Introduction

Peter's church foreign policy emperor

At the end XVII century A personality of the first magnitude, on a global scale, appeared on the historical arena of the Russian state - Tsar Peter I. He was the grandson of the founder of the new ruling dynasty Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich, called to the royal throne by the Zemsky Sobor in 1613.

Peter's personality occupied great place in the works of poets and writers, painters and sculptors at all times. But already in the same century when Peter lived and died, the attitude towards him was ambiguous. Already during his lifetime, not everyone agreed with what and how he did when introducing his famous innovations. Later, in the second half of the century, some, recognizing successes in transformative activities Peter, they mourn the ancient morals and customs of Muscovite Rus' that passed away under him, the decline of aristocratic families, and the damage to morals. Others, for example A.N. Radishchev, also recognizing the great Peter the reformer, reproached him for destroying " latest signs wild freedom of his Fatherland." These disputes continued into the 19th century and continue today.

Nevertheless, we must recognize the merit of Peter I. He, undoubtedly, was a product of his era, having absorbed its main features, and at the same time the creator of a new era, who largely determined the milestones of the country's future path. That is why it is important to try to understand this complex, contradictory personality, which bore a clear imprint of psychological non-standard, since this non-standard was generated by a set of realities not only personal, but also public life Tsar-reformer, and she, in turn, left an indelible mark on the fate of Russia.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the activities of the reforms of Peter I and its significance for the Russian state.

Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

In the 17th century As a result of the activities of the first representatives of the Romanov dynasty, the socio-economic and political crisis of the state and society caused by the events of the Time of Troubles was overcome. At the end of the 17th century, a trend toward the Europeanization of Russia emerged, and the prerequisites for future Peter's reforms emerged. Researcher V.N. Rodenkov names the following as the most important of them:

1) a tendency towards the absolutization of supreme power (liquidation of the activities of Zemsky Sobors as estate-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word “autocrat” in the royal title;

2) registration of national legislation ( Cathedral Code 1649). Further improvement of the code of laws associated with the adoption of new articles (in 1649-1690, 1535 decrees were adopted supplementing the Code);

3) intensification of foreign policy and diplomatic activities of the Russian state;

4) reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of foreign regiments, changes in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps among districts);

5) reforming and improving the financial and tax systems;

6) transition from craft production to manufacturing using elements of hired labor and simple mechanisms;

7) development of internal and foreign trade(adoption of the “Charter of Customs” in 1653, “New Trade Charter” of 1667);

8) the demarcation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon’s church reform; the emergence of national-conservative and Westernizing movements.

However, despite the emerging trend of Europeanization of Russia in the 17th century, in general it lagged significantly behind the level of development of Western European states. Significant foreign policy efforts of Russia in the 17th century. led to very modest results. Access to the Baltic and Black Seas was still closed. In order to fight on equal terms with the European powers and Ottoman Empire, it was necessary not just to borrow individual achievements of Europe, but to make the European economy and culture, the European way of life a special value. Only then would the modernization of life in Russia take on a truly broad scale, and the country could join the circle of European powers.

A strong personality appears on the historical arena, who possessed not only supreme power, but also an understanding of the need for change, courage and determination, intelligence, energy and talent as a transformer.

In the history of Peter’s reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mainly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened; manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.

The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries in military and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence. The pace of transformation depended on the urgency of solving a particular problem facing the state. At the same time, some transformations often necessitated others, because a radical change in one area, as a rule, required immediate reconstruction in another or the creation of new structures and institutions.

Kadatskaya Victoria Vladimirovna, student of YuRIU RANEPA

Reasons, features, consequences and price of Peter's reforms.

The figure of Peter I and his era are perhaps the most mythologized in Russian history. Disputes about the results of his reforms began during his lifetime and continue to this day.

