Intermediate bosons. Intermediate vector bosons

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SPECIES COMPOSITION AND BIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF APHIDS (HOMOPTERA, APHIDINEA) ON CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRY IN THE MOSCOW REGION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

However, until now, as species composition, and the features of complex cycles of their development in different types aphids remained insufficiently studied, and complexes of effective control measures on berry crops were poorly developed.

<...> <...> <...>Fledged individuals migrate (during the formation of berries) to intermediate host plants<...>-" ^ _ " On the intermediate host, the leaf gall aphid gives " 1 5 generations, spreading with the help of winged

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SPECIES COMPOSITION AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF APHIDS (HOMOPTERA, APHIDINEA) IN MUSCURRENTS AND GOOSEBERRY IN THE MOSCOW REGION ABSTRACT OF DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

Conclusions - Presented morphological characteristics various seasonal forms and definitive polythemic tables and punched cards were compiled for the practical identification of aphid species found on gooseberries and currants in the Non-Chernozem region

.); in the fourth it reaches /1P0%. h,They fly to intermediate "(secondary) plants-"/ ^hosts<...>Migration of chicorn-currant aphids to intermediate host plants: (Cichorium intybus L., Lapsana communis<...>generation completely gives rise to winged female migrants, migrating from the end of May to the end of June to intermediate<...>Fledged individuals migrate (during the formation of berries) to intermediate host plants<...>-" ^ _" On the intermediate host, the leaf gall aphid gives "1 5 generations, spreading with the help of winged

3

Software and hardware information protection method. instructions

Guidelines contain 9 laboratory works. Each work includes a theoretical presentation of the material, problem statement, order of execution and test questions for self-preparation.

Install the downloaded certificate into the Intermediate Certification Authorities store. 6.

4

Nuclear and particle physics. In 2 hours. Part 2. Elementary particles textbook. manual: direction “Fundamental Physics”

M.: Prometheus Publishing House

The tutorial covers the basic concepts and laws of physics atomic nucleus and elementary particles. In the second part of the manual, issues of interconversions of elementary particles are considered, the theory of strong and weak interactions is presented, and the concept of modern unified theories of fundamental interactions is given.

with a lepton)(l or quark)(q type )( −−Zee (Fig. 9.12). We depict intermediate bosons as dashed<...>Rice. 9.12. intermediate bosons in each interaction event (node) must maintain electrical<...>etc. a quark emitting or absorbing an intermediate boson does not change its color. on the diagram at the node<...>bosons in this case, theoretical calculations based on the model with intermediate bosons coincide with<...>bosons require high energies. to discover the intermediate bosons predicted by the theory it took

5

One of the possible scenarios for the evolution of early cold universe, born as a result of a sufficiently large quantum fluctuation of the vacuum of size a0 ≫ lP (where lP is the Planck length) and filled with both a nonlinear scalar field ϕ, the potential energy density U(ϕ) of which determines the energy density λ of the vacuum, and a nonideal Fermi gas with a short-range repulsion between particles, the equation of state of which is characterized by the ratio of pressure P (nF) to energy density ε(nF) depending on the concentration of fermions nF. As nF decreases during the expansion of the early Universe, the dimensionless quantity ν(nF)=P (nF)/ε(nF) decreases from the maximum value νmax =1at nF →∞to zero at nF → 0. The interaction of scalar and gravitational fields, which is characterized by dimensionless constantξ, is proportional to the scalar curvature of four-dimensional space R = κ (where κ is Einstein’s gravitational constant) and contains both quadratic and linear in ϕ terms. As a result of this, the expanding early Universe reaches a point in a finite period of time phase transition first kind when critical values scalar curvature R = Rc = −μ2/ξ and radius ac ≫ a0. After this, the early closed Universe from the flat inflection point of the potential U(ϕ) “rolls” into the zero minimum potential in a finite time. The release of the total potential energy of the scalar field throughout the entire volume of the expanding Universe in the process of its “rolling” should be accompanied by the birth large number massive particles and antiparticles of various types, the annihilation of which plays a role big bang. The question of the fundamentality of Newton's gravitational constant GN is also discussed.

<...> <...> <...> <...>

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M.: PROMEDIA

The article examines the formation of the mass of subatomic particles. Mass is considered as an indicator of inertia. The physical mechanism of formation of inertial mass is considered in detail.

<...> <...> <...>, and their substitution into the formulas gave the masses of Wi and Z bosons.<...>, the Higgs boson, which is what they did at the Large Hadron Collider.

