King Agesilaus, full of imperial ambitions, wanting conquer Greece, to have governments everywhere consisting of his friends, manages to alienate all the Greeks, and above all.
Thebes was a long-time and reliable ally of Sparta. Located in an area called , Thebes was an important strategic point during the Peloponnesian War. And Sparta used Thebes to conquer Athens.
But the war helped Thebes become much stronger and richer. Any wealth in the area somehow ends up in Thebes. Moreover, during the war, Thebes begins to feel like a military power, and is now not averse to subjugate all of Boeotia.
During the war, Thebes also manages to create new things, stronger government. While the Peloponnesian War is going on, something like a revolution is happening in Thebes: more than conservative farmers suddenly create democratic society which involves the entire population.
Democratic Thebes so close to Athens is an extremely unpleasant prospect for Sparta. When they learn what kind of winds their ally is blowing, the Spartans undertake what was probably their only head start. foreign policy. The Spartans, instead of somehow calming Thebes and sharing power with them, make an attempt suppress the democracy of Thebes and undermine their independence.
Sparta launches extremely brutal attacks in an attempt to overthrow the government of Thebes. This causes a response, and it does not boil down to anti-Spartanism. Democracy in Thebes is gaining strength, is being created national army Thebes of 10 thousand hoplites, superbly prepared both physically and strategically - no less effective than Spartan army. And they are very angry with Sparta.
The Theban army was commanded by a man who was far superior to his predecessors and had an exceptional influence on the future of Sparta. It was great commander, resorting to tactics that were unknown before him.
At the beginning, the Spartan king Agesilaus is undaunted, the oligarchy remains inviolable. But with each victory of Agesilaus, Sparta loses something very important: Spartan resources melt, people die in battles, while the Thebans learn new character battle that will prevail in new era. Agesilaus is talented, and as a military man he is extremely insightful. He is a gifted politician, but forgets one of the basic Spartan principles: don't face the same enemy too often, don't let him learn your secrets.
Epaminondas not only learned the secrets of Sparta, he figured out how to fight back and won. They had met the Thebans on the battlefield too many times and this time they were dealing with a rising military power that, in addition to being strong, was adopting new and very effective military tactics.
Epaminondas had at his disposal powerful weapon- Athens. After overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants in 403 BC The Athenians slowly but surely restored their fleet and raised a new generation of citizen-soldiers. And they got more stronger democracy. Oddly enough, but defeat in the Peloponnesian War it turned out for Athens almost the best outcome, if you look at it from the point of view of democracy. After the bloody oligarchy of Sparta, democracy in Athens seemed to have found a second wind.
During the first bloody decade of the 4th century BC. Athens was one of Thebes's main allies. also entered into a strong alliance with Corinth, thus creating united front against Sparta.
Corinth was the most important member of the Peloponnesian League. The fact that he joined the axis of Athens - Boeotia - Thebes - Argos was for real for Sparta a serious blow.
In 379 BC. successful uprising marked end of the Spartan oligarchy in Thebes. The Thebans were not alone in hating the regime: there were many other states that could not stand Sparta for other reasons, and therefore were ready to help the Thebans.
Battle of Leuctra
The list of Sparta's enemies grew. A city-state could hate Sparta not only because it was cruel and arrogant, but there was always some other reason. Among Sparta's few remaining allies there was a feeling that the Spartiates were winning wars because sacrificed allies, but not yourself.
When they were not alone in the war, they made it clear that they would fight on the right wing. This meant that the enemy, who would also put his elite troops on the right wing, would not meet the Spartans. Therefore, in many battles the Spartans met weaker units of the enemy. Often we see that the allies are strangely under more pressure than the Spartans. If you want to get rid of distrustful allies, send them to the left wing - the Spartans will deal with them.
Oddly enough, but the city-state, which always tried to isolate itself, which always entered into battle in force emergency, Now fought everything known world to maintain their dominion. And all this happened in Boeotia.
If you have a growing population, if your women give birth at 15-18 years old, which is necessary regardless of childhood diseases, a low survival rate is a guarantee that you will not face a disaster.
The number of elite warriors was sharply decreasing, but the ranks of the Spartan system itself were inexorably decreasing. It was easy to fall, almost impossible to get up. You could be expelled from your circle for failing to arrange a dinner for your friends, for faltering in battle, for some other social sins, and this meant the end for you.