Opening any standard history textbook, we will immediately see the following reasons for Peter’s reforms:

1. Russia's noticeable lag in terms of its level of socio-economic, military and cultural development from advanced European countries.
2. Awareness of the need for reforms using European experience.
3. Active-volitional activity of Peter 1, orientation towards transformations and changes value orientations people. [ 7, p. 180]

After this, the multifaceted activities of Peter 1 for the benefit of the Fatherland begin to be covered: a regular army and navy were created, victory in the Northern War, Europe was forced to reckon with Russia, industry grew several times, production volume increased, a new capital and new cities were built, the Academy of Sciences was founded, schools, printing houses, the publication of the Vedomosti newspaper, the transition to a new calendar, etc. were opened.

I note the merits of the emperor, his cruel methods are also mentioned in passing, but “the time was such,” “Peter was the son of his time,” “it was impossible to do otherwise.”

After this, the question immediately arises: “Why then do disputes about Peter’s activities go on for such an extended amount of time?” My task is to analyze the activities of Peter I, and most importantly, to summarize the consequences of this activity.

To do this you need:

1. Reasons for Peter's reforms.
2. Features of Peter's reforms.
3. Consequences of the implementation of Peter's reforms with some statistics.
4. "Price" of Peter's reforms

Reasons for Peter's reforms

To do this, in order to correctly highlight Peter’s activities, we will consider the reasons that were given above. To do this, we believe that it is very important to consider what the state of the country was before Peter I ascended the throne.

Historians still write little about Sophia’s seven-year reign, considering it a “dark period” before the brilliant era of Peter. But the facts prove otherwise. Despite its tough male character Sophia ruled with feminine gentleness and discretion. Even Prince Boris Kurakin, who often criticized her, admitted in his memoirs: “The reign of Princess Sofia Alekseevna began with all diligence and justice to everyone and to the pleasure of the people, so never anything like this wise government there was no such thing in the Russian state.”[ 4 ]

The princess intensified the fight against bribes and arbitrariness of officials, as well as against denunciation, which has become a real scourge in Russia. She forbade the acceptance of anonymous denunciations, and ordered the scoundrels who filled the courtrooms to be flogged. changes in some articles in the legislation towards mitigation: the death penalty for uttering “obscene and tricky” words was replaced by whipping and exile; women who killed their husbands were no longer punished terrible death“dig-in”, which meant burying the guilty person alive in a grave, and they were punished without suffering by cutting off the head. [ 9 ]

The new decree prohibited creditors from taking debtor husbands without their wives to work off the debt; it was also prohibited to collect debts from widows and orphans if there was no estate left after the death of their husbands and fathers. Continuing her father’s policy, Sophia actively invited foreign specialists to Russia. The domestic education system also developed - in 1687, the Slavic School, conceived by the princess’s teacher Simeon of Polotsk, was opened. Greco-Latin academy. There is information that the princess even thought about opening a school for girls.

The careful diplomacy of Sophia and Golitsyn brought success in foreign policy. Poland agreed to " Eternal Peace”, which legalized the annexation of Ukrainian lands to Russia. The Treaty of Nerchinsk was signed with China, which recognized the interests of the Russians on the distant banks of the Amur. Envoys from the French, Austrian, and Turkish courts appeared in Moscow. One of them, de Neuville, wrote about Sophia: “As wide, short and rough as her figure is, so subtle, sharp and political is her mind.” Almost all contemporaries agreed with this.

According to contemporaries, Prince V. Golitsyn had many reform plans. Thus, the prince considered it necessary to send nobles to Europe to study military affairs, dreamed of creating regular army consisting of the nobility. He was going to free the peasants from serfdom (this only happened in 1861), and impose state quitrent on the land plots that became their property. Unfortunately, V. Golitsyn did not have time not only to implement all these grandiose plans, but not even to take any initial steps. All these good wishes remained only on paper.

