Stages of Russian history table. Russian history

The oldest traces of human habitation on the territory of Russia were found in Siberia, the North Caucasus and the Kuban region and date back to a period of approximately 3-2 million years BC. In the VI-V centuries BC. e. arise on the Black Sea coast Greek colonies, which later turned into the Scythian and Bosporan kingdoms.

Slavs and their neighbors

By the 5th century AD Slavic tribes occupy lands on the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the Dnieper and Danube, and in the upper reaches of the Oka and Volga. In addition to hunting, the Slavs are engaged in agriculture, and trade is gradually developing. Main trade routes are rivers. By the 9th century, several Slavic principalities had formed, the main ones being Kyiv and Novgorod.

Russian state

In 882 Novgorod prince Oleg captures Kyiv, and, uniting the Slavic north and south, creates the Old Russian state. Kievan Rus is considered both in Byzantium and in neighboring Western countries. Under Oleg's successor Igor, the son of Rurik, an agreement was concluded with Byzantium to protect its borders from nomads. In 988, under Prince Vladimir, the Baptism of pagan Rus' took place. The adoption of Orthodoxy strengthens ties with Byzantium, and along with the new faith it spreads among the Slavs Greek culture, science and art. In Rus' they use the new Slavic alphabet and chronicles are written. Under Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the first set of laws of the Kyiv state was compiled - “Russian Truth”. From the 30s of the 12th century, the division of the united state into a number of independent principalities began.

Yoke

WITH beginning of XIII in the huge army of Genghis Khan Temujin devastates Asia and Transcaucasia. Having conquered and imposed tribute on the peoples of the Caucasus, mongol army appears for the first time in Russian history, defeating the combined forces of the Slavic princes and Polovtsians on the Kalka River in 1223. After 13 years, the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu comes to Rus' from the east and one by one defeats the troops of the Russian princes, in 1240 he takes Kyiv, goes to Western Europe and, returning, founds his own state in the lower reaches of the Volga - Golden Horde, and imposes tribute on Russian lands. From now on, princes receive power over their lands only with the sanction of the khans of the Golden Horde. This period went down in Russian history as the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Grand Duchy of Moscow

Since the beginning of the 14th century, largely through the efforts of Ivan Kalita and his heirs, the new center Russian principalities - Moscow. By the end of the 14th century, Moscow had become strong enough to openly oppose the Horde. In 1380, Prince Dimitri defeated the army of Khan Mamai on the Kulikovo field. Under Ivan III, Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Horde: Khan Akhmat, during the “standing on the Ugra River” in 1480, did not dare to fight and retreated. The Mongol-Tatar yoke ends.

Time of Ivan the Terrible

Under Ivan IV the Terrible, (officially the first Russian Tsar since 1547), the collection of lands lost as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and Polish-Lithuanian expansion is being actively carried out, and a policy of further expansion of state borders is also being pursued. The Russian state includes the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates. At the end of the XVI - mid-17th century centuries, with a strong delay compared to the countries of Central Europe, serfdom was formalized.
In 1571 Moscow was burned by troops Crimean Khan Devlet-Gireya. The following year, 1572, the 120,000-strong Crimean-Turkish army marching against Rus' was destroyed, which effectively put an end to the centuries-long struggle of Rus' with the steppe.

Time of Troubles and the first Romanovs

With the death of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor in 1598, the Rurik dynasty was interrupted. The Time of Troubles begins, a time of struggle for the throne and Polish-Swedish intervention. The Time of Troubles ends with the convening of a national militia, the expulsion of the Poles and the election of Mikhail Fedorovich, the first representative of the Romanov dynasty, to the kingdom (February 21, 1613). During his reign, Russian expeditions began to explore Eastern Siberia, Russia reached the Pacific Ocean. In 1654, the composition Russian state Ukraine is included in the rights of autonomy. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the influence of the West is increasing.

Russian Empire

Tsar Peter I radically reformed the Russian state, establishing an absolute monarchy headed by the emperor, to whom even the church was subordinate. The boyars turn into the nobility. The army and education system are being modernized, and many things are being arranged according to Western models. As a result Northern War Russian lands captured by Sweden at the end of the 16th century were returned to Russia. The port city of St. Petersburg was founded at the mouth of the Neva, where the capital of Russia was moved in 1712. Under Peter, the first newspaper in Russia, Vedomosti, was published and introduced on January 1, 1700 new calendar, where the new year begins in January (before this, the year was counted from the first of September).
After Peter I, the Age of palace coups began, a time of noble conspiracies and frequent overthrows of unwanted emperors. Anna Ivanovna and Elizaveta Petrovna reigned longer than others. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, Moscow University was founded. Under Empress Catherine the Great, the development of America begins, Russia wins access to the Black Sea from Turkey.

Napoleonic Wars

In 1805, Alexander I went to war with Napoleon I, who declared himself Emperor of France. Napoleon wins, one of the conditions of the peace agreement is the cessation of trade with England, to which Alexander I has to agree. In 1809, Russia captured Finland, which belonged to the Swedes, which was part of the Russian Empire. A few years later, Russia resumes trade with England, and in the summer of 1812, Napoleon invades Russia with an army of more than 500 thousand people. The Russian army, outnumbered by more than two times, retreats to Moscow. The people rise to fight the invaders, numerous partisan detachments, the War of 1812 is called the Patriotic War.
At the end of August, the largest battle of the war took place near Moscow near the village of Borodino. The losses on both sides were enormous, but the numerical superiority remained on the side of the French. The head of the Russian army, Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov, decides to surrender Moscow to Napoleon without a fight and retreat to save the army. Moscow, occupied by the French, was almost completely destroyed by fires. While retreating to the borders of Russia, Napoleon's army gradually melts away, the Russians pursue the retreating French, and in 1814 the Russian army enters Paris.

