Personality theory in psychology

Mamedov Tariel Mamed oglu,

Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Head. Department of Pedagogy and Psychology, Sumgayit State University, Azerbaijan.

1. Personality theory

A personality is, first of all, a contemporary of a certain era, and this determines many of its socio-psychological properties. In one era or another, a person occupies a certain position in the class structure of society. The belonging of an individual to a certain class is another basic definition of it, which is directly related to the position of the individual in society. This also implies the economic state and type of activity, political state and type of activity as a subject of socio-political activity (as a member of an organization); legal structure and structure of the rights and obligations of the individual as a citizen, moral behavior and consciousness (structure of spiritual values). It should be added that a personality is always determined by the characteristics of its movement as a peer of a certain generation, the family structure and its position in this structure (as father or mother, son and daughter, etc.). A very significant characteristic of a person as an individual is his nationality, and in the conditions of racial discrimination in a capitalist society, his belonging to a certain race (privileged or oppressed), although the race itself is not social education, but there is a phenomenon of the historical nature of man.

Personality theory is a set of hypotheses, or proposals about the nature and mechanisms of personality development. Personality theory attempts to not only explain but also predict human behavior. The main questions that personality theory must answer are the following:

1. What is the nature of the main sources of personality development - congenital or acquired?

2. What age period is most important for personality formation?

3. What processes are dominant in the personality structure – conscious (rational) or unconscious (irrational)?

4. Does personality have free will, and to what extent does a person exercise control over his behavior?

5. Is a person’s personal (inner) world subjective, or is the inner world objective and can be identified using objective methods?

2. Psychodynamic theory of personality

In the psychological literature, different opinions are expressed regarding the level of integration that characterizes the personality structure. In his well-known concept of relationship psychology, V.N. Myasishchev characterizes the unity of personality orientation, level of development, personality structure and dynamics of neuropsychic reactivity(temperament). From this point of view, the structure of personality is only one of the definitions of its unity and integrity, that is, more private characteristic personality, the integration features of which are related to the motivation, relationships and tendencies of the individual.

According to V.N. Myasishchev, “issues of structure are... the relationship of substantive tendencies; they, being realized in various types of activities related to the living conditions of the corresponding historical moment, follow from the basic relations, that is, aspirations, requirements, principles and needs... structure is more clearly revealed in the relative determinant roles individual needs. Even more characteristic is the integral correlation of the basic tendencies of the personality, which allows us to talk about harmony, integrity, unity or duality, splitting, lack of unity of the personality.”

The founder of the psychodynamic theory of personality, also known as “classical psychoanalysis,” is the Austrian scientist S. Freud.

Freud argued that the individual has no free will. Human behavior is completely determined by his sexual and aggressive motives, which he called the id (it). As for the inner world, it is subjective. A person is captive of his own inner world; the true content of the motive is hidden behind the “façade” of behavior. And only slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, dreams, as well as special methods can provide more or less accurate information about a person’s personality.

S. Freud identifies three main conceptual blocks, or levels of personality:

1) eid(“it”) – the main structure of the personality, consisting of a set of unconscious (sexual and aggressive) impulses; The id functions according to the pleasure principle;

2) ego(“I”) is a set of cognitive and executive functions of the psyche that are predominantly conscious by a person, representing, in a broad sense, all our knowledge about real world; the ego is a structure that is designed to serve the id, functions in accordance with the principle of reality and regulates the process of interaction between the id and the superego and acts as an arena for the ongoing struggle between them;

3) superego(“super-ego”) is a structure containing social norms, attitudes, and moral values of the society in which a person lives. (Druzhinin)

3. Analytical theory of personality

Jung considered innate psychological factors to be the main source of personality development. A person inherits from his parents ready-made primary ideas - “archetypes”. Some archetypes are universal, such as the ideas of God, good and evil, and are common to all peoples. But there are archetypes that are culturally and individually specific. Jung suggested that archetypes are reflected in dreams, fantasies and are often found in the form of symbols used in art, literature, architecture and religion (Jung K., 1994). The meaning of every person’s life is to fill the innate archetypes with specific content.

According to Jung, personality is formed throughout life. The structure of the personality is dominated by the unconscious, the main part of which is the “collective unconscious” - the totality of all innate archetypes. Individual free will is limited. Human behavior is actually subject to his innate archetypes, or collective unconscious. The inner world of a person, within the framework of this theory, is completely subjective. A person is capable of revealing his world only through his dreams and relationships with symbols of culture and art. The true content of personality is hidden from an outside observer.

The main elements of personality are the psychological properties of individual realized archetypes of a given person. These properties are also often called character traits. For example, the properties of the “person” archetype (mask) are all our psychological characteristics, the roles that we put on display; properties of the “shadow” archetype are our true psychological feelings that we hide from people; properties of the “animus” (spirit) archetype - to be courageous, firm, brave; protect, guard, hunt, etc.; properties of the “anima” (soul) archetype – tenderness, gentleness, caring.

The analytical model distinguishes three main conceptual blocks, or areas of personality:

1. The collective unconscious is the main structure of the personality, in which the entire cultural and historical experience of humanity is concentrated, presented in the human psyche in the form of inherited archetypes.

2. The individual unconscious is a collection of “complexes,” or emotionally charged thoughts and feelings that are repressed from consciousness. An example of a complex is the “power complex,” when a person spends all his mental energy on activities directly or indirectly related to the desire for power, without realizing it.

3. Individual conscious - a structure that serves as the basis of self-awareness and includes those thoughts, feelings, memories and sensations through which we become aware of ourselves and regulate our conscious activity.

Personal integrity is achieved through the action of the “self” archetype. The main goal of this archetype is the “individuation” of a person, or exit from the collective unconscious. This is achieved due to the fact that the “self” organizes, coordinates, integrates all the structures of the human psyche into a single whole and creates the uniqueness of the life of each individual person. The self has two ways, two settings for such integration:

– extroversion – an attitude that consists in filling innate archetypes with external information (object orientation);

– introversion – orientation to the inner world, to one’s own experiences (to the subject).

Every person has both an extrovert and an introvert at the same time. However, the degree of their expression can be completely different.

In addition, Jung identified four subtypes of information processing: mental, sensual, sensing and intuitive, the dominance of one of which gives the uniqueness of a person’s extroverted or introverted attitude. Thus, in Jung's typology, eight personality subtypes can be distinguished.

As an example, here are the characteristics of two personality types:

1. Extroverted Thinker - focused on learning about the outside world, practical, interested in obtaining facts, logical, good scientist.

2. Introverted thinker – interested in understanding own ideas, reasonable, struggling with philosophical problems, looking for the meaning of his own life, keeping his distance from people.

According to analytical theory, personality is a set of innate and realized archetypes, and personality structure is defined as the individual uniqueness of the relationship individual properties archetypes, separate blocks of the unconscious and conscious, as well as extroverted or introverted personality attitudes.

4. Humanistic theory of personality

Similar phenomena that can be called deformation personalities, usually arise only in connection with the cessation of professional work activity in one or another area of social life, production and culture. In other words, such deformation is a consequence of a fundamental change in the way of life and activity, status and roles of a person in society, the most important of which are production, creation material and spiritual values. The sudden blocking of all potentials of a person’s ability to work and certainty with the cessation of many years of work cannot but cause profound changes in the structure of a person as a person. subject of activity, and therefore personalities.

Representatives of humanistic psychology consider innate tendencies towards self-actualization to be the main source of personality development. Personal development is the development of these innate tendencies. According to K. Rogers, there are two innate tendencies in the human psyche. The first, which he called a “self-actualizing tendency,” initially contains in a collapsed form the future properties of a person’s personality. The second - “organismic tracking process” - is a mechanism for monitoring the development of personality. Based on these tendencies, a person develops a special personal structure in the process of development. "I", which includes the "ideal self" and the "real self". these substructures of the “I” structure are in complex relationships - from complete harmony (congruence) to complete disharmony.

The goal of life, according to C. Rogers, is to realize your full innate potential, to be a “fully functioning person,” i.e. a person who uses all his abilities and talents, realizes his potential and moves towards full knowledge of himself, his experiences, following his true nature.

A. Maslow identified two types of needs that underlie personal development: “deficit” needs, which cease after their satisfaction, and “growth”, which, on the contrary, only intensify after their implementation. In total, according to Maslow, there are five levels of motivation:

1) physiological (needs for food, sleep);

2) security needs (need for an apartment, work);

3) affiliation needs, reflecting the needs of one person for another person, for example, to create a family;

4) level of self-esteem (need for self-esteem, competence, dignity);

5) the need for self-actualization (meta-needs for creativity, beauty, integrity, etc.).

In the humanistic model of personality, the main conceptual “units” are:

1) “real self” - a set of thoughts, feelings and experiences “here and now”;

2) “ideal self” - a set of thoughts, feelings and experiences that a person would like to have in order to realize his personal potential;

3) needs for self-actualization - innate needs that determine the growth and development of the individual.

Although the “real self” and the “ideal self” (about high self-esteem). With low values of congruence (low self-esteem), a high level of anxiety and signs of depression are noted.

A holistic personality is characterized by:

1) effective perception of reality;

2) spontaneity, prostate and natural behavior;

3) orientation to solving a problem, to business;

4) constant “childishness” of perception;

5) frequent experiences of “peak” feelings, ecstasy;

6) a sincere desire to help all humanity;

7) deep interpersonal relationships;

8) high moral standards.

Thus, within humanistic approach, personality is the inner world of the human “I” as a result of self-actualization, and the structure of personality is the individual relationship between the “real Self” and the “ideal Self,” as well as the individual level of development of needs for self-actualization.

5. Cognitive theory of personality

The cognitive theory of personality is close to the humanistic one, but it has a number of significant differences. The founder of this approach is American psychologist J. Kelly (1905-1967). In his opinion, the only thing a person wants to know in life is what happened to him and what will happen to him in the future.