As we can see from the last paragraph, most of the transformations that Peter 1 carried out were proposed by Prince V. Golitsyn. Other transformations in which Peter 1 is attributed to the pioneers are generally false:

1. Creation of the first institutions. In fact, the first institute was built under Sophia - the Slavic - Greek-Latin Academy.
2. Creation of a regular army. Historians have different opinions on this matter; some believe that the creation of a regular army took place under Mikhail Romanov. Creation of regiments of the “foreign (new) system” - soldiers (foot), reitar (mounted) and dragoons (both on foot and on horseback). To serve in the regiments, volunteers were recruited from among free people and Cossacks. They received government cash salaries, firearms and bladed weapons, horses, and uniforms. Foreigners experienced in military affairs were usually appointed commanders of these regiments.

3.Creation of self-government bodies. But before Peter there were many bodies of self-government - Zemsky Sobors, veche liberties, vassal-squad relations. Let us not forget that Peter 1 liquidated the Boyar Duma, an institution that represented the interests of part of the top of society, just as he liquidated another body of self-government in 1702 - provincial and zemstvo elders.

Special attention should be paid to Peter's transformations, which brought us closer to the developed countries of Europe. When a conversation arises about Europe, many textbooks are replete with similar theses: often visiting abroad, he tried to adopt all the best for implementation in Russia.

However, let's remember what the head of state studied: ship building, turning, he was a good carpenter, blacksmith, watchmaker, skilled pathologist - Peter knew all 14 crafts. But at this stage the question does not arise in your mind: “Why does the head of state need to be a good carpenter or blacksmith? Wouldn’t it be more useful for the emperor, especially during his stay in Europe, to learn how to govern the state, develop industry, etc., rather than climb the masts of ships?” From the XVI-XVIII centuries. In developed countries, the process of returning to society part of its functions, once taken away from it by the state, is observed and gaining momentum. For example, in the 80s, 17th century in Sweden, Charles IV abolished serfdom. In Russia, such transformations did not occur. On the contrary, all the reforms were aimed at strengthening autocratic power: he removed all the liberties of the nobility - the decree “On Single Inheritance” of 1714, forced them to shave their beards and dress in European dresses; full control of the activities of artisans - organization of workshops; merchants were organized into kumpanstvos.

From all of the above, I would like to conclude that the reasons given above are not sufficiently literate, because Peter 1 was not involved in transforming Russia along the lines of European developed states; some transformations, where Peter 1 is credited with primacy, were laid down even before him.

Features of Peter's reforms.

Speaking about the peculiarities of Peter’s transformations, historians note them internal inconsistency and cruelty. He did not understand that the violence with which reforms were carried out gave immediate results. Example: the economy of the 18th century in Russia was based on manual labor, and we did it. for a short period of time, to catch up with Europe in its development. But in Europe, at this time, machine labor was already developing, which we need to catch up with. manual labor it was no longer real. The peculiarity of his reforms was that they gave results only when Peter was alive; after his death, people were not so afraid of his heirs. How feared he was, so the reforms stopped bearing fruit.