A very dangerous one has appeared variety extra people
, who were Spartans by birth and upbringing, but at the same time deprived of Spartan citizenship. They were considered dishonest in a society in which honor was paramount. They brought trouble with them. However, Sparta was forced to condone them, it refrained from any ideological friction, it was even ready to make them new members of the elite. This fact suggests that it is the state has lost contact with reality.
For the first time in my life long history weakened Sparta will be forced to defend itself on its own land. Extremely weak Sparta had to withstand the most difficult test. U Epaminondas, a brilliant Theban commander, was born new plan : redraw the map of the Peloponnese and finally bleed Sparta.
He was interested in not just destroying the power of Sparta, but destroy the myth of Spartan omnipotence, i.e. in other words, drive the last nail into the coffin. He understood that Sparta could not exist as before if free the helots.
The Spartans were completely dependent on labor; their entire system depended on this. Without it, Sparta simply would not have the resources to be a significant power.
With the support of the alliance - - Argos Epaminondas began to the first stage of the destruction of Sparta. At the beginning of 369 BC. he arrives in Messinia and announces that Messenians are no longer helots that they are free and independent Greeks. This is a very significant event.
Epaminondas and his troops remained in Messenia for almost 4 months while the liberated helots built a huge wall around the new city-state.
These Messenians were the descendants of many generations of helots who, at the cost of their independence and lives, ensured the prosperity of Sparta. And now they were witnessing the death of the great Spartan polis. The Spartans tried for centuries to prevent the restoration of Messenian independence. This is exactly what happened.
While the helots were building walls, Epaminondas carried out second stage of your fee. Allied forces built fortifications in one of the key strategic centers - which in Greek means “big city”.
It was another strong, powerful city, owned by people who had every reason to fear the revival of Sparta. They isolated Sparta. Now Sparta is deprived of the opportunity to regain the power it once had. From that moment on, Sparta became a dinosaur.
The decline of the great polis
Now Epaminondas is ready to invade. He has cornered the Spartans and has 70,000 men at his disposal.
He was a brilliant politician. With the help of authority alone, he created an army of retribution - the first foreign army appeared in the valley Laconia for 600 years. There is a famous saying: in 600 years, not a single Spartan woman ever saw an enemy fire burn out.
Sparta did something it had never done before: it retreated, thereby making itself second-rate state in the Greek world. The very course of history was against Sparta, demography was against Sparta, geography. And luck itself turned away from her when a man like Epaminondas appeared.
After the liberation of Messenia in 370 BC. will never rise to the level of the power it once was in the Greek world. They were ruined by their own success. They lived in something like a greenhouse - a hermetic environment, feeding on their virtues, but they could not resist the corruption and temptations that accompanied luck.
Unlike other city-states, Sparta was shadow of the former power, it has become something of a living museum. During the time of Rome, Sparta became a kind of themed museum, where you could go and look at the local residents and marvel at their strange way of life.
The great historian said that when future generations looked at Athens, they decided that Athens was 10 times larger than it really was, and Sparta was 10 times smaller than it actually was.
The Spartans had very little to show the world; their houses and temples were simple. When Sparta lost power, it left behind very little worth noting. While Athens not only survived, it is still admired by the whole world.
Legacy of Sparta
However, the Spartans left heritage. Even before the smoke cleared from the ashes, Athenian thinkers were reviving the more noble aspects of Spartan society in their city-states.
This first appeared in Sparta constitutional government, other Greeks followed their example.
In many greek cities happened civil wars , in Sparta - no. What was the matter? The ancients couldn't figure out why, just like we can't today. Something allowed Sparta to exist for a very long time, moreover, to create a certain political tradition associated with stability.
They were considered a kind of ideal of the Greek civilization of virtue. That's what they thought Socrates , . Republic concept largely based on the policies of the Spartans. But sometimes they saw in them what they wanted to see. Over the next 20 centuries, philosophers and politicians returned again and again to the glorious past that was once Sparta.
Sparta was idealized during the period of the Italian and its oligarchic government. Political stability of Sparta was presented as a kind of ideal.
In 18th century France, people were simply in love with Sparta. Rousseau declared that it was not a republic of people, but of demigods. During the time many wanted die nobly like the Spartans.
During American Revolution Sparta was the banner for those who wanted to create a stable democratic country. said that he learned more from the history of Thucydides than from local newspapers.