The main source of personality development, according to Kelly, is the environment, the social environment. Cognitive theory of personality emphasizes the influence of intellectual processes on human behavior. In this theory, any person is compared to a scientist who tests hypotheses about the nature of things and makes predictions about future events.

The main conceptual element is the personal “construct”. Each person has his own system of personal constructs, which is divided into two levels (blocks):

1. The block of “core” constructs is approximately 50 basic constructs that are at the top of the construct system, i.e. in the constant focus of operational consciousness. A person uses these constructs most often when interacting with other people.

2. The block of peripheral constructs is all other constructs. The number of these constructs is purely individual and can vary from hundreds to several thousand.

Holistic personality traits appear as a result of the joint functioning of both blocks, all constructs. There are two types whole personality: cognitively complex person (a person who has a large number of constructs) and a cognitively simple person (a person with a small set of constructs).

A cognitively complex personality, compared to a cognitively simple one, is distinguished by the following characteristics:

1) has better mental health;

2) copes better with stress;

3) has a higher level of self-esteem:

4) more adaptable to new situations.

6. Behavioral theory of personality

In the psychological process, personality changes are caused by functional disorganization of brain activity. Being a manifestation and consequence of brain disease, they themselves depend on the individual. The more severe the painful condition and the painful process, the more a person’s personality changes.

Not dependent on the individual in external conditions, i.e. considered an endogenous disease cyclophrenia, or manic-depressive psychosis, which has long been classified as a functional psychosis. The connection of cyclophrenia with a special body type, with changes in metabolism, and, consequently, with altered diencephalic dynamics of brain activity is undeniable. (Ananyev)

The behavioral theory of personality also has another name - “scientific”, since the main thesis of this theory states: our personality is a product of learning.

There are two directions in the behavioral theory of personality - reflexive and social. The reflex direction is represented by the works of famous American behaviorists J. Watson and B. Skinner. Founders social direction are American researchers A. Banudra and J. Rotter.

The main source of personality development, according to both directions, is the environment in the broadest sense of the word. Personality has nothing of genetic or psychological inheritance. Personality is a product of learning, and its properties are generalized behavioral reflexes and social skills.

In the behavioral model, there are three main conceptual blocks of personality. The main block is self-efficacy, which is a kind of cognitive construct “I can - I can’t.” A. Bandura defined this structure as belief, belief or expectation of receiving future reinforcement. This block determines the success of performing a certain behavior, or the success of learning new social skills. If a person makes a decision: “I can,” then he begins to perform a certain action, but if a person makes a verdict: “I can’t,” then he refuses to perform it. of this action or from its assimilation. For example, if you decide that you cannot learn Chinese, then no force will force you to do this. And if you decide that you can do it, then sooner or later you will learn it.

According to Bandura, there are four main conditions that determine the development of a person's confidence in what he can and cannot do:

1) past experience (knowledge, skills), for example, if I could before, then apparently I can now;

2) self-instruction; for example “I can do it”;

3) increased emotional mood(alcohol, music, love);

4) (the most important condition) observation, modeling, imitating the behavior of other people (observing real life, watching movies, reading books, etc.); for example, “If others can do it, then I can too!”

7. Activity theory of personality

The fundamental difference between activity theory and behavioral theory is that the means of learning here is not a reflex, but a special mechanism of internalization, thanks to which socio-historical experience is assimilated. The main characteristics of activity are objectivity and subjectivity. The specificity of objectivity is that the objects of the external world do not influence the subject directly, but only after being transformed in the process of the activity itself.

In the activity approach, the most popular is the four-component model of personality, which includes orientation, ability, character and self-control as the main structural blocks.

Directionality – This is a system of stable preferences and motives (interests, ideals, attitudes) of an individual, which sets the main tendencies of an individual’s behavior. A person with a pronounced focus is hardworking and purposeful.

Abilities are individual psychological properties that ensure the success of activities. There are general and special (musical, mathematical, etc.) abilities. Abilities are interconnected. One of the abilities is leading, while the others play a supporting role. People differ not only in level general abilities, but also by a combination of special abilities. For example, a good musician can be a bad mathematician and vice versa.

Character -the totality of moral and volitional properties of a person. Moral qualities include sensitivity or callousness in relationships with people, responsibility in relation to public duties, modesty. Moral and ethical properties reflect the individual’s ideas about the basic normative actions of a person, enshrined in habits, customs and traditions. Volitional qualities include determination, perseverance, courage and self-control, which provide a certain style of behavior and method of decision. practical problems. Based on the severity of a person’s moral and volitional properties, the following types of character are distinguished: moral-volitional, immoral-volitional, moral-abulic (abulia - lack of will), immoral-abulic.

A person with a moral-volitional character is socially active, constantly observes social norms and makes volitional efforts to comply with them. They say about such a person that he is decisive, persistent, courageous, and honest. A person with a moral-volitional character does not recognize social norms, and directs all his volitional efforts to satisfy his own goals. People with a moral-bully character recognize the usefulness and importance of social norms, however, being weak-willed, they often, unwillingly, commit antisocial acts due to circumstances. People with a moral-bully character type are indifferent to social norms and do not make any effort to comply with them.

Self-control –This is a set of properties of self-regulation associated with an individual’s awareness of himself. This block builds on top of all other blocks and exercises control over them: strengthening or weakening activities, correcting actions and behavior, anticipating and planning activities, etc.

All personality blocks act interconnectedly and form systemic, holistic properties. Among them, the main place belongs to the existential-existential properties of the individual. These properties are associated with a person’s holistic idea of himself (self-attitude), his “I”, the meaning of being, responsibility, and purpose in this world. Holistic properties make a person intelligent and purposeful. A person with pronounced existential-existential properties is spiritually rich, whole and wise.

Thus, within the framework of the activity approach, a person is conscious subject occupying a certain position in society and performing a socially useful public role. The structure of personality is a complexly organized hierarchy of individual properties, blocks (direction, abilities, character, self-control) and systemic existential-existential integral properties of the personality.

8. Dispositional theory of personality

Interesting empirical data that relates to studies of “personal self-actualization” by A. Maslow. The author selected, among people he knew well, those who could be called “optimally functioning individuals,” and identified their common psychological properties. The main ones are the following:

1) objective perception of reality, expressed in a clear separation of knowledge from ignorance, in the ability to distinguish specific facts from opinions about these facts, significant phenomena from appearances;

2) acceptance of oneself, others, the world as they are;

3) non-egocentricity, orientation towards solving external problems, focus on the object;

4) the ability to tolerate loneliness and the need for isolation;

5) creative abilities;

6) natural behavior, but also the absence of the desire to violate conventions simply out of the spirit of contradiction;

7) a friendly attitude towards any person of good character, regardless of his education, status and other formal characteristics;

8) the ability to form deep attachments, often to a few people, in the absence of constant unconditional hostility towards anyone;

9) moral certainty, a clear distinction between good and evil, consistency in moral consciousness and behavior;

10) relative independence from the physical and social environment;

11) awareness of the difference between the goal and the means, the ability not to lose sight of the goal, but at the same time emotionally perceive the means in itself;

12) large-scale mental content and activity (“These people are elevated above trifles, have a wide horizon, a long-term time perspective. They are guided by broad and universal values”).

The main source of personality development, according to this approach, is the factors of gene-environmental interaction, with some directions emphasizing primarily influences from genetics, others - from the environment.

Representatives of the “soft” direction, in particular G. Olloport, distinguish three types of traits:

1. A cardinal trait is inherent only to one person and does not allow for comparisons of this person with other people. The cardinal trait permeates a person so much that almost all his actions can be deduced from this trait. Few people have cardinal traits. For example, Mother Teresa had this trait - she was merciful, compassionate towards other people.

2. Common traits are common to most people within a given culture. Among common features usually called punctuality, sociability, conscientiousness, etc. According to Olloport, a person has no more than ten such traits.

3. Secondary traits are less stable than general ones. These are preferences in food, clothing, etc.

Followers of Olloport, using various mathematical techniques, in particular factor analysis, tried to identify the number of common traits in a person. The question of the correspondence between traits identified on the basis of clinical data and traits obtained in the norm using factor analysis is the subject of special scientific research.

Representatives of the formal-dynamic direction identify four main formal-dynamic personality properties as the main element of personality:

1) ergicity – level of mental stress, endurance;

2) plasticity – ease of switching from one behavior program to another;

3) speed – individual pace of behavior;

4) emotional threshold – sensitivity to feedback, to the discrepancy between real and planned behavior.

The integrity of human behavior is characterized through proprium. A person with a developed proprium is called a mature personality. A mature personality has the following properties:

1) has wide boundaries of “I”, can look at himself from the outside;

2) capable of warm, cordial, friendly relationships;

3) has a positive image of herself, is able to tolerate phenomena that irritate her, as well as her own shortcomings;

4) adequately perceives reality, has qualifications and knowledge in his field of activity, and has a specific goal of activity;

5) capable of self-knowledge, has a clear understanding of his own strengths and weaknesses;

6) has an integral philosophy of life.

Thus, within the framework of the dispositional approach, personality is a complex system of formal-dynamic properties (temperament), traits and socially determined properties of the proprium. Personality structure is an organized hierarchy of individual biologically determined properties that are included in certain relationships and form certain types of temperament and traits, as well as a set of meaningful properties that make up the human proprium.

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GBOU HPE Volgograd State Medical University

Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia

Department of Russian Language and Socio-Cultural Adaptation

Independent student work on general psychology

Completed: -

Student of the Faculty of Social Work and clinical psychology

1st year 101 group.