Consequences of the implementation of Peter's reforms

1. The country's population, according to researcher P. N. Milyukov, decreased by 14.6%, i.e. one-seventh part. The bulk of the losses were those who died during the construction of St. Petersburg and other cities, who died from hunger and ruin due to unaffordable taxes. According to researchers Ya. E. Vodarsky, E. V. Anisimov and others, the data of P.N. Miliukov are a little overpriced. But anyway it's huge amount victims, erasing all the positive achievements of Peter.
2. Direct and indirect taxes increased 5.5 times, according to E.V. Anisimova.
3. The ruin of the wealthiest part of the Russian merchants - the “living room of the hundred”, the destruction of loan and usurious capital.
4. The process of replacing civilian free labor with slave unproductive labor of serfs (Edicts of January 18, 1721 (on permission to buy peasants and serfs to factories), of May 28, 1723 (regulating the procedure for hiring people) and others). This determined the future economic lag of Russia.
5. In a detrimental way spiritual development society was reflected church reform. By replacing the patriarchate with the Synod, Peter 1 abolished the autonomy and partial independence of the church. He made extensive use of church institutions to implement police policies. Subjects, under pain of heavy fines, were obliged to attend church and confess their sins to a priest. The priest, according to the law, was obliged to report to the authorities anything illegal that became known during confession. The secret of confession has ceased to be a secret. This significantly undermined the authority of the church.
6. As a result of Peter's reforms, there was a significant strengthening of the split between “masters and servants,” which weakened our country and slowed down its development.
7. The system of public administration created by Peter controlled and regulated all spheres of society, suppressing all public activity.
8. Theft and corruption have reached unprecedented levels. Many textbooks give a textbook example that Peter, listening to reports on thefts in the Senate, lost his temper and ordered the promulgation of a decree stating that if anyone steals from the treasury only enough to buy a rope, he will be hanged with it. The answer of the Prosecutor General of the Senate P.I. Yaguzhinsky is also known: “Do you, Your Majesty, want to remain the emperor alone, without subjects? We all steal, only one is bigger and more noticeable than the other.”

A little about the price of Peter's reforms

The majority mindlessly states: Peter 1 created an army. But few people think about the cost at which he did it. This is how one of the documents of the Military Collegium (September 1719) describes the conduct of recruitment: “...1) when recruits are collected in the provinces, they are first led out of their houses, shackled, and brought to the cities, they are kept in great crowds in prisons and the prisons for a considerable time, and thus exhausted on the spot, they will be sent, without considering the number of people and the distance of the journey, with one, and then unfit, officer or nobleman, with insufficient food; besides, they will lead, having missed convenient time, a cruel thaw, from which many illnesses occur on the road and die untimely, and what’s worse is that many without repentance, while others, unable to bear such great need, run and pester the thieves’ companies, from which the worst ruin befalls the state, because from such a bad order, neither peasants nor soldiers, but destroyers of the state become... 2) Even though they wanted to go into service with pleasure, when they first see such a disorder over their brothers, they come into great fear.” [10, p 446]

Not everything was so simple in the field of education. Many are touched by the success in disseminating knowledge and opening schools and colleges. Firstly, at that time, among merchants, 96% were able to write and read, and among nobles, 65%. There were many literate people among officials and townspeople. Secondly, in this area Peter used his traditional methods of violence and administration.

The fact that the Tsar sent the sons of Russian aristocrats to study abroad is widely known. However, few people know the details of this plot. In 1697, 61 people were sent for training, 23 of them bore the princely title: 39 people to Italy, 22 to England and Holland. This is how the Austrian agent describes this departure in his report to the Tsar on July 8, 1697: “Young people leave here (from Moscow - author’s note) every day, who, under pain of losing their lands and property, were ordered to go at their own expense, and no one can return without evidence of services rendered.” It was not the desire to expand their horizons, but fear that drove most young people out of their homes. V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote that Peter’s school, “which turned the education of youth into the training of animals, could only repel people.”

As soon as the emperor closed his eyes, his closest associates started talking about the possible death of the state. Prosecutor General of the Senate P.I. Yaguzhinsky gave Catherine 1 Note. This document spoke about many years of crop failures, that the people, devastated poll tax, impoverished and dying of hunger, about the mass flight to Poland, to the Don and even to the Bashkirs. The Note ends with a warning that if the previous policy is continued, the state may come to “ultimate destruction and flight.”

The experience of Peter’s reforms confirmed the global practice - without delegating part of the powers to a society that is at least partially structured (parliament, self-government, political parties etc.), without civilized forms feedback between the state and society, even a well-functioning state apparatus is doomed to pursue ineffective policies: strategic and tactical miscalculations with long-term negative consequences, solving problems at the cost of such costs and losses that completely or partially depreciate the results achieved.