7

The article discusses the key physical ideas that led to the experimental verification of the Higgs boson. The conceptual problems of the theory of supersymmetry in the context of this discovery are outlined. The hypothesis about the technicolor nature of the Higgs boson is considered.

The second idea is this idea about the generation of masses of elementary particles (quarks, leptons and vector intermediate<...>conceptually important results of the Standard Model is that the masses of all particles (not just intermediate ones)<...>experimental verification of the theory was done in 1983 at the CERN collider before last - those same intermediates were discovered<...> <...>quarks and gluons; 2) sectors of electromagnetic and weak interactions quarks, leptons, photons and intermediate

8

Metaphysics

M.: Knowledge Laboratory

The book is devoted to the metaphysical foundations of modern theoretical physics and the disclosure of the leading trends in its development in the 21st century. This edition of the book has been significantly revised and expanded. The 1st part describes the state of physics at the beginning of the twentieth century. Part 2 describes theories and programs within the framework of the generally accepted field theoretical worldview. The 3rd part is devoted to the geometric worldview, developing on the basis of the ideas of the general theory of relativity and the multidimensional theories of Kaluza-Klein. Part 4 analyzes the foundations and possibilities of the relational approach, based on the concept of long-range action. The 5th part outlines the principles of binary geometrophysics, which combines the ideas of previous physical programs. Finally, in the final, 6th part of the book, the problems of the relationship between science (physics), philosophy and religion are considered on the basis of metaphysical principles identified during the analysis of the development of physics.

Origins of the category of intermediate boson fields. . . . . . . . . . . 460 15.8.<...>Quark interaction different generations with an intermediate neutral vector Z-boson is carried out<...>If desired, intermediate bosons can be introduced as secondary auxiliary concepts. 3.<...>Origins of the category of fields of intermediate bosons 1.<...>Origins of the category of fields of intermediate bosons 15.8. Metaphysical analysis of pre-geometry 15.8.1.

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Fundamentals of Physics. In 2 vols. T. 2 [textbook]

M.: Knowledge Laboratory

The textbook corresponds to the program of the discipline “Physics” for natural science and technical universities. Two of its volumes are part of the educational set, which also includes the textbook “Fundamentals of Physics. Exercises and tasks” by the same authors. In many respects, this textbook is unique. A number of original methodological techniques and ways of presenting the material, the inclusion of new, often unexpected topics and vivid examples that are absent in traditional physics courses, allow students to acquire the skills of confident independent thinking, to better understand the physical foundations of a wide variety of natural phenomena, to do practical, qualitative assessments, operating with dimensions and orders of magnitude.

Examples of bosons: photon, particles of two quarks (π mesons, etc.), intermediate vector bosons W±<...>Fermi and in the theory with an intermediate vector boson (see Fig. 45.5).<...>the contribution of two vertices (g2) and an intermediate boson should give the Fermi constant: GF ∝ g2/M2.<...>The theory with three intermediate bosons W+, W− and Z0 was developed by the Americans S. Glashow, S.<...>intermediate vector bosons W± and Z0.

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Concepts of modern natural science textbook. allowance

TPU Publishing House

The manual examines questions common to natural science disciplines: the subject and method of research, the properties of space-time, the emergence of the Universe and life on Earth, closed and open systems, conditions for the emergence and examples of self-organization in living and inanimate nature, features of biological systems.

Intermediate bosons have been detected in colliding proton-antiproton beams.<...>bosons Nature is considered in movement and development.<...>For living nature, the main state is asymmetry; symmetry is an intermediate stage of development. 2.<...> Liquid crystals is an intermediate state of matter between liquid and solid state. <...>vector bosons)).

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Russian language at a technical university. At 3 o'clock. Part 1 training. manual for foreign students, undergraduates and graduate students of engineering studies

M.: Publishing house of MSTU im. N.E. Bauman

The textbook presents texts for listening, texts for independent work of students, to which corresponding tasks are attached, models of plans of different types with corresponding texts are given, as well as the necessary grammatical material and tasks compiled taking into account the communicative needs of students. The manual complies with the contents and requirements of the “State Standard for Russian as a Foreign Language”, as well as the Educational and Methodological Complex of Disciplines (Russian Language Program for First-Year Foreign Bachelors of Moscow State Technical University named after N.E. Bauman) - the discipline “Russian as a Foreign Language”.

vector41 bosons 42.<...>The theory made it possible to predict the masses of intermediate bosons.<...>Intermediate bosons were discovered in 1982–1983. two groups of physicists at CERN (European Organization<...>Intermediate bosons are unstable particles; their lifetime is only 3⋅10–25 s.<...>Therefore, it must involve an intermediate boson.