The emergence of civil society

In the 19th century, under the influence of the liberal ideas of the West, a stable heterogeneous group of educated people emerged, which themselves created liberal and democratic values, later called the intelligentsia. Its most famous representatives were Belinsky, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov.
After the end of the war, the revolutionary ideas that penetrated Russia resulted in the failed Decembrist Uprising in 1825. Fearing new uprisings, the state is tightening control over the political, economic and cultural life countries.
During long wars with the mountaineers in the first half of the 19th century, Russia annexed the Caucasus, and - partly peacefully, partly militarily - the territories of Central Asia (Bukhara and Khanate of Khiva, Kazakh zhuzes).

2nd half of the 19th century

In 1861, under Emperor Alexander II, serfdom was abolished in Russia. There was also a series of liberal reforms, which accelerated the modernization of the country.

Late 19th - early 20th century

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Russia is actively developing Far East, which worries Japan, the government of the Russian Empire believes that a “small victorious war” against the background of growing revolutionary sentiments will improve the internal situation. Japan, however, destroyed part of the Russian ships with a preemptive strike, lack of modern technical equipment Russian army and the incompetence of the senior officers completes Russia's defeat in the war. Russia's position on international arena turns out to be extremely difficult.
In 1914, Russia entered the First world war. February Revolution 1917 marked the end of the monarchy: Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne, power passed to the Provisional Government. In September 1917, the Russian Empire was transformed into the Russian Republic.

Soviet state

However, even after the revolution, it is not possible to restore order in the country; taking advantage of the political chaos, the Bolshevik Party under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, in alliance with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists, seizes power. After the October Revolution, on October 25 (November 7), 1917, the Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed in the country. Soviet republic begins liquidation private property and its nationalization. In an effort to establish control, the Bolsheviks did not shy away from extreme measures, subjecting religion, the Cossacks and other forms of social organization to repression.
The peace concluded with Germany cost the Soviet state Ukraine, the Baltic states, Poland, part of Belarus and 90 tons of gold, and served as one of the reasons civil war. In March 1918, the Soviet government moved from Petrograd to Moscow, fearing the capture of the city by the Germans. On the night of July 16-17, 1918, she was shot in Yekaterinburg royal family, bodies are dumped into the shaft of a collapsed mine.

Civil war

During 1918-1922, Bolshevik supporters led fighting against their opponents. During the war, Poland, the Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) and Finland left Russia.

USSR, 1920-1930s

On December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviets was formed Socialist Republics(Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Transcaucasian Federation). In 1921-1929 the New economic policy(NEP). Joseph Stalin (Dzhugashvili) becomes the winner in the internal political struggle that flared up after Lenin's death in 1924. In the 1930s, Stalin carried out a “cleansing” of the party apparatus. A system of forced labor camps (GULag) is being created. In 1939-1940, the USSR was annexed Western Belarus, Western Ukraine, Moldova, Western Karelia, Baltic states.

Great Patriotic War

On June 22, 1941, the Great Patriotic War began with a surprise attack by Nazi Germany. For comparatively short time German troops were able to advance far into Soviet state, but were never able to capture Moscow and Leningrad, as a result of which the war, instead of the blitzkrieg planned by Hitler, turned into a protracted one. The battles of Stalingrad and Kursk turned the tide of the war, and Soviet troops went on a strategic offensive. The war ended with the capture of Berlin in May 1945 and the surrender of Germany. According to historians, the number of deaths during military operations and as a result of occupation in the USSR reaches 26 million people.

Soviet-Japanese War

As a result of the war with Japan in 1945, Southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands became part of Russia.

Cold War and Stagnation

As a result of the war, the countries of Eastern Europe (Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany) fell into the Soviet zone of influence. Relations with the West are sharply deteriorating. The so-called cold war- the confrontation between the West and the countries of the socialist camp, which reached its peak in 1962, when a war almost broke out between the USSR and the USA nuclear war (Cuban missile crisis). Then the intensity of the conflict gradually subsides, and some progress has been made in relations with the West, in particular, an agreement on economic cooperation with France is signed.
In the 70s, the confrontation between the USSR and the USA weakened. Agreements are concluded to limit strategic nuclear weapons(OSV-1 and OSV-2). The second half of the 70s is called the “era of stagnation,” when, despite relative stability, the USSR gradually lags behind the advanced Western countries in technological terms.

Perestroika and collapse of the USSR

With Mikhail Gorbachev coming to power in 1985, a policy of perestroika was announced in the USSR in order to solve problems in the social sphere and social production, as well as avoid the looming economic crisis caused by the arms race. However, this policy leads to a worsening crisis, the collapse of the USSR and the transition to capitalism. In 1991, the Commonwealth was created Independent States(CIS), which includes the RSFSR, Ukraine and Belarus.