Thucydides tells how a radical democracy, Athens, lost the Peloponnesian War. This is probably why Jefferson and the other framers of the American Constitution preferred Sparta to Athens. pointed to Athenian democracy as a terrible example of what not to have in . Those. true democracy cannot be combined with an aristocratic element, and the good thing about Sparta is that everyone there lives in society, and everyone is first and foremost a citizen.
However, in the 20th century Sparta attracted attention not so much democratic societies, so many leaders who took on the worst aspects of Spartan society. I saw an ideal in Sparta, so the history of Sparta was included in the curriculum.
And his associates spoke very warmly about Sparta. He said that other countries could become helots of the German military caste. It is legitimate to see origins of totalitarianism in Spartan society.
The lessons of Sparta are still felt even in today's society. The Spartans were the creators, the founders of what we call Western military discipline, and it became a colossal advantage in, in, during the Renaissance and remains to this day.
Western armies have a completely different idea of what discipline is. Take western army and put it against the Iraqi army, against the army of some tribe, and it will almost always win, even if it is significantly outnumbered. Those. We owe Western discipline to Sparta. We learn from them that honor is one of important components human life. A person can live without honor if the surrounding circumstances make this possible. But a person cannot die without honor, because when we die, we seem to account for our lives.
But speaking of greatness, we must not forget that many people paid a terrible price for what she achieved. They had to suppress human qualities necessary for the full development of personality. At the same time, they doomed themselves to cruelty and narrow-mindedness. What they elevated to supremacy and honor at the cost of losing freedom, even their own, is caricature on true meaning human life.
In conclusion, it should be said that Sparta got what I deserved. U modern society there is one advantage: by studying history, it can take the best from Sparta and discard the worst.
The Spartan kings considered themselves Heraclides - descendants of the hero Hercules. Their bellicosity became a household name, and with good reason: the Spartans’ fighting formation was the direct predecessor of the phalanx of Alexander the Great.
The Spartans were attentive to signs and prophecies and listened very much to the opinion of the Delphic oracle. Cultural heritage Sparta is not known as well as Athens, largely due to wariness warlike people to writing: for example, their laws were transmitted orally, and it was forbidden to write the names of the dead on non-military tombstones.
However, if not for Sparta, the culture of Greece could have been assimilated by foreigners who were constantly invading the territory of Hellas. The fact is that Sparta was actually the only policy that not only had combat-ready army, but whose whole life was subordinated army order, took place according to a strict schedule designed to discipline the soldiers. The Spartans owed the emergence of such a militarized society to unique historical circumstances.
Beginning of the 10th century BC. e. It is considered to be the time of the first large-scale settlement of the territory of Laconia, that is, the future Sparta and the adjacent lands. In the 8th century, the Spartans undertook expansion into the nearby lands of Messenia. During the occupation, they decided not to destroy the local inhabitants, but to make them their slaves, who were known as helots - literally “captives”. But the creation of a colossal slave complex led to inevitable uprisings: in the 7th century, the helots fought against their enslavers for several years, and this became a lesson for Sparta.
The laws established, according to legend, by the Spartan king-legislator named Lycurgus (translated as “working wolf”) back in the 9th century, served to regulate the internal political situation after the conquest of Messenia. The Spartans distributed the lands of the helots among all citizens, and all full-fledged citizens formed the backbone of the army (about 9,000 people in the 7th century - 10 times more than in any other Greek polis) and had hoplite weapons. The strengthening of the army, perhaps dictated by the fear that another slave uprising would break out, contributed to an extraordinary increase in the influence of the Spartans in the region and the formation of a special system of life, characteristic only of Sparta.
In order to optimally train the soldiers of Sparta, from the age of seven they were sent to centralized government agencies, where they spent time in intensive training until they were 18 years old. This was a kind of initiation stage: in order to become a full-fledged citizen, it was necessary not only to successfully pass all the tests of 11 years of training, but also, as proof of one’s skills and fearlessness, to kill a helot with a dagger alone. It is not surprising that the helots constantly had a reason for their next performances. The widespread legend about the execution of defective Spartan boys or even infants most likely has no basis in reality. historical basis, since in the polis there was even a certain social layer of hypomeions - physically or mentally disabled “citizens”.
