3.14. Types of proportions of the adult population.
The difference in height between people mainly depends on the length of the lower limbs. Therefore, the dolichomorphic type is more typical for people tall, brachymorphic - low.
The proportions of the human body change significantly depending on age (Figure 3.15.).
Figure 3.15. Changes in the proportions of the human body from birth to adulthood: a – newborn, b – 2 years, c – 6 years, d – 12 years, e – 25 years.
The changes are mainly due to a decrease relative sizes head and torso and increase in the relative length of the limbs. Changes in the proportions of individual sizes of children in the process of growth occur unevenly over the years. Therefore, clothing for children in size can neither be a smaller copy of clothing for adults, nor identical in proportions for children of different ages.
III. Body type.
Concept of constitution and physique.
The concept of constitution is based on the relationship between body shape, body functions and higher nervous activity.
The physique is characterized by a complex of only structural signs of the body and only partially functional ones.
The main features that determine physique. Physique is determined by a combination of a number of characteristics and, above all, the degree of development of muscles and fat deposits.
The different degrees of development of these signs are due to biochemical features the body, and first of all, metabolism - metabolism, as well as hereditary factors and the influence of the external environment.
The category of features that determine physique in morphology also includes the shape of the chest and chest area, the shape of the abdomen and back. The following variants of these signs are distinguished.
Degree of muscle development. The degree of muscle development in anthropology and medicine is determined in five areas: the shoulder girdle, chest, back, arm and leg. For each of these areas, five degrees of muscle development are distinguished: weak, medium, strong and two intermediate types (medium weak, medium strong).
Degree of development of fat deposits. The development of subcutaneous fatty tissue is characterized by the size of seven fat folds: on the inside of the shoulder and forearm, on the thigh, lower leg, under the shoulder blade, on the chest (at the level of the tenth rib), on the abdomen (at the level of the umbilical point). The degree of development of fat deposits can be weak, medium and abundant.
Weak fat deposition is considered to be such that the relief of the bones of the shoulder girdle (shoulder blades, collarbones), as well as the relief of the joints of the wrist, knee, and foot are clearly visible under the skin.
With average fat deposition, the bone relief is not clearly expressed.
Abundant fat deposition is characterized by smoothed bone relief in the shoulder girdle and joints of the limbs and roundness of all body contours.
The thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer in women is twice as large as in men, and averages -24 mm in women and -12 mm in men. The development and distribution of fat deposits depends on a person’s age, gender, and lifestyle.
The average amount of body fat in adults ranges from within wide limits: from 3-4 kg to 27-29 kg. In women, the subcutaneous fat layer is located mainly in the breast area, in the upper thighs, on the buttocks and in the shoulder area. In men, a typical place for fat deposition is the upper anterior abdominal wall. When designing, one cannot but take into account changes in the shape of the figure caused by excessive fat deposition.
Variability in fat deposits and muscles entails changes in other body features: the shape of the chest and abdominal area, torso, and back. Thus, with an increase in the degree of fat deposition, the thoracic region acquires a cone-shaped shape, the abdominal region is rounded and takes on a rounded-convex shape. With a decrease in the degree of development of muscles and fat deposits, the thoracic region becomes flattened, and the abdominal region takes on a sunken shape.
Shape of the chest area. The shape of the thoracic region is determined mainly by the shape of the rib cage. There are flat, cylindrical and conical shapes of the chest . The flat chest is elongated in the longitudinal direction, compressed from the sides and in the sagittal direction, the ribs are strongly lowered, the substernal angle is acute. The cylindrical chest has the shape of a cylinder with a moderate slope of the ribs, the substernal angle is close to straight. The conical chest has the shape of a truncated cone with the base at the bottom and the apex at the top, the slope of the ribs is moderate, the substernal angle is greater than the right angle.
Belly shape. There are three types of belly : sunken, straight and rounded-convex.
Back shape. The shape of the back can be normal (with moderate curves of all parts of the spine), stooped (with increased thoracic kyphosis) and straight (with smoothed curves of all parts of the spine).
All of the listed signs of physique are determined visually (by eye). Various combinations These characteristics form the different external shape of the human body. Accordingly, different body types are distinguished.
Body types. Various body type schemes have been developed. Some of them are applicable to the body shape of men, others - women, and others - children.
Men's body types. V.V. Bunak identifies seven body types for men, three of which are considered the main ones - chest, muscular and abdominal.
Chest type(Fig. 3.16, a) is characterized by weak fat deposition and muscles, a flat chest, a sunken stomach and a stooped back.
Figure 3.16. Body types of men (according to V.V. Bunak).
Muscular type(Fig. 3. 16.6) is distinguished by moderate fat deposition, medium or strong muscles, a cylindrical chest, a normal or straight back.