Volgograd. 2013

1. Personality as a set of psychological qualities. Personality traits.

2. Typological approach to personality description

Basic theoretical approaches to the study of personality:

3. The idea of personality in classical psychoanalysis.

4. The idea of personality in analytical psychology.

5. Personality and communication in transactional analysis.

6. Personal growth. General idea of self-actualization in humanistic psychology.

Normal and abnormal personality development

1. The concept of personality is the totality of such psychological qualities of an individual as 1. An attitude towards something. 2.Norms of behavior and views. 3. Values. Thus, by the term “personality” we understand that totality of psychological qualities that characterizes each individual person.

Personality traits (personality traits, personality traits) are traits and characteristics of a person that describe his internal (or more precisely, deep-seated) characteristics. What you need to know about the peculiarities of his behavior, communication and response to certain situations, not specifically now, but during long-term contacts with a person.

Personality traits include deep-seated characteristics that have both a biological and social nature and determine more superficial, situational manifestations.

Integrity, like personality trait, V specific situation will manifest itself as a readiness to complete the task.

Positive personality traits are often called: personality traits.

2. The subject of study in the typological approach is the holistic organization of certain personality traits or properties, which determines both the specificity and stability of its mental phenomena. According to K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya (1990), the essence of the typological approach to personality can be fully revealed by taking into account its functioning in life. Thus, the typological approach allows us to penetrate more deeply into the nature of the phenomenon being studied. At the same time, the study of types is primarily associated with the predictability of human behavior in medicine and pedagogy. On the one hand, assigning a person to a type helps to understand his characteristics. On the other hand, “labeling” can stereotype and narrow ideas about the possible behavioral repertoire

3. Freud. Psychodynamic theory of personality.

Personality structure: Id (directed by the pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle), Super-Ego (includes conscience and Ego-ideal) - a consequence of the resolution of the Oedipus complex - identification, interiorization of moral norms. Basic instincts: Eros and Tonatos. 3 levels of consciousness: consciousness, preconscious, unconscious (Ego and Superego - everywhere, Id - unconscious). Sexuality is from birth, develops, covering erogenous zones. 4 stages: oral (0-18 months), anal (1.5-3), phallic (3-6), genital (12-18). The latent period is sublimation for the development of social connections. Unresolved conflicts lead to the fixation and formation of certain types of character.

Motivation is instincts (an innate state of arousal that seeks release).

3 types of anxiety: realistic (from the outside), neurotic (fear of the Ego’s inability to control the Id), moral (threat from the Ego’s superego).

Defense mechanisms: repression, projection, replacement, rationalization, regression, reactive formation (reaction), sublimation, denial.

Empirical validation is weak (clinical material).

Jung: Analytical psychology.

Three main personality structures: Ego, personal and collective unconscious. The main difference with Freud is the understanding of the nature of libido: for Jung it is the creative life E (promotes personal growth), and for Freud it is sexual. Ego is everything that is conscious; personal unconscious – suppressed, repressed, complexes; collective unconscious - archetypes: anima (female unconscious in a man), animus (vice versa), persona (social role of man, we are in front of the world), shadow (unconscious opposite of consciousness: extrovert - introvert), self (embodiment of integrity and harmony - mandala, central archetype), sage (personification of life wisdom and maturity), god (ultimate realization of psychic reality projected onto the external world). 4 psychological functions: thinking, feeling (rational), sensation and intuition (irrational)

Analytical theory of personality

The main elements of personality are the psychological properties of individual realized archetypes of a given person. These properties are also often called character traits. For example, the properties of the “person” archetype (mask) are all our psychological characteristics, the roles we put on display; the properties of the “shadow” archetype are our true psychological feelings that we hide from people; properties of the “animus” (spirit) archetype - to be courageous, firm, brave; protect, guard, hunt, etc.; properties of the “anima” (soul) archetype – tenderness, gentleness, caring.

The analytical model distinguishes three main conceptual blocks, or areas of personality:

– extroversion – an attitude that consists in filling innate archetypes with external information (object orientation);

– introversion – orientation to the inner world, to one’s own experiences (to the subject).

Every person has both an extrovert and an introvert at the same time. However, the degree of their expression can be completely different.

As an example, here are the characteristics of two personality types:

1. Extroverted Thinker - focused on learning about the outside world, practical, interested in obtaining facts, logical, good scientist.

2. Introverted thinker - interested in understanding his own ideas, reasonable, struggles with philosophical problems, seeks the meaning of his own life, keeps his distance from people.

According to analytical theory, personality is a set of innate and realized archetypes, and personality structure is defined as the individual originality of the relationship between individual properties of archetypes, individual blocks of the unconscious and conscious, as well as extroverted or introverted personality attitudes.

5 . Transactional analysis of communication- A branch of psychology founded by Eric Berne (USA, 1955). Transactional analysis is based on the philosophical assumption that each person will be “okay” when he takes control of his life and is responsible for it. A transaction is an action (action) aimed at another person. This is a unit of communication. E. Bern's concept was created in response to the need to provide psychological assistance people who have communication problems.

E. Berne identifies the following three components of a person’s personality, which determine the nature of communication between people: parental, adult, child.

Parental (Parent - P), which is divided into a caring parental state of the Self, a critical parental state of the Self. The parental Self, consisting of rules of behavior, norms, allows the individual to successfully navigate standard situations, “launches” useful, proven stereotypes of behavior, freeing consciousness from overload with simple, mundane tasks. In addition, the Parental Self ensures with a high probability of success behavior in situations of lack of time for reflection, analysis, and alternate consideration of the possibilities of behavior.

The adult (Adult - B) state of the Self perceives and processes the logical component of information, makes decisions primarily thoughtfully and without emotions, checking their reality. The Adult Self, unlike the Parental Self, promotes adaptation not in standard, unambiguous situations, but in unique ones that require reflection, giving freedom of choice and, at the same time, the need to understand the consequences and responsible decision-making.

The childish (Child - D, or Child) state of the Self follows the life principle of feelings. Behavior in the present is influenced by feelings from childhood. The child's self also performs its own special functions that are not characteristic of the other two components of the personality. It is “responsible” for creativity, originality, relieving tension, receiving pleasant, sometimes “sharp” impressions that are necessary to a certain extent for normal life. In addition, the Child Self comes into play when a person does not feel strong enough to solve problems on his own: he is not able to overcome difficulties and/or withstand the pressure of another person. This self is divided into: the natural child self (spontaneous reactions such as joy, sadness, etc.), the adapting child self (adjusting, subservient, fearful, guilty, hesitant, etc.), the objecting child self.

From the position of a parent, the roles of father, older sister, teacher, and boss are “played”; from the position of an adult - the role of a neighbor, a casual travel companion, a subordinate who knows his own worth, etc.; from the perspective of a child - the role of a young specialist, an artist - a favorite of the public, a son-in-law.

All three components are found in the personality of each person, however, under the condition of poor upbringing, the personality can be deformed so that one component begins to suppress the others, which causes a breakdown in communication and is experienced by the person as internal tension.

Carl Jung is one of the most outstanding psychologists and psychotherapists of our time. A student of Freud and the founder of analytical psychology, Jung did not fully share the views of his teacher and over time moved away from the classical Freudian concept of personality. The disagreements that arose between psychologists gave the world a profound and unusual theory of personality.

Personality structure according to Jung

Like Freud, Jung believed that personality (psyche) consists of: Ego (I), personal unconscious and collective unconscious (Super-Ego).

The ego represents our consciousness. It consists of sensations, memories, thoughts, perceptions. The ego is responsible for self-identification, and is in fact the center of personality.

The personal unconscious includes sensations, fears, complexes, thoughts that were repressed from consciousness and supposedly “forgotten.” The personal unconscious is constantly filled with new experiences that we either ignore or are not fully aware of. Jung believed that the content of this level of personality is accessible to awareness, but requires certain efforts on the part of the person.

The collective unconscious is the most controversial aspect of Jungian personality theory and was one of the major disagreements between Jung and Freud. This level of personality is also called the transpersonal unconscious. It includes memories and images inherited from previous generations and is common to all people. Jung believed that the collective unconscious is the legacy of our ancestors, formed in the process of human evolution. These are hidden memories and experiences transmitted at the genetic level. Basically, the collective unconscious manifests itself in images - archetypes, which are. Jung found direct confirmation of the existence of the collective unconscious in the repetition of different nations world symbols and images. For example, in many myths there are identical descriptions of the goddess of Fertility, who is the prototype of the Mother archetype.

Basic archetypes according to C. Jung

Unlike Freud, who considered repressed sexual desires and aggression to be the main dynamic forces of personality development, Jung gave the main motivational role to archetypes - deep images, formed during the process of evolution. Among all the archetypes, Jung assigned the leading role to 5 main ones: Anime, Animus, Persona, Shadow, Self. Anime and Animus are two components of one whole, where the first part is the embodiment of the female unconscious in men, and the second is the embodiment of the male unconscious in women. Thus, every person has feelings, emotions and experiences of both sexes. The Persona is often also called the Mask, since this archetype is identified with the role of a person in society and resembles the role of an actor in the theater. The Shadow is the other side of the Persona. It hides all the socially unacceptable sides of the personality that cannot be shown in a given society. Self is the center of personality, its manifestation inner harmony and integrity.

Personality types: extroverts and introverts

One of Jung's greatest contributions to modern psychology is the introduction of the concepts of “extraversion” and “introversion”. These two main directions are simultaneously present in every personality, but one of them is dominant and determines the vector of human development. Thus, extraversion is a manifestation of interest in the outside world. Accordingly, extroverts find strength and energy in communicating with people around them. They easily make contact with strangers, are communicative, friendly, often very talkative and active. By interacting with others, an extrovert develops as a person, so forced loneliness is difficult for him.