The Spartan kings considered themselves Heraclides - descendants of the hero Hercules. Their bellicosity became a household name, and with good reason: the Spartans’ fighting formation was the direct predecessor of the phalanx of Alexander the Great.
The Spartans were attentive to signs and prophecies and listened very much to the opinion of the Delphic oracle. The cultural heritage of Sparta is not as well known as that of Athens, largely due to the warlike people's wariness towards writing: for example, their laws were transmitted orally, and the names of the dead were forbidden to be written on non-military tombstones.
However, if not for Sparta, the culture of Greece could have been assimilated by foreigners who were constantly invading the territory of Hellas. The fact is that Sparta was in fact the only polis that not only had a combat-ready army, but whose entire life was subject to army order and took place according to a strict schedule designed to discipline the soldiers. The Spartans owed the emergence of such a militarized society to unique historical circumstances.
Beginning of the 10th century BC. e. It is considered to be the time of the first large-scale settlement of the territory of Laconia, that is, the future Sparta and the adjacent lands. In the 8th century, the Spartans undertook expansion into the nearby lands of Messenia. During the occupation, they decided not to destroy the local inhabitants, but to make them their slaves, who were known as helots - literally “captives”. But the creation of a colossal slave complex led to inevitable uprisings: in the 7th century, the helots fought against their enslavers for several years, and this became a lesson for Sparta.
The laws established, according to legend, by the Spartan king-legislator named Lycurgus (translated as “working wolf”) back in the 9th century, served to regulate the internal political situation after the conquest of Messenia. The Spartans distributed the lands of the helots among all citizens, and all full-fledged citizens formed the backbone of the army (about 9,000 people in the 7th century - 10 times more than in any other Greek city) and had hoplite weapons. The strengthening of the army, perhaps dictated by the fear that another slave uprising would break out, contributed to an extraordinary increase in the influence of the Spartans in the region and the formation of a special system of life, characteristic only of Sparta.
In order to optimally train the soldiers of Sparta, from the age of seven they were sent to centralized government structures, where they spent time in intensive training until the age of 18. This was a kind of initiation stage: in order to become a full-fledged citizen, it was necessary not only to successfully pass all the tests of 11 years of training, but also, as proof of one’s skills and fearlessness, to kill a helot with a dagger alone. It is not surprising that the helots constantly had a reason for their next performances. The widespread legend about the execution of handicapped Spartan boys or even babies most likely has no real historical basis, since in the polis there was even a certain social stratum of hypomeions - physically or mentally handicapped “citizens”.
Sparta was the main state Dorian tribe. Her name already plays a role in the tale of the Trojan War, since Menelaus, the husband of Helen, because of whom the war between the Greeks and the Trojans broke out, was a Spartan king. History later Sparta started with conquest of the Peloponnese by the Dorians under the leadership of the Heraclides. Of the three brothers, one (Temen) received Argos, the other (Cresphont) received Messinia, the sons of the third (Aristodemus) Proclus And Eurysthenes – Laconia. There were two in Sparta royal family who descended from these heroes through their sons Agisa And Euryponta(Agida and Eurypontida).
Genus Heraclides. Scheme. Two dynasties of Spartan kings - in the lower right corner
But all these were just folk tales or guesses Greek historians, not having complete historical accuracy. Among such legends we should include most of the legends that were very popular in ancient times about the legislator Lycurgus, whose life was attributed to the 9th century. and to whom directly attributed the entire Spartan device. Lycurgus, according to legend, was youngest son one of the kings and guardian of his young nephew Charilaus. When the latter himself began to rule, Lycurgus went on a journey, and visited Egypt, Asia Minor and Crete, but had to return to their homeland at the request of the Spartans, who were dissatisfied with internal strife and their king Charilaus himself. Lycurgus was entrusted draw up new laws for the state, and he set to work on this matter, seeking advice from the Delphic oracle. The Pythia told Lycurgus that she did not know whether to call him a god or a man, and that his decrees would be the best. Having completed his work, Lycurgus took an oath from the Spartans that they would carry out his laws until he returned from a new trip to Delphi. Pythia confirmed her previous decision to him, and Lycurgus, having sent this answer to Sparta, took his own life so as not to return to his homeland. The Spartans honored Lycurgus as a god and built a temple in his honor, but in essence Lycurgus was originally a deity who later turned into popular fantasy into the mortal legislator of Sparta. The so-called legislation of Lycurgus was kept in memory in the form short sayings (retras).