Periodization of Russian history

Periodization of Russian history

Periodization of Russian history

Ancient Rus'

Ancient Rus'

Ancient Rus'

Ancient Rus'

Political fragmentation of Rus' XII-XIII centuries.

10. Consequences of fragmentation

11. The yoke system in Rus'

12. Historical assessments of the yoke

13. Formation of the Moscow State XIV - early XVI

14. Folding of the Moscow State

15. Ivan IV (Grozny)

16. Reforms of Ivan the Terrible

17. Ivan the Terrible

18. Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible

19. Time of Troubles (1598-1612)

20. Time of Troubles

21. Time of Troubles

22. Time of Troubles

23. Time of Troubles

24. Time of Troubles

25. Cathedral Code of 1649

26. Reforms of Peter I

27. Economic reforms

28. Economic reforms

29. Class politics

30. Provincial reform

31. Church reform

32. The significance of Peter's reforms

33. Palace coups

34. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

35. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

36. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

37. Socio-economic policy of Catherine

38. Class politics

39. Foreign policy of Catherine II

40. Foreign policy of Catherine II

41. Foreign policy of Catherine II

42. Policy of Alexander I

43. Policy of Alexander I

44. Policy of Alexander I

45. Patriotic War of 1812

46. ​​Patriotic War 1812

47. Foreign campaign of the Russian army 1813-1814

48.

49. Politics of Nicholas I

50. Theory of official nationality

51. Industrial revolution in Russia

52. Features of the industrial revolution in Russia

Today, there are several variants of approaches to periodization in general and Russia in particular: civilizational, formational and world-systemic. Each of these approaches differs not only in the criteria by which conditional segmentation occurs historical process, but with a general semantic content, a way of understanding the historical process of human development. That is, criteria such as type of thinking or means of production, socio-economic relations or religion can be used for periodization. Gained the greatest fame formational approach and an approach to the periodization of Russian history from the perspective of liberalism.

Formational approach

The main criterion for periodization in the formational approach is the assessment of the type socio-economic relations in society. This principle makes it possible to formulate a fairly clear sequence of various stages in the development of society. Moreover, each stage has its own socio-economic formation. Most widespread The formational approach received in Russia during the USSR era, since one of the authors of the approach was Marx and the meaning of the approach harmoniously fit into the ideological concept of the USSR.

Thus, at different times, supporters of the formational approach distinguished at least five or seven periods in the history of Russia according to the number of formations of the social system, that is, the primitive communal period, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist. Today, adherents of the formational approach distinguish historical periods Ancient Rus' (IX–XII centuries), Appanage Rus' (XII century – first half of the 15th century), United (second half of the 15th century – first half of the 16th century), Russia from the second half of the 16th century. until the first third of the 18th century. The next period is associated with the reign of Anna Ioanovna and lasts until the abolition of serfdom in 1861.

The three remaining periods are obvious: Russia from 1861 to 1917, Soviet Russia 1917–1991. and Russia since the 90s. to the present time. However, critics of the formational approach note the artificiality of such periodization and the obvious artificiality of the temporary and territorial historical space of Russia. At the same time, it is noted that slave system had no historical place in Russia, and capitalism as such lasted no more than half a century from the date of the abolition of serfdom in 1861 until the events of the October Revolution. It should be noted that the formational approach is developing and today a global relay-formation concept of world history has been formed. According to this concept, a “young” society generally does not go through all formations sequentially, but can begin from the stage at which its development predecessors stopped.

An approach to Russian history from the perspective of liberalism

Recently, a liberal approach to the periodization of Russian history has become widespread. The criterion of the approach is the principle of development of statehood (from approximately the 9th century), the evolution of public institutions, and the organization of governance in Rus', Russia and the Soviet Union. Thus, five periods are distinguished in the history of Russia: the Old Russian state, Moscow State, Russian Empire, Soviet Russia, Russian Federation. According to the authors of the concept, the division reflects the main stages of Russian history. Moreover, this concept describes the most important feature of Russian history, namely the fact that for almost a thousand years Russia remained, in fact, an authoritarian state.

Topic: Stages of studying and periodization of Russian history

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Stages of studying and periodization of Russian history.

Stages of studying Russian history. Chronicle period. Nestor. The origins of historical science. V.N. Tatishchev. Norman theory and its criticism M.V. Lomonosov. The heyday of history in the 19th century. N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky. Soviet historical science and its outstanding names. Periodization of Russian history.

Stages of studying Russian history.

Historiography is divided into several periods. The first of them is pre-scientific. In this period, it is worth studying medieval philosophy, human perception of time, traditions, and the functions of history. Note that during this period, which lasted until the beginning of the 18th century, the main forms of historical narration were formed, such as chronicles - keeping records by year. It was this source that became the main one; it was this source that was studied by the historiography of Russian history. When studying the chronicles, it is necessary to pay attention to the principles by which they were written, the forms and style in which the works were written. The principle of chronography is especially important, which allows you to compare events, attribute them to certain dates, and connect them in the concept of “earlier” - “later”. The second source during this period that historiographers studied was the lives of saints. It is important to note here that the lives of saints have stronger subjective shades than chronicles - they turn into a kind of legends and stories. Another form of expression of historical consciousness that scientists are interested in is folklore. It is from it that you can learn about people’s ideas about their heroes and enemies.