List of sources used

1. Alekseeva E.V. The use of European experience in government under Peter I // Questions of history. 2006 No. 2
2. Anisimov E.V. "Peter I: the birth of an empire."
3. Ansimov E.V. Tax reform of Peter I. M., 1987
4. Bogdanov A.P. “Princess Sophia and Peter. Drama of Sofia” / A.P. Bogdanov - M.: Veche - 2008. -380 s.
5. Bogoslovsky M.M. “Peter I. Materials for biography” / Ed. V.I. Lebedeva. T. 1. M.,
6. Danilov A.G. “Russia at the crossroads of history of the XIV-XIX centuries.” / A.G. Danilov - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2017. -440 p.
7. Kirillov V.V. "History of Russia, a textbook for bachelors." Tutorial/ V.V. Kirillov - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Education Yurayt, 2012. - 661 p. — Series: Bachelor.
8. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. Part IV.
9. Sklyarenko V., Syadko V., Rudycheva I., “Riddles of History. Romanov Dynasty” / V. Sklyarenko, V. Syadko, I. Rudycheva. — Publisher: Folio, 2013 — 520 p.
10. Soloviev S.M. “History of Russia since ancient times” Book. VIII, T. 16.
11. Shilnik L. “Black holes Russian Empire"/ L. Shilnik - M.: NC ENAS, 2007 -192s.
12. Eidelman N.Ya. "Revolution from above" in Russia. M., 1989

Main dates and events: 1672 - birth of Peter I; 1682-1689 - reign of Princess Sophia; 1689-1725 - reign of Peter I.

East oric figures: Alexey Mikhailovich; Fedor Alekseevich; Peter I; Sofya Alekseevna; Ivan Alekseevich; A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin; V. V. Golitsyn; F. Ya. Lefort.

P answer lan: 1) gain foreign influence to Russia in the 17th century, S. Polotsk; 2) reforms of A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin; 3) reform projects of V.V. Golitsyn; 4) Peter’s childhood; 5) two kingdoms, Princess Sophia; 6) the beginning of the reign of Peter.

Material for the answer: Constant wars between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, Crimean Khanate and Turkey in the 17th century. largely contributed to the strengthening of foreign influence not only on the formation of its external and domestic policy, but also on the life and traditions of the country’s population. Particularly important for strengthening Western influence there was a stay of Poles in Russia in 1605-1612. The Polish gentry introduced many new customs, foreign words. The military and political successes of the Poles in the fight against Russia at the beginning of the century significantly undermined the faith of Moscow rulers in the correctness and effectiveness of the domestic government system. With the accession of the Romanov dynasty, the invitation to foreign specialists (primarily in military affairs) for consultations and service in Russia was renewed. On the outskirts of Moscow, a German settlement appeared - Kukui (all Europeans were then called Germans). In the middle of the century, the settlement already consisted of 200 households, in which up to 1,500 people lived, three quarters of whom were families of military specialists. Already in progress Smolensk War Six regiments of the “foreign system” fought with Poland as part of the Russian army. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the first military regulations in the Russian army were compiled according to Western models. Dutch craftsmen participated in the creation of a cannon factory in Moscow and the first Russian warship "Eagle", built in 1669. Western European clothing, dancing (mazurka), and foreign languages ​​came into fashion.

Pskov nobleman A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin (1605-1680) was one of the most famous political figures in Russia in the 17th century. At the head of the foreign policy department (the Ambassadorial Prikaz), he advocated the expansion of economic and cultural ties between Russia and the countries of Western Europe and the East. From rivalry with Poland, he proposed moving to an alliance with it, aimed at fighting against Sweden, for Russia’s access to the Baltic Sea.