102. Laconia and its population
Laconia occupied southeastern part Peloponnese and consisted of a river valley Eurota and the mountain ranges that bounded it from the west and east, of which the western one was called Taygetus. In this country there were arable lands, and pastures, and forests, in which there was a lot of game, and in the mountains of Taygetos there was a lot of iron; from it local residents made weapons. There were few cities in Laconia. In the center of the country near the coast of Eurotas lay Sparta, otherwise called Lacedaemon. It was a combination of five settlements, which remained unfortified, whereas in other Greek cities there was usually a fortress. In essence, however, Sparta was real a military camp that kept all of Laconia in subjection.
Laconia and Sparta on the map of the ancient Peloponnese
The population of the country consisted of descendants Dorian conquerors and the Achaeans they conquered. The first ones Spartiates, were alone full citizens states, the latter were divided into two classes: some were called helots and there were serfs, subordinates, however, not individual citizens, and to the entire state, others were called periekov and represented personally free people, but stood towards Sparta in relation subjects without any political rights. Most land was considered common property states, from which the latter gave the Spartiates separate plots for food (clairs), originally were approximately same size. These plots were cultivated by helots for a certain rent, which they paid in kind in the form of most of the harvest. The Periecs were left with part of their land; they lived in cities, engaged in industry and trade, but generally in Laconia these activities were little developed: already at a time when other Greeks had coins, in this country they used iron rods. Perieks were required to pay taxes to the state treasury.
Ruins of a theater in ancient Sparta
103. Military organization of Sparta
Sparta was military state and its citizens were first and foremost warriors; Perieks and helots were also involved in the war. Spartiates, divided into three phyla with division into phratries, in an era of prosperity there were only nine thousand out of 370 thousand periecs and helots, whom they kept under their power by force; The main activities of the Spartiates were gymnastics, military exercises, hunting and war. Upbringing and whole lifestyle in Sparta were aimed at always being ready against the possibility helot revolts, which actually broke out from time to time in the country. The mood of the helots was monitored by detachments of youth, and all those suspicious were mercilessly killed (crypts). The Spartan did not belong to himself: the citizen was first and foremost a warrior, all my life(actually until the age of sixty) obligated to serve the state. When a child was born into a Spartan family, he was examined to see if he would subsequently be fit to carry military service, and frail babies were not allowed to live. From seven to eighteen years old, all the boys were raised together in state “gymnasiums”, where they were taught gymnastics and military training, and were also taught singing and playing the flute. The upbringing of Spartan youth was distinguished by severity: boys and young men were always dressed in light clothes, walked barefoot and bareheaded, ate very little and were subjected to cruel corporal punishment, which had to be endured without screaming or moaning. (They were flogged for this purpose in front of the altar of Artemis).
Spartan army warrior
Adults also could not live as they wanted. And in peacetime the Spartans were divided into fighting partnerships, even having dinner together, for which the participants of common tables (sissity) They brought in a certain amount of different products, and their food was necessarily the coarsest and simplest (the famous Spartan stew). The state ensured that no one evaded execution general rules And did not deviate from the way of life prescribed by law. Each family had its own allotment from common state land, and this plot could neither be divided, nor sold, nor left for spiritual testament. Between the Spartiates it was necessary to dominate equality; they directly called themselves “equals” (ομοιοί). Luxury in privacy persecuted. For example, when building a house, you could only use an ax and a saw, with which it was difficult to make anything beautiful. With Spartan iron money it was impossible to buy anything from industrial products in other states of Greece. Moreover, the Spartiates had no right to leave their country, and foreigners were forbidden to live in Laconia (xenelasia). The Spartans did not care about mental development. Eloquence, which was so valued in other parts of Greece, was not in use in Sparta, and Laconian taciturnity ( laconicism) even became a proverb among the Greeks. The Spartans became the best warriors in Greece - hardy, persistent, disciplined. Their army consisted of heavily armed infantry (hoplites) with lightly armed auxiliary detachments (from helots and part of the perieks); They did not use cavalry in their wars.