The second period of historiography of Russian history begins in the eighteenth century and lasts until the beginning of the twentieth century. This time had a qualitative impact on the development of history as a science and the study of the source base. This should include such changes as the secularization of science and the development of secular rather than church education. For the first time, translated sources imported from Europe are beginning to be processed, historical research as such is being singled out independently, and at the same time, auxiliary disciplines are being formed that help to study history. A qualitatively new stage in this period was the beginning of the publication of primary sources, which largely changed the attitude towards the history of their country, and primarily for the Russian intelligentsia. It is she, the intelligentsia, who initiates historical expeditions and research. The third stage is the development of historiography in the second third of the nineteenth century. Here issues such as relations between the Russian state and Western countries, the first concepts of the development of national history emerge.

The fourth stage is the second half of the nineteenth - the beginning of the twentieth century. At this time, they are formed methodological basis historiography. The historiography of Russian history is influenced by positivism, materialism, and neo-Kantianism. The range of research is expanding, with particular attention paid to socio-economic problems in history. At the fourth stage, the question arises about vocational training historical footage.

The fifth stage is Soviet historiography of national history, which is based on class approach to the development of society, which, in turn, was reflected in the scientific approach.

Chronicle period.

The most remarkable phenomenon ancient Russian literature there were chronicles. The first weather records date back to the 9th century, they were extracted from later sources of the 16th century. They are very brief: notes in one or two lines.

As a phenomenon national scale chronicles appear in the 11th century. People became chroniclers different ages, and not only monks. A very significant contribution to the restoration of the history of chronicle writing was made by such researchers as A.A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920) and A.N. Nasonov (1898 - 1965). The first major historical work was the Code, completed in 997. Its compilers described the events of the 9th-10th centuries, ancient legends. It even includes court epic poetry praising Olga, Svyatoslav and especially Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, during whose reign this Code was created.

Among the figures of European scale it is necessary to include the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, who by 1113 completed his work “The Tale of Bygone Years” and compiled an extensive historical introduction to him. Nestor knew Russian, Bulgarian and Greek literature very well, being a very educated man. He used in his work the earlier Codes of 997, 1073 and 1093, and the events of the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. covered as an eyewitness. This chronicle gave the most full picture early Russian history and was copied for 500 years. It must be borne in mind that ancient Russian chronicle vaults covered not only the history of Rus', but also the history of other peoples.

Secular people were also involved in chronicle writing. For example, Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. It was as part of the chronicle that such wonderful works of his as “Instructions to Children” (c. 1099; later supplemented, preserved in the list of 1377) have reached us. In particular, in the “Instructions” Vladimir Monomakh pursues the idea of ​​​​the need to repel external enemies. There were 83 “paths” - campaigns in which he participated.

In the 12th century. the chronicles become very detailed, and since they are written by contemporaries, the class and political sympathies of the chroniclers are very clearly expressed in them. The social order of their patrons can be traced. Among the most prominent chroniclers who wrote after Nestor, one can single out the Kiev resident Peter Borislavich. The most mysterious author in the XII-XIII centuries. was Daniil Sharpener. It is believed that he owned two works - “The Word” and “Prayer”.

“Hagiographic” literature is very interesting, since in it, in addition to describing the life of canonized persons, it gave a true picture of life in monasteries. For example, cases of bribery for obtaining one or another church rank or place, etc. were described. Here we can highlight the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, which is a collection of stories about the monks of this monastery.

The world-famous work of ancient Russian literature was “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the date of writing of which dates back to 1185. This poem was imitated by contemporaries, it was quoted by the Pskovites already at the beginning of the 14th century, and after the victory on the Kulikovo Field (1380) in imitation of “The Tale. ..” was written “Zadonshchina”. “The Word...” was created in connection with the campaign of the Seversk prince Igor against the Polovtsian khan Konchak. Igor, overwhelmed by ambitious plans, did not unite with Grand Duke Vsevolod Big Nest and was broken. The idea of ​​unification on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion runs through the entire work. And again, as in the epics, here we are talking about defense, and not about aggression and expansion.

From the second half of the 14th century. All higher value acquires Moscow chronicles. In 1392 and 1408 Moscow chronicles are created, which are of an all-Russian nature. And in the middle of the 15th century. “Chronograph” appears, representing, in fact, the first experience of writing world history by our ancestors, and in “Chronograph” an attempt was made to show the place and role of Ancient Rus' in the world historical process.

Chronicle writing as a leading genre of historical literature existed in Russia until late XVII- beginning of the 18th century. It could not help but experience the influence of certain aspects of the European social thought. In Russian chronicles of the 15th - 17th centuries. increased attention to human personality, the motives of people’s activities, historical works appear that are not related to the form of presentation by year. There are attempts to go beyond literary etiquette.

Nestor

The Monk Nestor the Chronicler was born in the 50s of the 11th century in Kyiv. As a young man he came to the Monk Theodosius and became a novice. The Monk Nestor was tonsured by the successor of the Monk Theodosius, Abbot Stefan. Under him, he was ordained a hierodeacon. His high spiritual life is evidenced by the fact that he, along with other reverend fathers, participated in driving out a demon from Nikita the recluse (later the Novgorod saint), who was seduced into Jewish wisdom.