Abdominal type(Fig. 3.16, c) is characterized by abundant fat deposits, medium or weak muscles, a conical chest, a rounded-convex abdomen, a stooped or normal back.
The body types of men, according to V.V. Bunak’s scheme, can be represented using examples of the physique of athletes. The most typical body types for athletes of some sports: basketball players - pectoral and pectoral-muscular, gymnasts - muscular and muscular-thoracic, heavy weight lifters - abdominal, abdominal-muscular and muscular-abdominal types.
However, athletes have combinations individual signs physiques often go beyond the specified scheme. For example, you can find a flat chest and a stooped back combined with strong muscles or a conical chest with well-developed muscles without any signs of the abdominal type.
Women's body types. Women's body plans are less developed than men's. Some researchers build diagrams of women's body types only on the basis of characteristics of the degree of development and distribution of fat deposits in individual areas of the body, without taking into account the variability of other body features.
This is, for example, the scheme of body types proposed by the Yugoslav researcher B. Shkerli.
B. Shkerli identifies three main and one additional body type groups (Fig. 3.17):
/ group- with an even distribution of fat deposits throughout the body. The degree of fat deposition can be weak, medium and abundant.
Accordingly, there are three body types (options): L- leptosomal (from the gr. leptos - thin), N - normal, R- Rubensian;
// group- with uneven distribution of fat deposits. It includes two types: S - upper (from Latin superior - upper), characterized by increased
Figure 3.17. Women's body types according to Shkerli.
fat deposition in the upper part of the body (above the waist), and / - lower (from the Latin inferior - lower), characterized by increased fat deposition in the lower part of the body.
/// group- also with not uniform distribution fat deposits mainly on the torso or limbs. With increased fat deposition on the body, a type is distinguished Tg(from Latin trunsus - torso), with increased fat deposition on the extremities - type Ex(from Latin extremitas - limb).
IV group(additional) - additional body types with increased fat deposition in certain areas of the body, for example on the chest - type M(from Lat. mamma - female breast), on the hips, in the area of the so-called trochanters - type T(from Latin trochanter - skewer).
IV. Posture.
In life, there are people who have different individual body configurations, i.e. different posture. With any posture, the human body is in balance, which is achieved through the adaptation of its various parts. Each posture is characterized by a certain shape of the spine and torso, the position of the head and lower extremities. The main factor determining the type of posture is the shape of the torso, and primarily the shape of the spine. Based on this, the type of posture is usually determined by the shape of its sagittal bends.
In relation to the purposes of clothing design, the main features of posture also include the shape of the dorsal and front contours of the body, and as additional features, the features that determine the inclination of the shoulder slopes, the position and shape of the arms. Shoulder height, although not a characteristic of posture in the generally accepted sense, serves important parameter, which determines the shape of the upper supporting surface of the human body and the lateral balance of the clothing structure. The shape and position in space of the arms have a significant impact on the design of the sleeve and the nature of its connection with the armhole.
Due to the variety of conditions affecting the individual configuration of the human body, posture has a large variation (variability). A number of works carried out in theoretical and applied anthropology (including those related to clothing production) are devoted to the study of variations in posture, creating real prerequisites for the industrial production of clothing, taking into account individual characteristics physique and posture of consumers.
In the sewing industry, there are three types of posture: stooped, normal and kinked (Figure 3.18).
Stooped figure characterized by a flat chest, slightly inclined body (shoulders and arms), a rounded and widened long back with sharply protruding shoulder blades, most often poor development muscles, increased back measurements compared to a normal figure and decreased chest measurements. The highest (most protruding) point of the mammary gland is shifted downward.
Figure 3.18. Types of posture: a – normal, b – kinked, c – stooped.
Flexible figure characterized by a wide spread of the chest and shoulders, a flat, slightly tilted back without protrusion of the shoulder blades, a slightly tilted back body, an increased arch of the waist along the back and protruding buttocks, increased chest measurements compared to a normal figure and reduced back measurements. Highest point The mammary gland is displaced upward.
To establish whether a figure belongs to a particular type of posture, one of the signs that determines the bending of the upper body is used - the position of the body. The second sign is the height of the shoulders. Based on the height of the shoulders, figures are divided into low-shoulder, normal-shoulder and high-shoulder figures.
Changes in the posture of the same person are influenced by various factors: age, condition nervous system, the degree and nature of the distribution of muscle tissue and fat deposits, type of work activity, time of day, type of shoes used, etc.
So, in morning hours a person's posture is usually more straightened than in the evening. From a constant posture, bending over, schoolchildren and students develop a stoop, characterized by a hunched back, drooping shoulders, and a slightly tilted head forward. Women who wear high-heeled shoes have a straighter figure. Such changes in the posture of female figures must be taken into account, first of all, when designing clothes for special occasions or everyday clothes for figures of medium and small stature, when worn by women, as a rule, they use high-heeled shoes. When making individual clothing, fittings should be performed on customers wearing shoes with a heel height that corresponds to the operating conditions of the clothing for this purpose.