In the field of domestic policy, Ordin-Nashchokin was in many ways ahead of the reforms of Peter I. He proposed reducing the noble militia, increasing the number of streltsy horseshoes, and introducing conscription in Russia. This meant a gradual transition to standing army. Ordin-Nashchokin tried to introduce elements of self-government on the European model, transferring some judicial and administrative functions elected representatives of the townspeople. Striving to achieve prosperity Russian economy, he abolished the privileges of foreign companies, providing benefits to Russian merchants (these measures were enshrined in the New Trade Charter of 1667), and founded a number of new manufactories. The first Russian handwritten newspaper, “Chimes,” began to be published, published in a single copy and containing an overview of foreign events. However, much of what was planned was never realized. In 1671, Ordin-Nashchokin was disgraced, after which he became a monk.

Prince V.V. Golitsyn (1643-1714) was the de facto ruler of Russia during the regency of Princess Sophia (1682-1689). With his support, a Slavic-Greek-Latin school (later an academy) was opened in Moscow. He was a consistent supporter of the Ordin-Nashchokin policy of supporting domestic trade and crafts. The prince considered the established serfdom to be the main obstacle on this path and proposed to free the peasants from the power of the landowners. All this was supposed to contribute to the economic prosperity of the people, and therefore the state. The Crimean campaigns organized and carried out under the leadership of Golitsyn convinced him of the need to abandon noble militia and replace it with a Western-style army. Unlike Ordin-Nashchokin, he proposed creating a mercenary army.

Thus, to end of XVII V. Representatives of the authorities in Russia realized the need for reforms using European experience. The program of these transformations, formed in general outline, determined not only the direction of the activities of Peter I, but also the entire Russian history in the coming XVIII century.

Reforms of Peter I

Key dates and events: 1700-1721 - Northern War; 1711 - formation of the Senate; 1714 - decree on unified inheritance; 1722 - Table of Ranks; 1708 - provincial reform; 1720 - urban reform.

Historical figures: Peter I; A. D. Menshikov; Feofan Prokopovich; P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

Basic terms and concepts: reforms; Grand Embassy; " funny shelves"; recruiting system.

Response plan: 1) prerequisites for reforms; 2) the influence of the Northern War on the reform of the country; 3) military reform; 4) reform of central government; 5) local government reform; 6) reform of church governance; 7) decree on sole inheritance; 8) the significance of Peter’s reforms.

Material for the answer: The reforms of the Peter the Great era were prepared by the entire previous development of the country in the 17th century. Already during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, those key problems were identified on the solution of which the future of the country depended.

The Northern War had a great influence on the direction and nature of the reforms. The defeat of the Russian troops near Narva forced Peter to take measures to reorganize the army. basis new army became “amusing” regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky. Conversions to military sphere began back in 1699, on the eve of the Northern War. The army became regular and was formed on the basis of recruitment. The service was for life. Instead of Streltsy army Peter introduced regiments of the “new system” with uniform small arms, equipment, uniform uniforms, and a training and education system. The royal decree of 1705 completed the formation of the new army. As a result, by 1708, instead of the previous 40 thousand, the Russian army consisted of 113 thousand well-armed and equipped soldiers.

It was equally important to create a war economy. In 1701-1704. By decree of Peter the Demidov factory workers built the country's first large metallurgical plants in the Urals, supplying iron, cast iron, cannons, cannonballs, and gun carriages for the needs of the army. State-owned manufactories were created to produce gunpowder, small arms, and cloth for the army.

For the training of officers, mathematical, navigation (naval), artillery, engineering, foreign languages, and surgical schools were opened; for the training of non-commissioned officers - 50 garrison schools. Many nobles were sent abroad to study military affairs. As they returned, Peter refused to hire foreign military specialists. In 1716, Tsar Peter adopted the “Military Charter,” which summarized 15 years of military experience. This was the first unified set of military instructions in the Russian army. Later, a similar “Naval Charter” appeared, which became the law for officers and sailors of the fleet.

Special attention Peter devoted his attention to the construction of the navy. It was carried out not only in the south and north, but also in the Baltic. In 1708, it was here that the first 28-gun frigate was launched. Total number The number of ships built during the reign of Peter I amounted to about 900. As a result of military reforms carried out in the conditions of an ongoing war, Russia turned into one of the great military and naval powers of Europe.