The monk deeply valued true knowledge, combined with humility and repentance. “There is great benefit from the teachings of books,” he said, “books punish and teach us the path to repentance, for from book words we gain wisdom and abstinence. These are rivers that water the universe, from which wisdom comes. Books have innumerable depth, we console ourselves with them in sorrows are the bridle of self-control. If you diligently seek wisdom in the books, you will gain great benefit for your soul. For he who reads books converses with God or holy men.”

In the monastery, the Monk Nestor bore the obedience of a chronicler. In the 80s, he wrote “Reading about the life and destruction of the blessed passion-bearers Boris and Gleb” in connection with the transfer of their holy relics to Vyshgorod in 1072 (May 2). In the 80s, the Monk Nestor compiled the life of the Monk Theodosius of Pechersk, and in 1091, on the eve of the patronal feast of the Pechersk monastery, Abbot John instructed him to dig up the holy relics of the Monk Theodosius from the ground for transfer to the temple (the discovery was commemorated on August 14).

The main feat of the life of the Monk Nestor was the compilation of the “Tale of Bygone Years” by 1112-1113.

“This is the story of bygone years, where the Russian land came from, who began the reign in Kyiv, and where the Russian land came from” - this is how the Monk Nestor defined the purpose of his work from the first lines. An unusually wide range of sources (previous Russian chronicles and legends, monastic records, Byzantine chronicles of John Malala and George Amartol, various historical collections, stories of the elder boyar Jan Vyshatich, traders, warriors, travelers), interpreted from a single, strictly ecclesiastical point of view, allowed the Monk Nestor to write the history of Rus' as component world history, the history of the salvation of the human race.

The patriotic monk sets out the history of the Russian Church in the main moments of its historical formation. He talks about the first mention of the Russian people in church sources - in 866, under the holy Patriarch Photius of Constantinople; tells about the creation of the Slavic charter by the saints Equal to the Apostles Cyril and Methodius, about the Baptism of Saint Olga Equal-to-the-Apostles in Constantinople.

The chronicle of St. Nestor has preserved for us a story about the first Orthodox church in Kyiv (under 945), about the confessional feat of the holy Varangian martyrs (under 983), about the “test of faith” of the saints Equal to the Apostles Vladimir(986) and the Baptism of Rus' (988). We owe information about the first metropolitans of the Russian Church, about the emergence of the Pechersk monastery, about its founders and devotees to the first Russian church historian. The time of St. Nestor was not easy for the Russian land and the Russian Church. Rus' was tormented by princely civil strife, the steppe nomadic Cumans ravaged cities and villages with predatory raids, drove Russian people into slavery, burned temples and monasteries.

The Monk Nestor died around 1114, bequeathing to the Pechersk monks-chroniclers the continuation of his great work. His successors in the chronicles were Abbot Sylvester, who gave modern look"The Tale of Bygone Years", Abbot Moses Vydubitsky, who extended it until 1200, and finally, Abbot Lavrenty, who in 1377 wrote the oldest copy that has reached us, preserving the "Tale" of St. Nestor ("Laurentian Chronicle").

The Monk Nestor was buried in the Near Caves of the Monk Anthony of Pechersk. The Church also honors his memory together with the Council of Fathers, who rest in the Near Caves, on September 28 and on the 2nd Week of Great Lent, when the Council of all Kiev-Pechersk Fathers is celebrated.

The origins of historical science.

History as a science began to emerge in Russia, as well as in Europe, in the 18th century. But in Russia it found its feet in more difficult conditions: for a very long time, in comparison with Europe, the country did not have secular higher educational institutions that would train scientific personnel. In Europe, the first secular university appeared in the 12th century, and in Russia the Academy of Sciences opened only in 1725, the first university (Moscow) in 1755. The first Russian researchers had to face the virtual absence of a source base, which is the foundation of historical science . When Peter 1 issued a decree on the need to write the history of Russia and ordered the Synod to collect manuscripts from dioceses, only 40 of them were submitted, and only 8 of them were of a historical nature.

The first attempt to write a systematic review did not belong to academics, or even to a historian by training. Its author was V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750), who was a civil servant and widely educated person. This was the first systematic work on Russian history. In addition, Tatishchev created instructions for collecting geographical and archaeological information about Russia, adopted by the Academy of Sciences. At the same time, assessing Tatishchev’s contribution to the formation of historical science, we note that he failed to comprehend the collected material and connect it with a conceptual idea. His history of Russia was a collection of chronicle data. The lack of literary treatment and heavy language made Tatishchev’s work difficult to perceive even by his contemporaries.

Tatishchev V.N.

Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686-1750) was not a professional historian. He did not receive a historical education, because such a thing did not yet exist in Russia. As V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote, “he became a professor of history for himself.” Tatishchev was born into the family of a Pskov landowner. Among his relatives was Tsarina Praskovya, the wife of Ivan V. He graduated from the Engineering and Artillery School in Moscow. “The chick of Petrov’s nest,” he was a participant in the Great Northern War and carried out a variety of assignments for the emperor. He visited Germany and Sweden on his assignments, twice (1720-1722 and 1734-1737) managed state-owned factories in the Urals, founded Yekaterinburg there, actively participated in the palace struggle during the accession of Anna Ioannovna in 1730, was the Astrakhan governor (1741 -1745 ).