The exact opposite of an extrovert is an introvert. A person with dominant introversion is characterized by isolation, taciturnity, and a tendency toward loneliness. An introvert draws energy from his inner spiritual sources, therefore he avoids large noisy companies. The external or internal locus of personality is closely related to the innate characteristics of the nervous system and temperament. As a rule, extroverts have a sanguine or choleric temperament, while introverts have a phlegmatic or melancholic temperament.

The most prominent representative of this approach is the Swiss researcher K. Jung. Jung considered innate psychological factors to be the main source of personality development. A person inherits from his parents ready-made primary ideas - “archetypes”. According to Jung, personality is formed throughout life. The structure of the personality is dominated by the unconscious, the main part of which is the “collective unconscious” - the totality of all innate archetypes. Individual free will is limited. Human behavior is actually subject to his innate archetypes, or collective unconscious. The inner world of a person, within the framework of this theory, is completely subjective. A person is capable of revealing his world only through his dreams and relationships with symbols of culture and art.

The main elements of personality are the psychological properties of individual realized archetypes of a given person. The analytical model distinguishes three main conceptual blocks, or spheres, of personality:

The collective unconscious is the main structure of the personality, in which the entire cultural and historical experience of humanity is concentrated, presented in the human psyche in the form of inherited archetypes.

The individual unconscious is a collection of “complexes,” or emotionally charged thoughts and feelings that are repressed from consciousness.

Individual conscious is a structure that serves as the basis of self-awareness and includes those thoughts, feelings, memories and sensations through which we become aware of ourselves and regulate our conscious activity.

extraversion - an attitude that consists in filling innate archetypes with external information (object orientation);

introversion - orientation to the inner world, to one’s own experiences (to the subject).

Every person has both an extrovert and an introvert at the same time.

3. Humanistic theory of personality There are two main directions in the humanistic theory of personality. The first, “clinical” (focused primarily on the clinic), is presented in the views of the American psychologist C. Rogers. The founder of the second, “motivational” direction is the American researcher A. Maslow.

Representatives of humanistic psychology consider innate tendencies towards self-actualization to be the main source of personality development.

According to K. Rogers, there are two innate tendencies in the human psyche. The first, which he called a “self-actualizing tendency,” initially contains in a collapsed form the future properties of a person’s personality. The second - the "organismic tracking process" - is a mechanism for monitoring the development of personality. Based on these tendencies, in the process of development a person develops a special personal structure of the “I”, which includes the “ideal I” and the “real I”.

A. Maslow identified two types of needs that underlie personality development: “deficit” needs, which intensify after their implementation. In total, according to Maslow, there are five levels of motivation;

physiological (needs for food, sleep);

security needs (needs for an apartment, work);

affiliation needs, which reflect one person's needs for another person, such as starting a family;

level of self-esteem (need for self-esteem, competence, dignity);

the need for self-actualization (meta-needs for creativity, beauty, integrity, etc.).

According to humanists, there is no decisive age period; personality is formed and develops throughout life.

The humanistic model of personality, the main conceptual “units” are:

"Real Self" - the totality of thoughts, feelings and experiences "here and now"

“Ideal Self” is a set of thoughts, feelings and experiences that a person would like to have in order to realize his personal potential.

Thus, within the framework of the humanistic approach, personality is the inner world of the human “I”, as a result of self-actualization, and the structure of personality is the individual relationship between the “real Self” and the “ideal Self,” as well as the individual level of development of the need for self-actualization.

4. Cognitive theory of personality The cognitive theory of personality is close to the humanistic one, but it has a number of significant differences. The founder of this approach is the American psychologist J. Kelly (1905-1967). In his opinion, the only thing a person wants to know in life is what happened to him and what will happen to him in the future.

The main source of personality development, according to Kelly, is the environment, the social environment. Cognitive theory of personality emphasizes the influence of intellectual processes on human behavior. The main concept in this direction is “construct”. This concept includes the features of all known cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking and speech). Thanks to constructs, a person not only learns, but also establishes interpersonal relationships. The constructs that underlie these relationships are called personality constructs (Francella F., Bannister D., 1987). A construct is a kind of classifier-template for our perception of other people and ourselves.

The main conceptual element is the personal “construct”. Each person has his own system of personal constructs, which is divided into 2 levels (blocks):

The block of “core” constructs is approximately 50 basic constructs that are at the top of the construct system, i.e. in the constant focus of operational consciousness. A person uses these constructs most often when interacting with other people.

The block of peripheral constructs is all other constructs. The number of these constructs is purely individual and can vary from hundreds to several thousand.

There are two types of holistic personality: a cognitively complex personality (a personality who has a large number of constructs) and a cognitively simple personality (a personality with a small set of constructs)

According to cognitive theory, personality is a system of organized personal constructs in which a person’s personal experience is processed (perceived and interpreted). The structure of personality within the framework of this approach is considered as an individually unique hierarchy of constructs.

5. Behavioral theory of personality There are two directions in the behavioral theory of personality - reflexive and social. The reflex direction is represented by the works of famous American behaviorists J. Watson and B. Skinner. The founders of the social direction are American researchers A. Bandura and J. Rotter.

Skinner argued that personality is a set of social skills formed as a result of operant conditioning. Operant Skinner called any change in the environment as a result of any motor act. A person tends to perform those operants that are followed by reinforcement, and avoids those that are followed by punishment.

According to representatives of the second direction, an important role in personality development is played not so much by external as by internal factors, for example, expectation, goal, significance, etc. Bandura called human behavior determined by internal factors self-regulation. The main task of self-regulation is to ensure self-efficacy, i.e. perform only those forms of behavior that a person can implement, relying on internal factors at any given moment.

Behaviorists believe that personality is formed and develops throughout life as it is socialized, raised, and taught.

7. Activity theory of personality This theory is most widespread in Russian psychology. Among the researchers who made the greatest contribution to its development, we should mention, first of all, S.L. Rubinshteina, A.N. Leontyeva, K.A. Abulkhanov-Slavskaya and A.V. Brushlinsky...

This approach denies the biological, and even more so the psychological, inheritance of personal properties. The main source of personality development, according to this theory, is activity. Activity is understood as a complex dynamic system of interactions of a subject (an active person) with the world (with society), in the process of which personality properties are formed (Leontyev A.N., 1975). The formed personality (internal) subsequently becomes a mediating link through which the external influences a person (Rubinstein S.L., 1997).

The main characteristics of activity are objectivity and subjectivity.

Objectivity is a characteristic that is inherent only in human activity and manifests itself primarily in the concepts of language, social roles, and values.

Subjectivity means that a person himself is the bearer of his activity, his own source of transformation of the external world, reality. Subjectivity is expressed in intentions, needs, motives, attitudes, relationships, goals that determine the direction and selectivity of activity, in a personal sense, i.e. the meaning of activity for the person himself.

Representatives of the activity approach believe that personality is formed and develops throughout life to the extent that a person continues to play social role, be included in social activities. Man is not a passive observer, he is an active participant social transformation, an active subject of education and training.

8. Dispositional theory of personality Dispositional (from the English disposition - predisposition) theory has three main directions: “hard”, “soft” and intermediate - formal-dynamic.

The main source of personality development, according to this approach, are factors of gene-environmental interaction, with some directions emphasizing primarily influences from genetics, others - from the environment.

The “hard” direction tries to establish a strict correspondence between certain rigid biological structures of a person: the properties of the physique, the nervous system and the brain, on the one hand, and certain personal properties, on the other. The German researcher E. Kretschmer established a connection between bodily constitution and character type, as well as between physique and a tendency to a certain mental illness (Kretschmer E., 1924).

The "soft" strand of dispositional personality theory argues that personal characteristics, of course, depend on the biological properties human body, however, from which ones and to what extent is not included in the scope of their research tasks.

Among the researchers in this area, the most famous is G. Allport, the founder of the theory of traits. A trait is a person's predisposition to behave in a similar way in different times and in different situations. The constancy of the trait is due, according to Allport, to a certain set of psychophysiological characteristics of a person.

In addition to traits, Allport identified a special transpersonal structure in a person - the proprium (from the Latin proprium - actually, “I myself”). The concept of “proprium” is close to the concept of “I” in humanistic psychology. It includes the highest goals, meanings, and moral principles of a person. In the development of the proprium, Allport assigned the main role to society, although he believed that traits could have an indirect impact on the formation of certain features of the proprium.

The formal-dynamic direction is represented mainly by works domestic psychologists B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsyna. Basic distinctive feature This direction is the assertion that in a person’s personality there are two levels, two different aspects of personal properties - formal-dynamic and substantive. The substantive properties of personality are close to the concept of proprium. They are a product of upbringing, teaching, activity and cover not only knowledge, skills, but also the entire wealth of a person’s inner world: intelligence, character, meanings, attitudes, goals, etc.

According to dispositionalists, personality develops throughout life.

According to dispositional theory, humans have limited free will.

25. The concept of temperament, its structure and properties. Humoral theories of temperament.

TEMPERAMENT- sustainable association individual characteristics related to dynamic rather than substantive aspects of activity; those individual properties that are most dependent on a person’s natural abilities. Temperament is an individual characteristic of a subject in terms of the dynamic features of his mental activity: intensity, speed, tempo, rhythm mental processes and states.

The basis for the doctrine of types of temperament was laid by Hippocrates, who, using a humoral approach, identified four types of “krasis” (translated from Greek - mixing), i.e. the ratio of four fluids (juices) in the body: blood, yellow and black bile and mucus . The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived a little later than Hippocrates, saw the reason for differences between people not in the predominance of one or another juice, but in differences in the composition of the most important of these juices - blood. Traces of Aristotelian theory persisted for a very long time. Even Immanuel Kant correlated the type of temperament with the characteristics of blood.

IN popular literature and textbooks say that it was Hitzpocrates who was the founder of the doctrine of four types of temperament that have come down to our time: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic.