Emerging in the 17th century. the tendency towards centralization of power intensified under the conditions of the Northern War. During the reform of central government in 1699, the Boyar Duma was replaced by the Near Chancellery, renamed in 1708 into the “Concilia of Ministers.” The next step was the creation in 1711 of the Governing Senate, which became the highest government institution. He had not only legislative, but also administrative and judicial functions, and also controlled the work of the ramified state apparatus in the center and locally. The king appointed nine people from representatives of the family nobility to the Senate (including former members Boyar Duma) and their nominees. Decisions in the Senate were made collegially at a general meeting. Control was established over the activities of the Senate: in 1722, a prosecutor general (P.I. Yaguzhinsky) was appointed, who was called the “sovereign eye” in the Senate.

Reform 1718-1720 abolished orders and introduced boards. Initially there were eleven of them. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs was in charge foreign policy; Military College land army; Admiralty Board - navy; Justice Collegium - civil and criminal courts; Berg College - mining industry; Manufactory Collegium - the manufacturing industry. Unlike orders, decisions here were made collectively (collegially). Each board was headed by a president, vice-president, and several advisers. To guide the activities of the boards, General Regulations and regulations of each board were issued.

Central location The secret police occupied the control system. In charge of cases of state crimes Preobrazhensky order and then Secret Chancery. They were under the authority of the emperor himself.

In 1714, Peter I signed a decree on single inheritance, according to which the estates of the nobles were equated to boyar estates. This document was aimed at blurring the lines between the clan and the new (noble) aristocracy. In 1722, the tsar adopted the “Table of Ranks,” which blurred the line between the official positions of the old and new aristocracy. According to the law, service was divided into civil and military. 14 classes (ranks) of officials were defined. In the civil service - from collegiate registrar to chancellor. In the army - from ensign to field marshal general. In the navy - from ensign to admiral general. Anyone who received the rank of 8th class became a hereditary nobleman. Ranks from the 14th to the 9th were given personal nobility without the right to transfer it by inheritance. For their service, officials received land and peasants, as well as salary. Such a system provided the opportunity for career growth to any person, regardless of his origin.

Regional reform was carried out. In 1708, to strengthen the local apparatus of power and increase its role in government, the country was divided into eight provinces (their number later increased): Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Smolensk, Kiev, Azov, Kazan, Drkhangelogorod, Siberian. They were headed by governors appointed by the king and possessing administrative, military and judicial powers. The provinces were divided into districts. In 1719, Peter divided the country into 50 provinces headed by governors. The provincial division was preserved, but only military and judicial functions remained in the hands of the governors.

Special regime local government existed in Ukraine. Power here belonged to the hetman. However, to control his actions (especially after the betrayal of Hetman Mazepa), the Little Russian Collegium was created, headed by a tsarist officer. After the death of Hetman I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections were prohibited; for the first time, a hetman was appointed by royal decree.

The reform of city government was of great importance. As cities grew, the urban population also grew. By the end of Peter's reign it amounted to 350 thousand people. The bulk of the townspeople were artisans and small townspeople; in addition, the first manufacturing workers appeared, and the number of merchants and traders increased significantly. Even at the beginning of his reign, Peter, in the Western style, established the Burmister Chamber in Moscow, and in other cities - elective positions of Burmisters. In 1720, a Chief Magistrate was created in St. Petersburg, to which local magistrates, headed by mayors and ratmans elected from the city population, were subordinate. The townspeople were now divided into “regular” (higher) and “mean” (lower). The “regulars,” in turn, were divided into two guilds: the first included rich merchants and members of the “liberal professions” (doctors, pharmacists, artists), the second included artisans and traders. "Regular townspeople" enjoyed special state support and benefits. Urban reform not only contributed to the economic growth of cities, but also expanded the social support of autocracy in them.