Ancient Spartan helmet
104. Structure of the Spartan state
105. Spartan conquests
This military state set out on the path of conquest very early. The increase in the number of inhabitants forced the Spartans look for new lands, from which one could make new plots for citizens. Having gradually captured all of Laconia, Sparta in the third quarter of the 8th century conquered Messenia [First Messenian War] and its inhabitants too turned into helots and perieks. Some of the Messenians moved out, but those who remained did not want to put up with foreign domination. In the middle of the 7th century. they rebelled against Sparta [Second Messenian War], but were conquered again. The Spartans made an attempt to extend their power towards Argolis, but were at first recaptured by Argos and only later they captured part of the Argolid coast. They had more success in Arcadia, but having already made their first conquest in this area (the city of Tegea), they did not annex it to their possessions, but entered into a military alliance under its leadership. This was the beginning of a great Peloponnesian League(symmachy) under Spartan supremacy (hegemony). Little by little all the parts adhered to this symmachy Arcadia, and also Elis. Thus, by the end of the 6th century. Sparta stood at the head of almost the entire Peloponnese. Symmachia had a union council, in which, under the chairmanship of Sparta, issues of war and peace were decided, and Sparta had the very leadership in the war (hegemony). When the Shah of Persia undertook the conquest of Greece, Sparta was the strongest Greek state and therefore could lead the rest of the Greeks in the fight against Persia. But already during this struggle she had to give in Athens championship.
The glory of Sparta - the Peloponnesian city in Laconia - in historical chronicles and the world is very loud. It was one of the most famous policies Ancient Greece, who did not know turmoil and civil upheaval, and his army never retreated before enemies.
Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, who reigned in Laconia one and a half thousand years before the birth of Christ and named the city after his wife. In the first centuries of the city’s existence, there were no walls around it: they were erected only under the tyrant Naviz. True, they were later destroyed, but Appius Claudius soon erected new ones.
Creator Spartan state The ancient Greeks considered the legislator Lycurgus, whose life spanned approximately the first half of the 7th century BC. e. Population ancient Sparta According to its composition, in those days it was divided into three groups: the Spartans, the Perieci and the Helots. The Spartans lived in Sparta itself and enjoyed all the rights of citizenship of their city-state: they had to fulfill all the requirements of the law and they were admitted to all honorary public positions. The occupation of agriculture and crafts, although it was not prohibited to this class, did not correspond to the way of education of the Spartans and was therefore despised by them.
Most of the land of Laconia was at their disposal; it was cultivated for them by the helots. To own land plot, the Spartan had to fulfill two requirements: strictly follow all the rules of discipline and provide certain part income for sissitiya - public table: barley flour, wine, cheese, etc.
Game was obtained by hunting in state forests; Moreover, everyone who made a sacrifice to the gods sent part of the carcass of the sacrificial animal to the sissitium. Violation or failure to comply with these rules (for any reason) resulted in loss of citizenship rights. All full-fledged citizens of ancient Sparta, young and old, had to participate in these dinners, while no one had any advantages or privileges.
The circle of perieki also included free people, but they were not full citizens of Sparta. The Perieci inhabited all the cities of Laconia, except Sparta, which belonged exclusively to the Spartans. They did not politically constitute an entire city-state, since they received control in their cities only from Sparta. The perieki of various cities were independent of each other, and at the same time, each of them was dependent on Sparta.
The helots were rural population Laconia: they were slaves of those lands that they cultivated for the benefit of the Spartans and Perieci. Helots also lived in cities, but city life was not typical for helots. They were allowed to have a house, a wife and a family; it was forbidden to sell helots outside their estates. Some scholars believe that the sale of helots was generally impossible, since they were the property of the state, and not of individuals. Some information has reached our times about the cruel treatment of the helots by the Spartans, although again, some scientists believe that contempt was more evident in this attitude.
Plutarch reports that every year (by virtue of the decrees of Lycurgus) the ephors solemnly declared war against the helots. Young Spartans, armed with daggers, walked throughout Laconia and exterminated the unfortunate helots. But over time, scientists found that this method of exterminating helots was legalized not during the time of Lycurgus, but only after the First Messenian War, when the helots became dangerous to the state.
Plutarch, the author of biographies of prominent Greeks and Romans, began his story about the life and laws of Lycurgus, warning the reader that nothing reliable could be reported about them. And yet he had no doubt that this politician was a historical figure.
Most modern scientists consider Lycurgus a legendary figure: one of the first to doubt his historical existence was the famous German historian antiquity K.O. Muller. He suggested that the so-called “laws of Lycurgus” are much older than their legislator, since they are not so much laws as ancient folk customs, rooted in the distant past of the Dorians and all other Hellenes.