One of them, Galen, who lived in the 2nd century AD, gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on the same humoral ideas of Hippocrates about “redder”. It included 13 types of temperament, including those discussed above.

The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance gave a new direction to the explanation of temperament types. They began to be increasingly associated with structural features of the body. For example, a number of scientists based the division of temperaments except physical properties blood laid the difference in tissue and the width of the lumen of blood vessels

P.F. Lesgaft believed that the width of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of blood vessels play a very important role in the origin of temperaments: choleric people have a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to fast and strong blood flow; in sanguine people there is a small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to fast and weak blood flow, etc.

Thus, Albrecht Haller, the founder of experimental physiology, who introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, which are important for physiology and psychology, argued that the main factors for differences in temperament are the excitability of the blood vessels themselves through which blood passes. His student G. Wrisberg connected temperament directly with the characteristics of the nervous system. He believed that the choleric-sanguine temperament was based on a large brain, “strong and thick nerves” and high excitability of the senses. The phlegmatic-melancholic temperament is characterized by a small brain, “fine nerves” and low excitability of the senses. The idea of connecting the characteristics of temperament with certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system in various forms appears in the teachings of many philosophers, anatomists and doctors of the 19th century.

A. Fouille built a theory of temperaments based on the study of metabolism in the body. Some scientists in our country also adhered to the humoral-endocrine theory of the origin of temperament types. P. P. Blonsky (1927) believed that the characteristics of human behavior depend on how balanced and coordinated the sympathetic and parasympathetic parts of the autonomic nervous system work.

An attempt to transfer the doctrine of types of temperament to a new scientific basis was made by I. P. Pavlov, who considered temperament as a type of higher nervous activity. I. P. Pavlov substantiated his opinion by the presence in animals and humans of a certain expression of the properties of the nervous system. At the same time, he first focused on the ratio of excitation and inhibition, and then on the strength of the nervous system.

Choleric type (uncontrolled) - strong unbalanced nervous system

Sanguine type (balanced) - a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system.

Phlegmatic type (inert) - a strong balanced inert nervous system.

Melancholic type (weak, inhibitory) - weak nervous system.

26. Constitutional theories of temperament. The main ideologist of constitutional typology was the German psychiatrist Kretschmer.

1. Leptosomatic It has a cylindrical body shape, a fragile build, tall stature, a flat chest, an elongated face, and an egg-shaped head. Long thin nose and undeveloped lower jaw form a so-called corner profile. The shoulders of a leptosomatic person are narrow, the lower limbs are long, the bones and muscles are thin.

2. Picnic He has rich adipose tissue, excessive obesity, small or medium height, a bloated torso, a large belly, a round head on a short neck. Relatively large body parameters (head, chest and abdomen) with narrow shoulders give the body a barrel-shaped shape. People of this type tend to stoop.

3. Athletic He has good muscles, a strong physique, tall or medium height, a wide shoulder girdle and narrow hips, making the frontal appearance of the body form a trapezoid. The fat layer is not expressed. The face has the shape of an elongated egg, the lower jaw is well developed.

4. Dysplastic Its structure is shapeless and irregular. Individuals of this type are characterized by various physique deformations (for example, excessive growth).

The majority of patients with schizophrenia, according to E. Kretschmer, are leptosomatic, although there are also athletes. Picnics form largest group among patients with cyclophrenia (manic-depressive psychosis) (Fig. 3.2). Athletes, who are less prone to mental illness than others, show some tendency towards epilepsy.

Sheldon's theory. Sheldon came to the concept of somatotype (body type), which can be described using three main parameters. Borrowing terms from embryology, he named these parameters as follows: endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy.

1. Endomorphic type The name of the type is given based on the fact that predominantly internal organs are formed from the endoderm, and in people of this type their excessive development is observed. The physique is relatively weak, with excess adipose tissue.

2. Mesomorphic type The mesomorphic type has a well-developed muscular system, which is formed from the mesoderm. A slender, strong body, which is the opposite of the baggy and flabby body of an endomorph. The mesomorphic type has great mental stability and strength.

3. Ectomorphic type. The skin develops from the ectoderm and nerve tissue. The body is fragile and thin, rib cage flattened. Relatively weak development of internal organs and physique. The limbs are long, thin, with weak muscles. The nervous system and feelings are relatively easily excitable.

By correlation, three groups of properties were identified, which were named depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (Latin viscera - insides), somatotonia (Greek soma - body) and cerebrotonia (Latin cerebrum - brain). In accordance with this, he identified people of three types of temperament: viscerotonics (7-1-1), somatotonics (1-7-1) and cerebrotonics (1-1-7).

27. Character as a combination of individual and typical.

Character in in a general sense words are defined as a set of stable properties of an individual, which express the ways of his behavior and methods of emotional response (according to Hippenreitor)
Character is also understood as:
a system of stable motives and modes of behavior that form a behavioral type of personality; a measure of balance between the internal and external worlds, features of an individual’s adaptation to the reality around him; a clearly expressed certainty of the typical behavior of each person.
In the system of personality relationships, there are four groups of character traits that form symptom complexes:
a person’s attitude towards other people, the team, society (sociability, sensitivity and responsiveness, respect for other people, collectivism and the opposite traits - isolation, callousness, callousness, rudeness, contempt for people, individualism); traits showing a person’s attitude to work, his work (hard work, a penchant for creativity, conscientiousness in work, a responsible attitude to work, initiative, perseverance and the opposite traits - laziness, a tendency to routine work, dishonesty, irresponsible attitude to work, passivity); traits that show how a person relates to to oneself (feeling self-esteem, correctly understood pride and the self-criticism associated with it, modesty and its opposite traits - conceit, sometimes turning into arrogance, vanity, arrogance, touchiness, shyness, egocentrism as a tendency to consider oneself and one’s experiences at the center of events, egoism - a tendency to care primarily about one’s personal good); traits that characterize a person’s attitude towards things (neatness or sloppiness, careful or careless handling of things).
Acting as a person’s lifetime education, character is determined and formed throughout a person’s life. The way of life includes the way of thoughts, feelings, motives, actions in their unity. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, the person himself is formed. A big role here is played by social conditions and specific life circumstances in which a person’s life path takes place, based on his natural properties and as a result of his actions and actions. However, the actual formation of character occurs in groups of different levels of development (family, friendly company, class, sports team, work team, etc.). Depending on which group is the reference group for the individual and what values it supports and cultivates in its environment, the corresponding character traits will develop in its members. Character traits will also depend on the individual’s position in the group, on how he integrates into it. In a team as a group high level development, the most favorable opportunities for becoming best features character. This process is mutual, and thanks to the development of the individual, the team itself develops.
The content of character, reflecting social influences, constitutes the life orientation of the individual, i.e. her material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of the individual determines the goals, life plan person, the degree of his vital activity. The character of a person presupposes the presence of something significant for him in the world, in life, something on which the motives of his actions, the goals of his actions, the tasks that he sets for himself depend.
A person’s character is manifested in a system of relationships: In relation to other people (in this case, one can distinguish such character traits as sociability - isolation, truthfulness - deceit, tactfulness - rudeness, etc.). In relation to business (responsibility - dishonesty, hard work - laziness, etc.). In relation to oneself (modesty - narcissism, self-criticism - self-confidence, pride - humiliation, etc.). In relation to property (generosity - greed, frugality - wastefulness, neatness - sloppiness, etc. .d.).
Typical in character - we read about Lichko and Leongard.
28. Typology of characters: K. G. Jung, E. Fromm, K. Horney. Classification of characters proposed by C. Jung:

1 . Extroverted Sensing Type. Such people will be praised as intelligent, since people tend to regard a strong sense of pure fact as something very intelligent. In reality, such people are not very intelligent at all. This type is a person of tangible reality, without a tendency to reflect and without power-hungry intentions. His constant motive is to feel the object, to have sensory impressions and enjoy as much as possible. This is a man not lacking in courtesy; on the contrary, he is often distinguished by a joyful and lively ability to enjoy; at times he is a cheerful drinking companion, at other times he acts as an esthete with taste. His love is undoubtedly based on the sensual delights of the object. He dresses well, according to his means, eats and drinks well, sits comfortably, or at least it is made clear that his refined taste has reason to make certain demands on the environment. He even proves that style is definitely worth making some sacrifices.
2. Introverted feeling type - is guided by the intensity of the subjective part of the sensation caused by objective irritation. He can attract attention with his calmness, his passivity or reasonable self-control. This originality, which misleads superficial judgment, owes its existence to its non-reference to objects. True, in the normal case, the object is not at all consciously devalued, but is eliminated in its property of the exciter in such a way that the excitation is immediately replaced by a subjective reaction, which no longer has any relation to the reality of the object. This, of course, acts as a devaluation of the object. External observation the matter appears as if the influence of the object did not penetrate the subject at all.
3. Extroverted intuitive type. He has a keen sense for everything that is emerging and has a future. It is never found in conditions that are stable, have existed for a long time and are well founded, having generally accepted but limited value. Since he is always in search of new opportunities, he sustainable conditions he risks suffocation. True, he very intensively takes on new objects and paths, sometimes even with extreme enthusiasm, but as soon as their size is established and it is no longer possible to foresee their significant development in the future, he immediately cold-bloodedly abandons them without any reverence and, apparently, doesn't even remember them anymore. Thinking and feeling, these inevitable components of belief, are less differentiated functions, which do not have decisive weight and therefore are not able to oppose the power of intuition with stubborn resistance. And yet only these functions can effectively compensate for the primacy of intuition, giving the intuitive judgment of which he, as a type, is completely lacking. The physical well-being of others, like his own, is not a compelling argument for him. He has just as little respect for the beliefs and life habits of those around him, so that he is often considered an immoral and shameless adventurer. Since his intuition deals with external objects and instinctively seeks out external opportunities, he willingly takes on professions where he can develop his abilities in the most versatile way. Many stockbrokers, business “sharks”, producers, politicians, etc. belong to this type. This type is apparently even more common among women than among men. In this case, intuitive activity is found much less in professional field than in public life. Such women know how to use all social opportunities, know how to establish social connections, look for men who have various opportunities, and all in order to give up everything again for some new opportunity.
4. Introverted intuitive type. The traits of introverted intuition create a unique type of person, namely a mystic-dreamer and seer, on the one hand, a dreamer and an artist, on the other. The dreamer is content with contemplation, which he allows to shape himself, that is, to determine himself. Naturally, the deepening of intuition often causes an extreme removal of the individual from tangible reality, so that he becomes a complete mystery even to his immediate environment. If he is an artist, then his art proclaims extraordinary things, things not of this world, which shimmer with all colors and are at once significant and banal, beautiful, sublime and bizarre. But if he is not an artist, then he often turns out to be an unrecognized genius, something like a wise half-fool, a figure for “psychological” novels. The moral problem arises when the intuitive comes into relation to his vision, when he is no longer content with mere contemplation, his aesthetic assessment and formation, but it comes to the question: what does this mean for me or for the world? What does this mean for me or for the world in terms of duty or task? The introverted intuitive represses the sensations of the object most of all. This is the hallmark of his unconscious.
5. Extroverted thinking type. According to the definition, this will be a person who, of course, has the desire to make the entire totality of his life manifestations dependent on intellectual conclusions. A person of this type gives decisive force to objective reality or, accordingly, to its objectively oriented intellectual formula, and not only in relation to himself, but also in relation to the environment. Those who experience the bad consequences of an extroverted formula most of all are the members of his own family, for they are the first to inexorably “become happy” with it. There are extroverted idealists who try so hard to realize their ideal for the good of humanity that they themselves do not they are even afraid of lies and other dishonest means. The inherent inferiority of feeling in this type is expressed in another way. The conscious attitude, according to the prevailing subject formula, is more or less impersonal, often to such an extent that personal interests suffer greatly from it. If the conscious attitude turns out to be extreme, then all personal considerations disappear - even concern for one’s own personality. Disregard for one's own health is revealed, social status is falling into disrepair, the most vital interests their own families are often subjected to violence and suffer damage in terms of health, money and morality - and all this in the name of an ideal. Therefore, it often happens that a closer family circle, especially, for example, one’s own children, knows such a father only as a cruel tyrant, whereas in wide circle the fame of his philanthropy spreads. As wide the scope of individual self-sacrifice for an intellectual goal, so petty, suspicious, capricious and conservative are the feelings. Everything new that is not already contained in the formula is viewed through the haze of unconscious hatred and discussed accordingly. The thinking of the extroverted thinking type is positive , that is it is productive. His thinking does not stagnate, much less regress.
6. Introverted thinking type. The introverted thinking type is characterized by the primacy of the thinking described above. He, like the extraverted case parallel to him, is under the decisive influence of ideas, which, however, flow not from an objectively given, but from a subjective basis. He, like an extrovert, will follow his ideas, but only in the opposite direction - not outward, but inward. He strives to deepen, not expand. If, even when building his ideological world, he is not afraid of even the most daring daring and does not refrain from thinking any thought - due to the fact that it is dangerous, revolutionary, heretical and offends feelings - then he is nevertheless overcome by the greatest timidity, as only his daring has to become an external reality. This is contrary to his nature. Even if he releases his thoughts into the light, he does not introduce them, like a caring mother of her children, but throws them up and, at most, gets angry if they do not make their way on their own. As clear as the internal structure of his thoughts is to him, it is equally unclear to him where and how they can be adapted to the real world. He can only with difficulty admit that things that are clear to him may be unclear to others.
7. Extroverted feeling type. Since feeling is a feature that is clearly more characteristic of female psychology than thinking, the most pronounced sensual types are found among females. This kind of woman lives guided by her feelings. Thanks to her upbringing, her feeling developed into a function adapted and subject to conscious control. Feelings are consistent with objective situations and generally valid values. You can feel “correctly” only when nothing else interferes with the feeling. But nothing interferes with feeling as much as thinking. Therefore, without further explanation, it is clear that thinking in this type is suppressed whenever possible. By this we do not at all want to say that such a woman does not think at all; on the contrary, she thinks, maybe a lot and very smartly, but what she cannot feel, she cannot consciously comprehend.
8. Introverted feeling type. In most cases, they are silent, difficult to reach, incomprehensible, often hidden under a childish or banal mask, and often also have a melancholic temperament. They do not shine or protrude. Since they predominantly give themselves to the guidance of their subjectively oriented feelings, their true motives in most cases remain hidden.

Fromm identified five stable social types of character.
1. Receptive type. A person with a receptive character believes that everything he needs must be supplied from outside. He passively relies on authorities to obtain knowledge and help and generally seeks support from people. Love for him means being loved, but not the active process of love; he is extremely sensitive to any lack of love or attention. Passivity is associated with the inability to refuse others and the endless search for a “magical assistant.” This type loves to eat and drink, which serves as a means of overcoming anxiety and depression. As a rule, he looks at life with optimism and friendliness until the source of well-being is threatened. Responsive and helpful to others, but behind this lies the need to gain their favor.
2. Operating type. A person with an exploitative orientation tries to get everything from people through force and cunning. As for love and affection, he experiences these feelings only for those who still have something to give. Likewise, he steals ideas and passes them off as his own. The lack of originality in many gifted people, Fromm argues, is explained by character orientation. The attitude extends to material things, an extreme example being kleptomania. A thing gives pleasure only if it is stolen, even if there is a lot of money. A distinctive feature is a “biting” mouth, which usually makes itself felt with sarcastic, caustic remarks about people. This person is characterized by suspicion, cynicism, envy, and jealousy. In general, he prefers what others have and does the maximum possible for the purpose of appropriation.
3. Cumulative type. The miser bases security on frugality and preservation of property. Spending causes feelings of insecurity and anxiety. He surrounds himself with a wall, behind which he brings in as much as possible, and tries not to let anything get out. Stinginess extends equally to feelings and thoughts, as well as to money and things. Even love is seen as a means of appropriating the beloved. Behavior is characterized by pedantic orderliness, cleanliness, obsessive punctuality, and stubbornness. Suspicion and fear of intimacy are usually accompanying traits.
4. Market type. People in this category treat their personality as a commodity that can be bought and sold. They develop qualities in themselves that are in demand among others. They lack true stable character and do not really know how to control their own destiny. The main ones are feelings of emptiness and anxiety. Market orientation is equally about mindset. The purpose of thinking comes down to quickly grasping phenomena for the purpose of successful manipulation. This leads to superficiality instead of insight into the essence of phenomena. Such people, in order to fulfill a social role and be in demand in the market, should not retain their individuality.
5. Productive type. The four previous orientations, according to Fromm, are unproductive. Productivity is defined as "a person's ability to use his strengths and realize his inherent potential." This implies the development of the possibilities of creativity and love, their full disclosure. Such a person enjoys life. The unproductive elements still remain, but they are transformed. Stubbornness, for example, becomes perseverance, the desire to exploit turns into the ability to take the initiative.

Jung believed that the personality structure consists of three parts - the collective unconscious, the individual unconscious (It) and consciousness (Ego).

Fig.1. Jung's structure of the psyche

Jung paid great attention to the unconscious and its dynamics, but his idea of it was radically different from Freud's. Jung moved away from Freudianism, believing that the unconscious cannot be reduced to the biological. In his opinion, the unconscious represents the mental experience of previous generations, is the sum of types of behavior, emotional reactions, images of spontaneous fantasies, dreams.

He viewed the psyche as a complementary interaction of conscious and unconscious components with a continuous exchange of energy between them. He considered the unconscious to be a creative, rational principle that connects man with all of humanity, with nature and the cosmos.

1.1. The structure of the conscious and unconscious in the human psyche

Let us take a closer look at how Jung understood the structures of consciousness and the unconscious in the human psyche.

Jung noted that human consciousness consists of a number of components.

The first one is perception. A person sees, hears, touches the world and thereby understands it. Perception indicates that something exists. But it doesn't say what it is. It is concretized by the process of apperception - a complex process of memory and thinking that allows us to understand what something is. Thus, the second component of consciousness is thinking.

However, often, without having yet fully analyzed the information, we already experience emotional reactions of a pleasant or unpleasant nature, i.e. sensual, emotional assessments, which are also an obligatory component of human consciousness (this is the third component).

The process of anticipation, intuition (perception of prisoners in a situation of potential opportunities) is one of the main functions of the psyche. A person can be aware these intuitive anticipations(fourth component of consciousness).

Depending on which of the components of consciousness is predominant in a given person, which of them he relies on in receiving and processing information, Jung identified different types of people:

♦ mental or emotional;

♦ sensing (based on one’s real perceptions at the moment) or intuitive (based more on premonitions and intuition);

♦ volitional, rational or perceptive, irrational, spontaneous.

The strong-willed type is characterized by greater severity of processes will(this is the fifth component of consciousness), and they are impulses directed by thinking that allow a person to act at his own discretion, based on a clear decision made, and consistently implement his decisions.

The perceiving, irrational, spontaneous type is characterized by a predominance of processes drives(sixth component of consciousness). They encourage a person to repeatedly change his decisions and actions, hesitate, and react flexibly. People of this type are dominated by “attractions-impulses arising from the unconscious and having the nature of dependence and coercion.”

Dreams– this is a specific component of consciousness; according to Jung, “the resultant of unconscious processes invading consciousness.” Sleep is a state in which consciousness is substantially limited, but has not completely disappeared, just as the unconscious mental life does not cease during wakefulness. Jung notes that any work that is usually carried out in consciousness can also take place in the unconscious - even intellectual activity (for example, the search for a solution is sometimes carried out in a dream).