Under Peter I, the process of transforming the church into one of the most important state institutions, completely subordinate to the highest secular authority, was completed. After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I forbade holding new elections of the patriarch, citing the outbreak of the Northern War. After the end of the Northern War, he completely abolished the patriarchate. Management of church affairs was transferred to the Holy Governing Synod. This board included representatives of the highest clergy appointed by the sovereign. Since their decisions were also approved by the Tsar, it can be said that the Russian Emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I ordered the priests to carry out an educational mission among the peasants: read sermons and instructions to them, teach children prayers, and cultivate respect for the king and the church. This reform finally turned the church into the support of Russian absolutism.

The “case of Tsarevich Alexei” forced the reformer tsar to think about the fate of the reforms after his death and prompted Peter to change the order of succession to the throne. In 1722; a decree was signed according to which the king could appoint any successor for himself, regardless of the degree of relationship. However, the emperor himself did not have time to do this. Having caught a cold in January 1725, he died suddenly.

Government reforms, carried out by Peter I, had great value for the country. They strengthened Russian state, put him on a par with the great European powers. The reforms destroyed the remnants of localism remaining from appanage Rus', erasing the lines between the boyars and the nobility in their economic situation and official status. The system of local government was improved, and for the first time in the history of Russia, elective principles appeared in the management of cities. The church finally turned into one of the state instruments. At the same time new system government continued to deprive millions of ordinary citizens Russian Emperor opportunities to participate in the government of the country.

1. Russia’s noticeable lag in terms of its level of socio-economic, military and cultural development from advanced European states.

2. Awareness of the need for reforms using European experience.

3. Peter's active will to transform the country.

4. Some traditional foundations of Russian life: the autocratic power of the tsar, the degraded position of the church in the state and the universal enslavement of all classes of society, which became the main levers in carrying out reforms.

The need to achieve access to Black and Baltic seas for normal economic development (starting point).

→ For this we needed strong army and the navy - this determines the military reforms.

→ To successfully conduct combat operations outside of the army and navy, it was necessary to have weapons and uniforms - this determined economic reforms.

→ To wage war, additional sources of income were required - this determined the monetary and tax reforms.

→ To better collect taxes, it was necessary centralized system management and control system - this determines administrative reforms.

→ In order for management to become more efficient, it was necessary to increase the level of education of officials - this determines reforms in the field of culture and education.

Goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725)- maximum strengthening of the king’s power, growth military power countries, territorial expansion powers and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I were A. D. Mentikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky, P. P. Shafirov, F. Yu. Romodanovsky, Ya. Bruce.

Military reform. Recruitment was introduced, new regulations, equipment in the Western style, and a fleet was built. However, it is hardly true to talk about the creation of a regular army; it already existed since mid-17th century V., was replaced only by her personnel composition as a result of the dissolution of the Streltsy regiments. The replacement of noble cavalry with dragoon cavalry led to a decrease in the combat effectiveness of cavalry.

Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the highest government agency- the Senate (1711), called upon to replace the tsar if necessary, orders - by collegiums. The “Table of Ranks” was introduced, which provided for a system of ranks and the procedure for assigning them not according to nobility, but in accordance with service indicators. Decree on succession to the throne allowed the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter accepted the imperial title.

Church reform. In 1721 the patriarchate was abolished, the church began to be governed Holy Synod and was deprived of part of her wealth. The priests were transferred to government salaries, their number was reduced, and some of them became landowner serfs.

Changes in the economy. In 1724 it was introduced capitation tax, levied on all men of the tax-paying classes, regardless of age, a mass of indirect taxes appeared (on coffins, beards, baths, etc.), ship taxes, etc. In general, taxes increased by about Zraza. Up to 180 manufactories were created, which marked the beginning of a large domestic industry. State monopolies were introduced on various goods, which, however, began to be abolished by the end of Peter’s reign. Canals and roads are being built, but many projects have not been implemented due to lack of funds.