Tatishchev in 1719 received the task of Peter I to compile geographical description Russia. Since then, he began collecting materials on Russian history. He compiled the first encyclopedic dictionary- "Russian Lexicon", brought to the letter "k". Tatishchev also wrote the first scientific generalizing work on the history of our country - “Russian History from the Most Ancient Times.” He began writing it in the 20s of the 18th century. The presentation was brought up to 1577. Tatishchev took the position of a rationalistic explanation of history. He was the first to attempt to identify, from a scientific point of view, the patterns of the Russian historical process. “The main thing in science is for a person to know himself,” wrote Tatishchev. He believed that knowledge and enlightenment determine the course of history.

Tatishchev was the first to propose a periodization of Russian history from the point of view of the development of the state: 1) “perfect autocracy” (862-1132); 2) “aristocracy, but disorderly” (1132-1462); 3) “restoration of autocracy” (from 1462).

Tatishchev's ideal was absolute monarchy. He tried to explain the causes of events through activities outstanding people. Tatishchev's work in many ways still resembles a chronicle; the material in it is arranged in accordance with the reigns of the princes. Tatishchev’s attempts to be critical of sources still retain value, many of which, subsequently lost, were preserved only in the historian’s presentation. The debate about their authenticity continues today.

Norman theory and its criticism by M.V. Lomonosov

Norman theory (Normanism) is a direction in historiography that develops the concept that the people-tribe of Rus' comes from Scandinavia during the period of expansion of the Vikings, who were called Normans in Western Europe.

Supporters of Normanism attribute the Normans (Varangians of Scandinavian origin) to the founders of the first states of the Eastern Slavs: Novgorod and then Kievan Rus. In fact, this is following the historiographical concept of the Tale of Bygone Years ( beginning of XII century), supplemented by the identification of the chronicle Varangians as Scandinavian-Normans. The main controversy flared up around the ethnicity of the Varangians, at times reinforced by political ideologization.

The Norman theory became widely known in Russia in the 1st half of the 18th century thanks to the activities of German historians at the Russian Academy of Sciences by Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694-1738), later by Gerard Friedrich Miller, Strube de Pyrmont and August Ludwig Schlözer.

M.V. Lomonosov actively opposed the Norman theory, seeing in it a thesis about the backwardness of the Slavs and their unpreparedness to form a state, proposing a different, non-Scandinavian identification of the Varangians. Lomonosov, in particular, argued that Rurik was from the Polabian Slavs, who had dynastic ties with the princes of the Ilmen Slovenes (this was the reason for his invitation to reign). One of the first Russian historians of the mid-18th century, V.N. Tatishchev, having studied the “Varangian question,” did not come to a definite conclusion regarding the ethnicity of the Varangians called to Rus', but made an attempt to unite opposing views. In his opinion, based on the “Joachim Chronicle,” the Varangian Rurik was descended from a Norman prince ruling in Finland and the daughter of the Slavic elder Gostomysl.

The flourishing of history in the 19th century N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) is rightfully recognized as the largest Russian noble historian. Landowner's son Simbirsk province Karamzin studied at home, then at a private boarding school in Moscow, and attended lectures at Moscow University. After traveling around Europe, he published the “Moscow Journal” (1791-1792), “Bulletin of Europe” (1802-1809), where he acted as a sentimentalist writer.

In 1801, he received one official order from Alexander - to write the history of Russia and the position of historiographer. The remarkable writer “took his hair as a historian” for the rest of his life. Once in public service, Karamzin gained access to state archives, repositories of chronicles and other sources on Russian history. Based on the works of his predecessors (V.N. Tatishchev, M.V. Lomonosov, M.M. Shcherbatov, etc.), N.M. Karamzin created the 12-volume “History of the Russian State.” The presentation in it was brought up to 1612.

“The appearance of the History of the Russian State...,” wrote A.S. Pushkin, “caused a lot of noise and made a strong impression... Secular people rushed to read the history of their fatherland. Ancient Russia, it seemed, was found by Karamzin, like America by Columbus. They didn't talk about anything else for a while."

"History of the Russian State" was written for wide range readers. Actions and deeds of real people historical figures Karamzin assessed from the standpoint common sense, explaining them by the psychology and character of each character.

As a rule, the material in Karamzin’s work is arranged according to reigns and reigns. The periodization of Russian history was new. According to Karamzin, it was divided into the Most Ancient (from Rurik to Ivan III), the characteristic feature of which was the system of appanages. The Middle (from Ivan 111 to Peter I) with autocracy and the New (from Peter I to Alexander I), when civil customs changed dramatically.

This periodization is largely explained by the concept of the historian. Main idea, permeating labor, is a necessity for Russia of a wise autocracy. “Russia was founded by victories and unity of command, perished from discord, but was saved by a wise autocracy,” Karamzin wrote in another of his works, “Note on the Ancient and new Russia"It should be noted that Karamzin did not consider all autocracy to be a good thing for Russia. The people, in his opinion, had the right to rebel against princes and kings who violated the principles of wise autocratic power. Karamzin condemned the tyranny of Ivan the Terrible, the activities of Anna Ioannovna, Paul I.

"The History of the Russian State" became a reference book on Russian history for many years. Karamzin's work was written at the world level historical knowledge that era.

S.M. Soloviev

Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov (1820-1879) is rightfully recognized as the most outstanding Russian historian of the 19th century. He developed as a researcher in the era when the issue of abolition of serfdom was being decided. At the same time, a polemic began between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of development of Russia.