Jung's merit is to reveal that unconscious part of the psyche human being is the most important information and creative base, that it contains much more information than consciousness, and therefore serves as a link with the world, nature, and space. Jung pointed out that it is the unconscious that receives information from the external world that initially has low intensity or other parameters that make it inaccessible to human consciousness. Jung's correctness was confirmed by modern research, which found that the unconscious is incomparably more information-rich than consciousness, and is more closely connected with the world, nature, people, and space. And at the same time, the unconscious part of the psyche stores repressed, suppressed thoughts, feelings, desires, events that a person does not want and cannot think about due to their prohibition or traumatic nature.

While studying the dynamics of the unconscious, Jung discovered functional units that he called complexes. Complexes are a set of mental elements (ideas, opinions, attitudes, beliefs), united around a thematic core and associated with certain feelings. These are “special affective contents that have a certain autonomy, are capable of resisting conscious intentions, are capable of appearing and disappearing as they please, since they are deprived of conscious control.” Complexes- either a consequence or a cause of conflict, shock, shock, awkwardness. They contain memories, desires, fears, responsibilities, thoughts that we cannot get rid of, and therefore constantly interfere and harm, interfering with our conscious life. Complexes, according to Jung, are “the nodal point of mental life”, they provide an incentive to new aspirations, preventing the emergence of “harmful stagnation”, but, on the other hand, “a complex means that area in a person in which he is now suffering defeat, where nothing can be overcome.” They manifest themselves in the form of certain symptoms (these are mental and behavioral oddities and disorders, physical ailments and diseases). By eliminating individual of them, it is not possible to really help a person until the complex itself is eliminated - the root cause of the symptoms themselves.

Jung managed to trace complexes from biologically determined areas of the individual unconscious to the original myth-generating patterns, which he called archetypes. Within each complex, archetypal elements are closely intertwined with aspects physical environment. Through research, Jung came to the conclusion that archetypes must somehow influence our physical world. Since they seemed to be the connecting link between matter and psyche, he called them psychoids.

Jung came to the conclusion that in addition to the individual unconscious, there is collective unconscious, common to all humanity and which is a manifestation of the creative cosmic force. Jung believed that through the process of individualization, a person can overcome the narrow boundaries of the Ego and the personal unconscious and connect with the higher Self, commensurate with all humanity and the entire cosmos. Thus, Jung can be considered the first representative of transpersonal orientation in psychology.

1.2. Collective unconscious and archetypes

Collective unconscious, in contrast to the individual (personal), is identical for all people, one for all humanity and therefore forms the universal basis of the mental life of each person, being super-personal in nature. This is the deepest level of the psyche. Jung considers it both as a result of previous phylogenetic experience, and as a priori forms of the psyche, and as a totality collective ideas, images, ideas of humanity, as the most common mythologems in a given era, expressing the “spirit of the times”.

If the individual unconscious and consciousness are purely personal lifetime acquisitions, then the collective unconscious is a kind of “memory of generations,” a psychological inheritance with which a child is born. The collective unconscious is “the spiritual heritage of everything that has been experienced by humanity,” “a common soul that has no time limits,” the foundation of the individual psyche. Jung wrote that “the content of the collective unconscious is only minimum degree is formed by the individual and in its essence is not an individual acquisition at all. This unconscious is like the air that everyone breathes and that belongs to no one.” It is “the precondition of each individual psyche, just as the sea is the precondition of each individual wave.”

Characterizing the collective unconscious as a mental system that has a “collective, universal and impersonal nature, identical in all individuals,” Jung identifies the following features:

1) it owes its existence solely to heredity;

2) it is not based on personal experience and does not develop individually;

Archetypes act as a set of certain principles and predispositions existing in the unconscious that are activated under certain conditions and invade consciousness as energy flows. Archetype is understood by Jung as a certain degree of independence, and consciousness as creative freedom. An archetype can take on visual symbolic forms and be expressed in stereotypical reactions or modes of action.

Archetypes, according to Jung’s definition, are “mental prototypes hidden in the depths of the foundation of the conscious soul, its roots descended into the world as a whole,” these are systems of attitudes that are both images and emotions.” They are inherited along with the structure of the brain, moreover, they are its mental aspect. On the one hand, they form an extremely strong instinctive prejudice, and on the other, they turn out to be the most effective aid in the process of instinctive adaptation. In essence, they represent, so to speak, the chthonic part of the soul - that through which the soul is connected with nature, or at least in which such a connection with the Earth and the world is most noticeable. As Jung notes, the influence of the Earth and its laws on the soul is manifested in prototypes, perhaps most clearly.

An archetype is activated when a situation corresponding to it arises. Then, like an instinctive attraction, contrary to all reason and will, he makes his way. In this case, the specific form of the archetype is realized symbolically - through the archetypal image in the individual’s psyche.

He believed that archetypes organize not only individual, but also collective fantasy (for example, they underlie the mythology of a people, their religion, determine the psychology of the people, their self-awareness, and express the “spirit of the era”). Through the actualization of certain archetypes, culture also influences the formation of the individual human psyche. All the most powerful ideas and concepts of humanity can be reduced to archetypes (these are religious, scientific, philosophical, moral systems).

“The collective unconscious is a huge spiritual heritage, revived in each individual brain structure. Consciousness, on the contrary, is an ephemeral phenomenon that carries out momentary adaptations and orientations, which is why its work can most likely be compared to orientation in space. The unconscious contains the source of the forces that set the soul in motion, and the forms or categories that regulate all this are archetypes,” writes Jung. The number of archetypes located in the collective unconscious can be unlimited. However, Jung considered the main archetypes of the individual psyche to be the Ego, the Persona, the Shadow, the Anima, or Animus, and the Self. The Ego and Persona are easier to understand than the other main archetypes, which are difficult to reflect on by the person himself.

Ego is a central element of personal consciousness, it seems to collect scattered data personal experience into a single whole, forming from them a holistic and conscious perception of one’s own personality. At the same time, the Ego seeks to resist everything that threatens the fragile coherence of our consciousness, tries to convince us of the need to ignore the unconscious part of the soul.

Jung notes that the archetype is internalized by the personality, but it also exists outside of it. Part of the archetype, internalized and directed outward, forms the Persona (Mask). The side of the archetype facing the inside of the individual is the Shadow.

Person- this is the part of our personality that we show to the world, how we want to be in the eyes of other people. A persona serves to impress others and hide the true essence of a person from them. As an archetype, she is necessary in order to get along with other people in everyday life. A persona includes our typical roles, style of behavior and clothing, and ways of expression. A persona has both a positive and a negative impact on our personality. A dominant person can suppress a person’s individuality, develop conformism in him, the desire to merge with the role that the environment imposes on a person. At the same time, Persona protects us from environmental pressure, from curious glances trying to penetrate a person’s soul, and helps in communication, especially with strangers.

Shadow represents the center of the personal unconscious. The shadow represents the repressed, shadowy, evil and animal side of the personality, containing socially unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses, immoral thoughts and passions. Thus, the content of the shadow are those aspirations that are denied by a person as incompatible with his person and with the norms of society. At the same time, the more the Person dominates in the personality structure, the greater the content of the Shadow, since the individual needs to repress everything into the unconscious. more desires. But she also has positive properties. Jung views the Shadow as a source of vitality, spontaneity, and creativity in a person’s life. According to Jung, the function of consciousness (Ego) is to channel the energy of the Shadow, to curb the harmful side of one's nature to such an extent that one can live in harmony with others, while at the same time openly expressing one's impulses and enjoying a healthy and creative life.

In fact, the differences between Jung and Freud largely concerned the role of the Shadow in the personality structure, since Jung considered it only one of the components of this structure, while Freud placed the Shadow at the center of the personality and made its content the center of his research. At the same time, Jung did not consider it possible to simply get rid of the Shadow, not to recognize it, since it is a legitimate part of the personality and a person without the Shadow is just as inferior as without other parts of the soul. The most harmful thing, from his point of view, is precisely not to notice, to ignore the Shadow, while an attentive attitude towards it, the desire to analyze its content (what Jung calls the technique of dealing with the Shadow) help to overcome its negative influence.

Anima(for a man) or Animus(in a woman) - these are those parts of the soul that reflect intersex relationships, ideas about the opposite sex. For their development great influence provided by parents (mother for a boy and father for a girl). This archetype largely shapes human behavior and creativity, as it is a source of projections and new images in the human soul.

The collective unconscious is inextricably linked with the individual, forming, together with it and other mental systems, a single mental structure of the personality. According to Jung, all these different levels of the unconscious and consciousness create interconnected systems of the psyche: Self, Mask (Persona), Shadow, Anima, Animus, etc. The Self is called upon to unite them.

Self, from Jung’s point of view, represents the central archetype of the entire personality, and not just its conscious or unconscious part, it is “an archetype of order and integrity of the personality.” Acting as an integrating principle, it is called upon to unite within its limits all the contradictory interactions of the mental structure, to express the mental integrity of the individual and ensure its realization as a subject. Self - the most important archetype in theory Jung, it represents the core of the personality around which all other elements are organized and integrated. When integration of all aspects of the soul is achieved, a person experiences harmony.

Thus, in Jung's understanding, development of the Self is the main goal of human life. But harmonization of the soul is a complex process. True balance in personality structures is difficult or even impossible to achieve; at least, this can be achieved no earlier than in middle age. Moreover, the archetype of the Self is not fully realized until there is integration and harmony of all aspects of the soul - both conscious and unconscious. Therefore, achieving a mature self requires consistency, perseverance, intelligence and a lot of life experience. According to Jung, the ultimate goal in life is the complete realization of the Self, i.e. the formation of a single, unique and integral person.