12

Theoretical foundations for the study of educational management systems. allowance

Tutorial in the academic discipline “Research of control systems” of the cycle “ Special disciplines» intended for students majoring in 080507 “Organization Management”, students of advanced training and professional retraining courses executives and specialists in physical culture and sports.

If, within the framework of your plan, you outline clear stages for achieving success, a kind of “way stations”<...>Any research conducted requires setting intermediate goals.<...>After achieving the intermediate goal, the effectiveness is checked decisions made, analyzed<...>And only after this analysis, you can set the task of achieving the next intermediate goal.<...>graph) allows you to anticipate the situation when achieving the final (or intermediate) goal may be

13

Foundations of Physics [monograph]

M.: Knowledge Laboratory

The foundations of physics are outlined on the basis of a new approach to the construction of a unified theory of space-time and physical interactions(binary geometrophysics), which relies on the concept of relationships between events. Physical foundation of this approach are: 1) the relational concept of classical space-time, 2) the concept of long-range action (the Fokker-Feynman theory of direct interparticle interaction), alternative theory fields, 3) the theory of the S-matrix in the physics of the microworld, 4) the principles of multidimensional geometric models of physical interactions such as the theories of Kaluza and Klein and 5) the idea of ​​​​the macroscopic nature of classical space-time. Mathematical basis The relational approach is provided by the theory of binary systems of complex relations, which are the prototype of reference systems in the theory of relativity. The fundamental possibility of representing the foundations of geometry and fundamental physical concepts of the microworld in terms of binary systems of complex relations of lower ranks (dimensions) is substantiated.

Weak interactions through intermediate neutral Z-bosons appear as if beyond the program.<...>V (w)C states characterizing interactions “through intermediate charged bosons”, we will define<...>This version of interactions “through intermediate charged bosons” (W± bosons) corresponds to the charged<...>Instead of vector potentials A(1)μ and A(2)μ potentials of intermediate charged W bosons are introduced: W<...>In it, intermediate vector bosons (gluons) are introduced through the localization of the 8-parameter group

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No. 3 [Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, 2017]

Founded in 1873. Articles are published that make a significant contribution to one of the fields of physics and are of interest to a wide physics audience. The journal is peer-reviewed and included in the List of Higher Attestation Commissions for publishing works of applicants for academic degrees.

If we neglect the relatively small difference in the masses of the intermediate bosons W± and Z0, which is due to the interaction<...>mass mZ of the neutral intermediate Z0 boson.<...>This assumption is quite natural, since the finite mass of intermediate bosons within the Standard<...>In this case, the ratio of the constants e2w/e2μ is close to the logarithm of the ratio of the masses of the intermediate boson and muon,<...>greater than the mass of intermediate bosons, we can expect that the corresponding mass of the hypothetical superheavy bosons

15

The second part of the article discusses the features of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, which served as a justification for including in the collider program the experiment to verify supersymmetry on the energy scale MSUSY

<...>All particles appearing in the Standard Model necessarily have supersymmetric partners: photons, intermediate<...>simultaneously with similar transformations of antiquarks and with changes in the type of quarks and antiquarks through intermediate<...>assumes that quantitative characteristics direct transitions (that is, the pure effect of HK) and transitions through intermediate<...>than 6 times causes some surprise, since, according to logical structure SM, Higgs and intermediate

16

No. 11 [Chemistry and life XXI century, 2013]

Popular science magazine"Chemistry and Life - XXI Century" - the most interesting articles about science, the life of scientists and more since 1965.

a serious conflict arose: the stability of the theory required that the carriers of this interaction, intermediate<...>As a result of cunning manipulations, the three fields were “eaten up” by intermediate bosons, which acquired as a result<...>The most interesting thing is that the value of the coupling constant for intermediate bosons can be deduced from experiments<...>The result of a simulation of a particle collision that produces the Higgs boson The Higgs boson decays into<...>To do this, he developed the method of “in vitro reconstitution” - a kind of intermediate

17

No. 1 [Physical education in universities, 2014]

Intermediate control (IC) – control of assimilation of the content of the entire module.<...>Discovery of the Higgs boson After three years of experiments at the Large Hadron Collider, the Higgs boson was discovered<...>Higgs, the masses of intermediate vector bosons and the scale of supersymmetry restoration.<...>vector bosons.<...>As a rule, intermediate levels in atoms are relatively short-lived and difficult to occupy,

18

Physics. Nuclear physics. Physics of elementary particles. Astrophysics textbook

TPU Publishing House

The textbook, classic in structure and content, presents a course of lectures on physics aimed at developing students' practical skills in using fundamental physical laws to solve professional problems. The main attention is paid to the quantum mechanical description of the properties of nuclei, modern concepts of particle physics and cosmology. Applied issues of nuclear physics and modern methods of physical research are considered in sufficient detail.