Many scientists (U. Vilamowitz, E. Meyer and others) consider the biography of the Spartan legislator, preserved in several versions, as a late reworking of the myth of the ancient Laconian deity Lycurgus. Adherents of this trend questioned the very existence of “legislation” in ancient Sparta. Customs and rules that governed daily life E. Meyer classified the Spartans as “the everyday life of the Dorian tribal community,” from which classical Sparta grew almost without any changes.
But the results archaeological excavations, which were carried out in the 1906-1910s by an English archaeological expedition in Sparta, served as the reason for the partial rehabilitation of the ancient legend about the legislation of Lycurgus. The British explored the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia - one of the most ancient temples of Sparta - and discovered many works of art locally produced: wonderful examples of painted ceramics, unique terracotta masks (not found anywhere else), objects made of bronze, gold, amber and ivory.
These finds, for the most part, somehow did not fit with the ideas about the harsh and ascetic life of the Spartans, about the almost complete isolation of their city from the rest of the world. And then scientists suggested that the laws of Lycurgus in the 7th century BC. e. economic and cultural development Sparta proceeded in the same way as the development of others Greek states. Only towards the end of the 6th century BC. e. Sparta closes in on itself and turns into the city-state as ancient writers knew it.
Due to the threat of a rebellion by the helots, the situation was then restless, and therefore the “initiators of reforms” could resort (as often happened in ancient times) to the authority of some hero or deity. In Sparta, Lycurgus was chosen for this role, who little by little began to turn from a deity into a historical legislator, although ideas about his divine origin persisted until the time of Herodotus.
Lycurgus had the opportunity to bring order to a cruel and outrageous people, so it was necessary to teach them to resist the onslaught of other states, and for this to make everyone skilled warriors. One of the first reforms of Lycurgus was the organization of governance of the Spartan community. Ancient writers claimed that he created a Council of Elders (gerusia) of 28 people. The elders (geronts) were elected by the apella - the people's assembly; The gerousia also included two kings, one of whose main duties was command of the army during the war.
From the descriptions of Pausanias we know that the period of the most intensive construction activity in the history of Sparta was the 6th century BC. e. At this time, the temple of Athena Copperhouse on the acropolis, the portico of Skiada, the so-called “throne of Apollo” and other buildings were erected in the city. But Thucydides, who saw Sparta in the last quarter of the 5th century BC. e., the city made the most bleak impression.
Against the background of the luxury and grandeur of Athenian architecture from the time of Pericles, Sparta already seemed like a nondescript provincial town. The Spartans themselves, without fear of being considered old-fashioned, did not stop worshiping archaic stone and wooden idols at a time when Phidias, Myron, Praxiteles and other outstanding sculptors of Ancient Greece were creating their masterpieces in other Hellenic cities.
In the second half of the 6th century BC. e. there was a noticeable cooling of the Spartans towards Olympic Games. Before that, they took the most active part in them and accounted for more than half of the winners, in all major types of competitions. Subsequently, for the entire time from 548 to 480 BC. e., only one representative of Sparta, King Demaratus, won a victory and only in one type of competition - horse racing at the hippodrome.
To achieve harmony and peace in Sparta, Lycurgus decided to forever eradicate wealth and poverty in his state. He banned the use of gold and silver coins, which were used throughout Greece, and instead introduced iron money in the form of obols. They bought only what was produced in Sparta itself; In addition, they were so heavy that even a small amount had to be transported on a cart.
Lycurgus also prescribed a way of home life: all Spartans, from ordinary citizen before the king, had to live in absolutely identical conditions. A special order indicated what kind of houses could be built, what clothes to wear: they had to be so simple that there was no room for any luxury. Even the food had to be the same for everyone.
Thus, in Sparta, wealth gradually lost all meaning, since it was impossible to use it: citizens began to think less about their own good, and more about the state. Nowhere in Sparta did poverty coexist with wealth; as a result, there was no envy, rivalry and other selfish passions that exhaust a person. There was no greed, which pits private benefit against public good and arms one citizen against another.
One of the Spartan youths, who purchased land for next to nothing, was put on trial. The accusation said that he was still very young, but was already seduced by profit, while self-interest is the enemy of every resident of Sparta.
Raising children was considered one of the main duties of a citizen in Sparta. The Spartan, who had three sons, was exempted from guard duty, and the father of five was exempted from all existing duties.