Section 1.
Theoretical foundations of clothing design
Topic 1.2.
Anthropometric characteristics of the human body.
Basic morphological features of the external shape of the body
Human.
The main morphological features that underlie the determination of a person’s external form include: total, or general, sizes, proportions, physique and posture.
Any morphological feature of the body is characterized by variability. The form, degree of expression and direction of variability for different characteristics are different and are determined by the influence of factors such as age, gender, social environment, and characteristics of the biochemical activity of the organism.
Total (general) morphological characteristics.
Total characteristics include the largest anthropometric characteristics: body length (height), chest parameter (girth) and body weight, which reflect the external shape of the human body and are the most important signs of physical development.
Body length. Body length reveals age, sex, group, intragroup and epochal variability.
Age dynamics of body length. The average body length in newborns, according to the Moscow State University Research Institute, is: for boys - 51.5 cm, for girls - 51.0 cm.
The greatest increase in body length in children, equal to an average of approximately 25 cm, is observed in the first year of life. Then the growth rate gradually slows down. From 10 to 12 years old, girls grow slightly faster than boys. Therefore, the average body length of girls during this period becomes greater than that of boys. By the age of 13, the average body length in boys and girls levels off, and then in boys it increases faster than in girls.
The greater body length in girls in the period 10-12 years is explained by the fact that puberty and the associated acceleration of growth begins in girls much earlier (about 2-3 years) and ends earlier than in boys. As a result, over a certain period of time, girls tend to be larger than boys of the same age. Anthropologists believe that on average girls reach their final body length by the age of 16-17 years, and in boys by 18-19 years.
A person's body length remains constant from approximately 16-19 to 55 years, after which it begins to gradually decrease.
The decrease in body length is explained by the flattening of the intervertebral cartilaginous discs due to their loss of firmness and elasticity, as well as an increase in the bends of the spine (stooping). These phenomena occur due to the aging of the body.
There is a change in body length even during the day. By the evening, when a person gets tired, the body length usually decreases by 1.5-3 cm. In the morning (after sleep), the body length is greatest.
Body length less than 125 cm and more than 200 cm in most cases belongs to the pathological category (dwarfs and giants). Longest length body noted in scientific literature, had two men - 278 and 255 cm.
Epochal changes in body length. Over the past 100-150 years, many countries have seen a sharp increase in the body length of adults and children. According to some foreign data, the epochal shift in body length for adults is 1 cm per decade or 2.5 cm per generation. According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, the body length of adolescents in the USSR from 1935 to 1955. increased by an average of 5 cm. Acceleration is also reflected in the earlier attenuation of growth processes.
Perimeter (girth) of the chest. In anthropology, the most studied is the so-called anthropometric chest girth, which determines the perimeter of the skeletal base of the chest.
For applied purposes, the largest girth of the chest is usually measured at the level of the protruding points of the mammary glands in women and the nipple points in men (chest girth 2 and 3).
Age dynamics of chest girth. With age, chest girth continuously increases, which is associated with the growth of the bone skeleton, muscle and subcutaneous fat layer, and only with old age does it decrease slightly.
According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, by the end of the first year of life, the chest circumference of boys is 49 cm, and that of girls is about 48 cm. The increase in chest girth occurs unevenly over the years. The maximum annual breast growth in girls (5-6 cm) is observed at the age of 11-12 years, in boys (4-4.5 cm) - at the age of 12-14 years. There is no stability in chest girth in adults, as it gradually increases with age. After 20 years, an intensive increase in chest girth is usually observed due to an increase in the subcutaneous fat layer. According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, younger adults (18-29 years old) have an average chest circumference that is approximately 6-7 cm smaller than older adults (50-59 years old).
Body mass. Average weight of adult men globe– 64 kg., for women – 56 kg.
Sharp deviations in weight, especially upward, occur quite often in connection with many diseases associated with dysfunction of the glands internal secretion. In exceptional cases, body weight can reach 150 kg.
Dynamics of mass change. The greatest increase in weight is observed in the first years of a child’s life. According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, the average weight of a newborn boy is 3.5 kg, and that of a girl is 3.4 kg. During the first year of life, body weight increases 3 times. From 1 to 7 years of age, the annual increase gradually decreases. After 7 years, an increase in the annual increase is again observed. It reaches its maximum (4-5 kg per year) in girls at 12-15 years old, in boys at 14-17 years old.
After 17 years, the annual increase in body weight decreases again and continues in women until about 20, and in men up to 25 years.
The increase in weight after growth is completed is mainly caused by an increase in the fat layer. There are significant fluctuations here, which are closely related to the state of the body, nutritional conditions, and the like.