According to his convictions and views, S.M. Soloviev belonged to the Westerners. He was born in Moscow into the family of a priest. His whole life was connected with Moscow University, where he went from student to rector. Academician S.M. Soloviev was also the director of the Armory Chamber, chaired the Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University, and was a history teacher of the future Emperor Alexander III.

According to his convictions, S.M. Soloviev was a moderate liberal. As a scientist, he developed under the influence of Hegelian dialectics and the idea of ​​the “organic,” i.e. the objective and natural nature of the development of the historical process. He believed that the historian must “understand... gradual progress history, the continuity of phenomena, the natural, legitimate emergence of some phenomena from others, subsequent from previous ones."

The main work of S.M. Solovyov’s entire life is “History of Russia since ancient times” in 29 volumes.

Based on the ideas of Hegelian dialectics, S.M. Solovyov saw the reasons for the movement of Russian history in the interaction of three objectively existing factors. As such, he put forward “the nature of the country,” “the nature of the tribe,” and “the course external events". Adhering to the comparative historical method, S.M. Solovyov saw the uniqueness of the history of Russia and Western Europe, but not their opposite. In his opinion, nature was a mother for the West, and a stepmother for Russia. In the east of Europe there are no natural boundaries in the form of mountain ridges and sea ​​shores, there is a small population here, the threat of nomadic invasions is constantly felt, the climate is sharply continental. On the territory of Eastern Europe, a centuries-old struggle between “forest” and “steppe” took place; there was a process of development (colonization) of new territories, a transition from tribal to state principles.

According to S.M. Solovsva, in the history of Russia the state played a huge role - “the highest embodiment of the people.” Objectively acting geographical and ethnic factors led to the emergence of Eastern Europe largest power. “The huge plain predetermined the formation of this state,” Soloviev wrote. The course of external events was thus dictated by real objective tasks.

S.M. Solovs considered Peter’s reforms to be the most important milestone in the history of Russia. It was with Peter I that he began a new Russian history. The scientist showed organic connection, vital necessity, regularity and continuity of Peter's transformations with the previous course of development of the country.

S.M. Soloviev, from the perspective of his time, created an expressive, integral and most complete picture of the history of Russia. To this day, “History of Russia from Ancient Times” retains its significance as a generally recognized encyclopedia of Russian history.

V.O.Klyuchevsky

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) came from the family of a priest in the Penza province.

His whole life, like the life of S.M. Solovyov, was connected with Moscow University, from which he graduated in 1865. Klyuchevsky became Solovyov’s successor at the department of Russian history. His brilliant lectures, full of wit and vivid in form and imagery, gained him enormous popularity.

By his convictions, Klyuchevsky was a moderate liberal. He did not accept revolutionary views and put science in first place, “which endures forever and never falls.”

Along with lectures, fame and glory brought to V.O. Klyuchevsky historical works, among which the result of his research and lecture activities is the “Course of Russian History,” which enjoyed enormous popularity during the author’s lifetime and has not lost its significance today. The presentation in it is brought to the peasant and zemstvo reforms 1860s

In his philosophical views, V.O. Klyuchsvsky stood on the position of positivism. Positivism (from the Latin positivus - “positive”) sought to identify the entire body of specific knowledge, facts, internal and external factors, the combination of which determines the course of the historical process.

Klyuchevsky believed that world history develops within the framework of " general laws buildings human society". At the same time, for every country, for every " local history"characterized by features caused by a combination of geographical, ethnic, economic, social, political factors. Moreover, for each period of history, the combination of factors gives rise to a certain amount ideas. The change of these ideas and worldviews is the driving force of history. The starting point of the history of each country is the natural-geographical factor. V.O. Klyuchsvsky believed that the development (colonization) of the territory played a decisive role in the history of Russia.

V. O. Klyuchevsky created a new general concept of Russian history, dividing it into periods, each of which represented a certain stage in the life of the country. VIII - XIII centuries. V.O. Klyuchevsky characterized Rus' as Dnieper, city, trade. XIII - first half of the XV centuries. - as Upper Volga Rus', appanage-princely, free-agricultural. Second half of the 15th - beginning of the 17th centuries. - this is Great Rus', Moscow, Tsarist-boyar, military-agricultural Russia. The time after the Troubles and before the great reforms V.O. Klyuchsvsky called the “new period of Russian history,” the all-Russian, imperial-noble period of serfdom, agriculture and factory farming.

V.O. Klyuchevsky and his colleagues gave a bright and multifaceted picture of Russian history. Subsequently, they will be reproached for not understanding the patterns of Russian development. And the last stage in the development of pre-revolutionary historiography (late 19th - early 20th centuries) will be called the era of crisis of bourgeois science, which failed to see in the history of the country the patterns of its socialist transformation.

Soviet historical science and its outstanding names.

Soviet historiography

Soviet historical science, in the difficult conditions for the development of historiography in post-revolutionary Russia, generally successfully fulfilled its social functions. New historical materials were identified and collected, attempts were made to read the past anew, and discussions were held. New archives, museums, and research centers were created. Social and economic issues and movements of the masses were especially successfully studied.

However, the dominance of only one concept in the theoretical sphere significantly constrained the creativity of scientists. It was easier for those who dealt with the more ancient stages of the country's development. As for Soviet history, then the assessments decreed from above could not help but triumph here. Historical materialism became the only philosophy of history.