The radius of action of the Yukawa potential r0 is determined by the mass m of the intermediate particle.<...>In the Standard Model of interaction of the fields of gluons, W-bosons, Z-bosons and photons with other fields of this<...>Is it possible to experiment with visual observation of intermediate bosons W±, for example, in a bubble, spark?<...>Bosons are interaction carrier particles.<...>bosons.

19

The first part of the article discusses phenomena related to the study of the hadronic vacuum in the Large Hadron Collider experimental program - hadronic jets, proton-proton interaction cross sections, Bose-correlated pion states, quark-gluon plasma. Vacuum fields in the theory of electroweak interactions are analyzed and the characteristics of the Standard Model of electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions of quarks and leptons are given.

<...> <...> <...>After the absorption of Goldstone bosons, five Higgs bosons remain - three neutral H01, H 0<...>vector bosons and gluons.

20

Geometric physics textbook. allowance

M.: Knowledge Laboratory

The book is devoted to the presentation and analysis of the geometric approach to the description of the physical world, in particular A. Einstein’s general theory of relativity and multidimensional geometric theory physical interactions. The first part gives an introduction to the general theory of relativity. The second part examines in detail the theory of relativity, its formulations and generalizations. The third part is devoted to the presentation of the multidimensional geometric theory of the microworld. The fourth part contains a metaphysical analysis of geometric and other approaches to physics in order to substantiate the need for a transition to a more advanced picture of the world.

Fermion interactions via intermediate neutral vector bosons.<...>Fermion interactions through intermediate neutral vector bosons Aμ and Zμ are illustrated with diagrams<...>Feynman type in Figure 10.1, and the interaction of fermions through intermediate vector bosons is illustrated<...>Interaction of a neutrino and a massive lepton via intermediate W bosons.<...>To obtain the rest masses of intermediate vector bosons and fermions in the Weinberg-Salam-Glashow model

21

Lecture 7 Atomic structure and elementary particles

M.: State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education MGIIT named after. Yu.A. Senkevich

Concepts of modern natural science

These particles occupy an intermediate position in mass between the mass of an electron, which they exceed approximately<...>: one particle emits a boson and immediately absorbs an identical boson emitted by its partner particle, and<...>Mesons (from the Greek - average, intermediate) include unstable hadrons with integer or<...>The first particles with such an intermediate mass were -mesons and K-mesons with different charges.<...>By weight they are divided into heavy, intermediate and light.

22

Within the framework of the binary pregeometry developed in our group, a description of the electroweak interactions of elementary particles is proposed. This is done on the basis of a binary system of complex rank relations (4,4). It is shown that in this theory the description of bound and unbound states of elementary particles is carried out in various geometries, which was already noted by V. A. Fock when he discovered the 0(4) symmetry in the problem of hydrogen-like atoms.

gauge fields 𝐵𝜇 and 𝐴(3)𝜇 vector potentials of the electromagnetic field 𝐴𝜇 field 𝑍𝜇 intermediate<...>𝜃𝑊 (𝑇3 −𝑄 sin2 𝜃𝑊)𝑍𝜇. (25) Instead of vector potentials 𝐴(1)𝜇 and 𝐴(2)𝜇, intermediate potentials are introduced<...>by considering that part of the Lagrangian in this model that describes the interaction of leptons through intermediate<...>vector bosons.<...>For now, we will limit ourselves to considering the case of weak interactions through Z-bosons.

23

No. 1 [Physical education in universities, 2004]

This journal is the only one that covers all current issues in teaching physics at universities, and, we hope, it will become the main means of communication between physics departments at universities in the CIS countries. The editor-in-chief of the journal is an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, professor at MEPhI, scientific director of the Higher School named after. N.G. Basova NRNU MEPhI O.N. Krokhin. Main sections of the magazine 1. Conceptual and methodological issues of teaching general course physics at university, technical school, college. 2. Course teaching issues general physics at technical universities. 3. Modern laboratory workshop in physics. 4. Demonstration lecture experiment. 5. Information technologies in physical education. 6. Issues of teaching the general course of physics in pedagogical universities and special secondary educational institutions. 7. Current practice in small-scale physics experiment. 8. Connection of the general physics course with other disciplines. 9. Integration of Higher School and the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Rubbia, 1983) of intermediate bosons W+, W – and Z0, realizing the weak interaction, was brilliant<...>Using the masses of intermediate bosons, estimate the radius of weak interactions.<...>bosons W+ ,W;, Z0.<...>boson W.<...>The rest energy of the W boson is about 80 GeV.