From the age of 7, the Spartan no longer belonged to his family: children were separated from their parents and began social life. From that moment on, they were raised in special units(agelah), where they were supervised not only by their fellow citizens, but also by specially assigned censors. Children were taught to read and write, taught to remain silent for a long time, and to speak laconically - briefly and clearly.
Gymnastics and sports exercises they had to develop dexterity and strength; in order for there to be harmony in the movements, young men were obliged to participate in choral dances; hunting in the forests of Laconia developed patience for difficult trials. The children were fed rather poorly, so they made up for the lack of food not only by hunting, but also by stealing, since they were also accustomed to theft; however, if anyone was caught, they beat him mercilessly - not for theft, but for awkwardness.
Young men who reached the age of 16 were subjected to a very severe test at the altar of the goddess Artemis: they were severely flogged, but they had to remain silent. Even the smallest cry or groan contributed to the continuation of the punishment: some could not stand the test and died.
In Sparta there was a law according to which no one should be fatter than necessary. According to this law, all young men who have not yet reached civil rights, were shown to the ephors - members of the election commission. If the young men were strong and strong, then they were praised; young men whose bodies were considered too flabby and loose were beaten with sticks, since their appearance disgraced Sparta and its laws.
Plutarch and Xenophon wrote that Lycurgus legitimized that women should perform the same exercises as men, and thereby become strong and be able to give birth to strong and healthy offspring. Thus, Spartan women were worthy of their husbands, since they too were subject to a harsh upbringing.
The women of ancient Sparta, whose sons died, went to the battlefield and looked where they were wounded. If it was in the chest, then the women looked at those around them with pride and buried their children with honor in their father’s tombs. If they saw wounds on the back, then, sobbing with shame, they hurried to hide, leaving others to bury the dead.
Marriage in Sparta was also subject to the law: personal feelings had no meaning, because it was all a matter of state. Boys and girls could marry physiological development which corresponded to each other and from whom healthy children could be expected: marriage between persons of unequal complexions was not allowed.
But Aristotle speaks quite differently about the position of Spartan women: while the Spartans led a strict, almost ascetic life, their wives indulged in extraordinary luxury in their home. This circumstance forced men to get money often through dishonest means, because direct means were prohibited to them. Aristotle wrote that Lycurgus tried to subject Spartan women to the same strict discipline, but was met with decisive rebuff from them.
Left to their own devices, women became self-willed, indulged in luxury and licentiousness, they even began to interfere in state affairs, which ultimately led to a real gynecocracy in Sparta. “And what difference does it make,” Aristotle asks bitterly, “whether the women themselves rule or whether the leaders are under their authority?” The Spartans were blamed for the fact that they behaved boldly and impudently and allowed themselves to indulge in luxury, thereby challenging strict standards state discipline and morality.
To protect his legislation from foreign influence, Lycurgus limited Sparta's connections with foreigners. Without permission, which was given only in cases of special importance, the Spartan could not leave the city and go abroad. Foreigners were also prohibited from entering Sparta. Sparta's inhospitality was the most known phenomenon V ancient world.
The citizens of ancient Sparta were something like a military garrison, constantly training and always ready for war either with the helots or with an external enemy. The legislation of Lycurgus took on an exclusively military character also because those were times when there was no public and personal security, and generally all the principles on which state tranquility is based were absent. In addition, the Dorians, in very small numbers, settled in the country of the helots they had conquered and were surrounded by half-conquered or not at all conquered Achaeans, therefore they could only hold out through battles and victories.
Such a harsh upbringing, at first glance, could make the life of ancient Sparta very boring, and the people themselves unhappy. But from the writings of ancient Greek authors it is clear that such unusual laws made the Spartans the most prosperous people in the ancient world, because everywhere only competition in the acquisition of virtues reigned.
There was a prediction that Sparta would remain strong and powerful state, as long as she follows the laws of Lycurgus and remains indifferent to gold and silver. After the war with Athens, the Spartans brought money to their city, which seduced the inhabitants of Sparta and forced them to deviate from the laws of Lycurgus. And from that moment on, their valor began to gradually fade away...
Aristotle believes that it was the abnormal position of women in Spartan society that led to the fact that Sparta in the second half of the 4th century BC. e. terribly depopulated and lost its former military power.