The formation of personality (self) according to Jung is individuation, i.e. separation from the collective foundations of one’s own psyche. The spiritual birth of a person, the emergence of a mentally independent person capable of development is the essence of individuation. Unfortunately, the consciousness of modern man is developed, but, according to Jung, it is not used for development and individuation. Individuation occurs in consciousness, and the result is an increase in the level of consciousness.

The formation of the Self is realized only in the second half of life, when the individual is completely freed from parental ties and acquires a new unity of consciousness and the unconscious. The movement of each person in this direction is unique, it continues throughout life, including the process of individuation, during which the integration of many opposing forces and tendencies within the personality occurs, the full development and expression of all personal elements. According to Jung, the Self can be represented as a certain geometric symbol, divisible by four and having a circular structure with a hypothetical center between the conscious and unconscious.

That's why she unites four mental systems:

♦ Persona (Mask);

♦ Schatten (Shadow);

♦ Anima and Animus (images of a woman and a man).

Rice. 2. The relationship of the four mental systems in the model of mental structure substantiated by Jung

As can be seen from Fig. 2, Jung, unlike Freud, derives consciousness from unconscious mental processes, which “give a certain form contents of the psyche." Possible conflicts that arise at the intersection of systems lead to destabilization of the Self; it can manifest itself in the loss of Persona, in “personal inflation” (when an individual identifies with a collective or group as subjects of activity), in underestimation of one’s Shadow, in obsession with Anima or Animus, and others possible personality shocks.

Finding Self- this is the result of the desire of various components of the personality for unity. The Self archetype becomes the center of the personality and balances many of the opposing qualities that make up its composition. The result of individuation is self-realization, but highly educated and capable people who also have leisure can rise to this final stage of development. Because of these limitations, self-realization is not available to the vast majority of people.

K.G. Jung, speaking about the development of personality, concerns the conditions of education and the emergence of integrity and individuality of a person. In this context, we are not talking about a person, but about that integrity, which is a value. “Personality is not an embryo that develops gradually, thanks to life or in its course. Without certainty, integrity and maturity, personality will not emerge. These three properties cannot and should not be inherent in a child, because with them he would be deprived of childhood.

No one is able to raise a personality if he is not a personality himself. ...Personality as the complete realization of the integrity of our being is an unattainable ideal. However, unattainability is not an argument against an ideal, because ideals are nothing more than signposts of the way, but not goals...”

Ideas about the need to preserve integrity and individualization during personality development were developed by Jung already in the 50-60s under the influence of new trends in the understanding of personality, including in line with humanistic psychology. His provisions on the role of consciousness in spiritual growth and organization of behavior. This transformation of some of the provisions of psychoanalysis, accepted by Jung at the beginning of the century, was especially important for him, since he constantly emphasized the openness of his concept to everything new, in contrast to the orthodoxy of Freud’s theory. Concept by K.G. Young is presented in Table 1.

Concept by K.G. Jung

Understanding Personality	Personality (human soul) consists of three interacting structures: consciousness (Ego), individual unconscious and collective unconscious. Personality development is a dynamic process, evolution throughout life as a result of the desire of various components of the personality for unity, integration, harmony, integrity, and the acquisition of Self. Individuation is the development of personality, a dynamic process of integration of many opposing forces and tendencies within the personality, resulting in the full development and expression of all elements of personality - self-realization.
Attitude to the body	The body is not self-start, and the expression of mental experiences, i.e. the physical and spiritual are in unity. The significance of bodily experiences fully corresponds to how they are represented in the psyche.
Social relations	Social relationships are material for filling out archetypes. The shape of this material is given by archetypes, i.e. social relations are not dominant. Personal development is individuation, i.e. the path to the Self, but at the same time it is associated with a deepening into the collective unconscious.
Will	Manifestation of volitional energy as an introduction to culture. The will can influence the unconscious, although not directly.
Emotions	The significance of emotions is determined by their connection with archetypes. Emotions are a manifestation of the unconscious. This is a kind of mediator between the psyche and physical life. They act as an energetic force that allows us to determine the success of the individuation process. Strong emotions– a source of personality development.
Intelligence	Intelligence – conscious function, so it has limitations. Intellectual explanations can never be complete. Intelligence is complemented by intuition (the intuitive function is based on unconscious material).
Self	The self is the central formation in the human psyche. This is a dynamic balance of mutually exclusive forces: extra- and introversion, conscious and unconscious; masculine and feminine principles. Such balance presupposes the completeness of experiences of one’s unconscious. The path to the Self is never completed, since personality is not subject to description or full awareness. Development of the Self is the main goal of human life
Attitude towards psychotherapeutic help	Jungian psychotherapy is one of the most popular in the world. It involves two stages: 1. Analytical includes two phases: ♦initial phase – recognition of the analyzed material; ♦second – interpretation, interpretation of the material (the patient depends on the therapist). 2. Synthetic (the patient becomes independent from the therapist) includes: ♦learning phase (past material is applied to today); ♦phase of transformation – mini-individuation (a new understanding of the problems of one’s personality is achieved).

Although Jung considered the main content of the soul to be its unconscious structures, he not only did not deny the possibility of their awareness, but also considered this process very important for personal growth person. One of the options for such self-awareness includes psychotherapy, in which the doctor is the patient’s assistant, helping him understand himself and regain his integrity. Jung recognized the complexity of symbolic interpretation and argued for the need to abandon the simplifications adopted by Freud in interpreting them. His analysis of symbols and their possible interpretation is one of the significant achievements of Jung's theory. Unlike most psychoanalysts, Jung consciously built his theory as an open system that can perceive new information, without distorting it to suit his postulates, and this is another advantage of his theory.

Jung's innovative ideas get their due further development and confirmation in modern research of transpersonal psychology.

2. Personality typology

Based on the structure of the soul, Jung created his typology of personality, identifying two types - extroverts And introverts. In the process of individualization, introverts pay more attention to the inner part of their soul, building their behavior on the basis of their own ideas, their own norms and beliefs. Extroverts, on the contrary, are more focused on the Persona, on the outer part of their soul. They are well oriented in the outside world, unlike introverts, and in their activities they proceed mainly from its norms and rules of behavior. If the danger for an introvert is a complete severance of contacts with outside world, then for extroverts no less danger lurks in losing oneself. At their extreme, extroverts are dogmatists, while introverts are fanatics.

However, the Self, the desire for personality integrity, does not allow one of its sides to completely subordinate the other. These two parts of the soul, these two types, seem to divide their spheres of influence. As a rule, extroverts build relationships well with a large circle of people, taking into account their opinions and interests, while at the same time, in a narrow circle of people close to them, they open up to another side of their personality, the introverted one. Here they can be despotic, impatient, do not take into account the opinions and positions of other people, and try to insist on their own. Communicating with a wide range of unfamiliar and poorly acquainted people is extremely difficult for an introvert, who proceeds only from his own positions and cannot build an adequate line of behavior or understand the point of view of the interlocutor. He either insists on his own or simply avoids contact. At the same time, in communication with loved ones, on the contrary, he opens up, his extroverted, usually suppressed side of his personality takes over, he is a soft, caring and warm family man.

Like Freud, Jung often illustrated his conclusions with references to a particular historical figure. Likewise, in describing extra- and introverts, he, in particular, mentioned the famous Russian writers Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, classifying Tolstoy as a typical extrovert, and Dostoevsky as an introvert.

Jung's typology is based on two foundations - the dominance of extra-introversion and the development of four basic mental processes: thinking, feeling, intuition and sensations.

Each person, Jung argued, is dominated by one or another process, which, in combination with intro- or extraversion, individualizes the path of human development. At the same time, he considered thinking and feeling as alternative ways of making decisions.

Since thinking is focused on logical premises, thinking people value abstract principles, ideals, order and consistency in behavior above all else. Feeling people, on the contrary, make decisions spontaneously, focusing on emotions, preferring any feelings, even negative ones, to boredom and order.

If thinking and feelings characterize active people who are capable of making decisions for one reason or another, then sensation and intuition rather characterize ways of obtaining information, and people in whom these types of mental processes dominate are more contemplative. Sensing focuses on direct, immediate experience, and sensing types tend to respond better to the immediate situation, while intuitive types tend to respond better to the past or future. For them, what is possible is more important than what is happening in the present. Although all these functions are present in every person, one of them dominates, which is partially complemented by the second function. Moreover, the more conscious and dominant one of these functions is, the more unconscious and complementary the other functions are. Therefore, the data of their experience can be perceived by a person not only as alien to him, but also as downright hostile.

Conclusion

So, according to Jung, the human psyche includes three levels: consciousness, personal unconscious and collective unconscious. The decisive role in the structure of a person’s personality is played by the collective unconscious, formed from traces of memory left by the entire past of humanity. The collective unconscious is universal. It influences a person’s personality and predetermines his behavior from the moment of birth. In turn, the collective unconscious also consists of different levels. It is determined by national, racial and universal heritage. The deepest level consists of traces of the pre-human past, i.e. from the experience of animal ancestors of humans. Thus, according to Jung's definition, the collective unconscious is the mind of our ancient ancestors, the way they thought and felt, the way they comprehended life and the world, gods and human beings.

The collective unconscious manifests itself in individuals in the form of archetypes, which are found not only in dreams, but also in real creativity. Archetypes are inherent to individuals, but they reflect the collective unconscious. These are some general forms mental representations that include a significant element of emotionality and even perceptual images. For example, the mother archetype is the universal idea of a mother with the sensual and figurative content of her own mother. The child receives this archetype ready-made by inheritance and, on its basis, creates a specific image of his real mother.

In addition to the collective unconscious, there is, according to Jung, a personal unconscious, but it is not separated from consciousness. The personal unconscious consists of experiences that were once conscious and then forgotten or repressed from consciousness. Under certain conditions they become conscious.