The materialist understanding of history is based on the doctrine of socio-economic formations. The driving force of history was recognized as the class struggle.

Society in its development goes through a consistent, natural change of certain stages and phases that develop on the basis of a certain level of economic development. K. Marx and F. Engls called these stages socio-economic formations. A socio-economic formation is a historically defined type of society, representing a special stage in its development ( primitive communal system, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist). The economic basis of each formation is determined by the dominant mode of production material goods. However, there are no absolutely pure formations. In each of them, along with the dominant method industrial relations remnants of old ones are preserved and the beginnings of new production relations arise. They are usually called structures. For example, under the dominance of feudal production relations, primitive communal and slave-owning relations (structures) are preserved and at a certain stage the capitalist structure of the economy emerges. Socio-economic formations make it possible to trace the progressive development of humanity from stage to stage as a whole.

Periodization of Russian history.

1. Old Russian state (IX-XIII centuries)

2. Specific Rus'(XII-XVI centuries)

Novgorod Republic (1136—1478)

Principality of Vladimir (1157—1389)

Principality of Lithuania and Russia (1236-1795)

Principality of Moscow (1263—1547)

3. Russian kingdom (1547—1721)

4. Russian Empire (1721-1917)

5. Russian Republic (1917)

6. RSFSR (1917-1922)

7. USSR (1922-1991)

8. Russian Federation (since 1991)

Control test tasks

1. Match the names Russian historians with their main works:

1. V.N. Tatishchev A. Russian History

2. M.V. Lomonosov B. Ancient Russian history

3. N.M. Karamzin V. History of the Russian State

4. S.M. Soloviev G. History of Russia since ancient times

1. Leadership in collection and critical analysis historical sources in Russia belongs to historians:

1. V.N. Tatishchev.
2. G.F. Miller.
3. M.V. Lomonosov.
4. N.M. Karamzin.

3. Match the historians with the era in which they lived:

1. V.N. Tatishchev A. The era of revolutionary upheavals

2. S.M. Soloviev B. The Age of Peter the Great

3. M.V. Lomonosov V. The era of “palace coups”

4. M.N. Pokrovsky G. The era of bourgeois reforms

Control analytical task

Comment on the main idea of ​​the text belonging to G. V. Plekhanov:

“When people begin to reflect on their own social system, you can say with confidence that this system has outlived its time and is preparing to give way to a new order, the true nature of which will again become clear to people only after it has played its part.” historical role. Minerva’s owl will fly out again only at night.”

The main idea of ​​the text is that society learns all the advantages and disadvantages of the social system only when it the change will come a different system and that there is no point in looking for ideal legislation or a social system that will be applicable at all times and for all peoples. Everything has an expiration date. Everything changes and is good in its place at its time.

Literature

1. Vernadsky V.I. Works on the history of science in Russia. M.: Nauka, 1988. 464 p.

2. Vladimirova O.V. Story: complete guide/ O.V. Vladimirova.- M.:AST:Astrel;Vladimir:VKT,2012.-318

3. Ziborov V.K. Russian chronicle XI-XVIII centuries. - St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology of St. Petersburg State University, 2002.

4. Kireeva R.A. Studying Domestic historiography V pre-revolutionary Russia from ser. XIX century until 1917. M., 1983

5. Merkulov V.I. Where do the Varangian guests come from? - M., 2005. - P. 33-40. — 119 p.

6. Tikhomirov M. N. Russian chronicles. - M.: Nauka, 1979.

7. Yukht A.I. State activities of V.N. Tatishchev in the 20s and early 30s of the 18th century / Responsible. ed. doc. ist. Sciences A. A. Preobrazhensky.. - M.: Nauka, 1985. - 368 p.

Hello dear readers and subscribers of my blog. Ivan Nekrasov is with you, and in today’s article we will talk about how to effectively systematize existing knowledge from the course of national history in order to productively solve Unified State Exam tests for high scores.

I personally recommend starting your history course by studying its periodization. It helps to understand the chronology of Russian history and not only :), to understand the cause-and-effect relationships of the discipline we are studying. This post will help you get rid of that very “mess” in your head that inevitably manifests itself if events, historical figures, and the reforms they carry out are not tied to a particular period in Russian history. For example, we begin to study ancient Rus' with theories of statehood formation. period of the Empire from the reign of Peter the Great. Soviet period, since the civil war.

Let's figure out how we can sort so many dates, events, names of historical figures into shelves in our heads? I suggest you the simplest technique how we should work through the material! Read more about her...

The entire national history is divided school course for five main periods:

The first is considered the time of Ancient or Kievan Rus. If you look chronological framework, then this is from the 9th century, or to be more precise, from 862 - the year of Rurik’s calling, according to Norman theory, before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century.

The second period includes the time from the 13th to the 16th centuries - the period of formation of a single centralized state, in addition, during this period there was a process of struggle against the Golden Horde.

The next period is from the 16th to the 17th centuries, the development of the Moscow state took place (the reign of Ivan IV, the Time of Troubles, the Rebellious Age and the reign of Sofia Alekseevna)

The period of the Empire - from the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century, that is, from the reign of Peter the Great, ending with the collapse of the monarchy in 1917.

The next period is Soviet, from October 1917 to December 1991.

AND last period can be called Recent period from December 1991 to the present day.

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