24

No. 2 [Physical education in universities, 2012]

This journal is the only one that covers all current issues in teaching physics at universities, and, we hope, it will become the main means of communication between physics departments at universities in the CIS countries. The editor-in-chief of the journal is an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, professor at MEPhI, scientific director of the Higher School named after. N.G. Basova NRNU MEPhI O.N. Krokhin. Main sections of the magazine 1. Conceptual and methodological issues of teaching a general course in physics at a university, technical school, or college. 2. Issues of teaching a course in general physics at technical universities. 3. Modern laboratory workshop in physics. 4. Demonstration lecture experiment. 5. Information technologies in physical education. 6. Issues of teaching the general course of physics in pedagogical universities and special secondary educational institutions. 7. Current practice in small-scale physics experiment. 8. Connection of the general physics course with other disciplines. 9. Integration of Higher School and the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Weak interactions are carried by particles with spin J = 1 – intermediate vector bosons W+,<...>The nature of the interaction of vacuum scalar fields with gauge fields of photons and intermediate vector fields<...>First, the gauge fields corresponding to photons, intermediate vector bosons and gluons can be<...>J=1 (photons, intermediate vector bosons, gluons) and scalar Higgs fields with spin J=0.<...>All particles appearing in the Standard Model necessarily have supersymmetric partners: photons, intermediate

25

No. 4 [Philosophy of Science, 2011]

Photons, weak force gauge bosons, and gluons considered by the SM are just different<...>The new particles are called ψ-mesons (or ψ-bosons), a boson with a mass of 3.1 GeV is now called J<...>/ψ, and a boson with a mass of 3.7 GeV is ψ".<...>bosons.<...>vector boson - a particle that has long been attributed to the role of a carrier of weak forces.

26

Theory of strongly correlated systems. Generating functional method [monograph]

M.: Institute of Computer Research

Based on common approach The book provides a presentation of the basic models in the theory of strongly correlated systems: the Heisenberg, Hubbard, tJ-model, sd-model, double exchange model and periodic Anderson model, used to describe physical phenomena in transition and rare earth metals, their alloys and compounds.

Bosonic Green's functions In addition to the bosonic GF of the density–density type (1.2.29) introduced above, we consider<...>BOSON GREEN FUNCTIONS 127 which contains the bosonic GFs defined in (3.2.17)–(3.2.19).<...>Bosonic Green's functions 3.3.1.<...>Such systems are called systems with intermediate valence.<...>In this representation, the boson operator corresponded to the auxiliary boson.

27

A particle at the edge of the Universe. How the Hunt for the Higgs Boson Leads Us to the Edge of a New World

M.: Knowledge Laboratory

The author of the book, a famous American theoretical physicist and a brilliant popularizer of science, talks about the physics of elementary particles, about the latest achievements of scientists in this field, about grandiose accelerators and about the most mysterious particle, nicknamed the God particle, which everyone has heard about, but few really understand its nature. After turning the last page, the reader will finally learn why this particle is so important and why scientists spare no time, effort, or money to search for it and study its properties. The Royal Society of London named the book the best non-fiction book of 2013.

INTERMEDIATE RESULTS There is a large, deep and complex physics, related to the concept of the Higgs boson<...>Thus, two gluons can collide and produce a Higgs boson, passing through an intermediate stage of formation<...>through the intermediate stage of the birth of virtual quarks.<...>two photons passing through an intermediate stage - the formation of virtual particles.<...>to turn into other particles, passing through the intermediate stage of the formation of the Higgs boson).

28

Electroweak processes in an external active medium monograph

The contents of the monograph are relevant scientific direction, located at the intersection of quantum field theory, elementary particle physics, plasma physics, physics of superstrong magnetic fields and astrophysics. A systematic presentation of methods for calculating electrical weak processes, both wood and loop, in the outer active environment superstrong electromagnetic field and hot dense plasma. The work was carried out within the framework of the implementation of the analytical departmental target program of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation "Development of the scientific potential of higher education (2009-2010)" (project No. 2.1.1/510) and the Federal target program "Scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel innovative Russia" for 2009 2013 (State contract No. P2323).

scalar Φ-boson in a magnetic field (we consider negatively charged W− and Φ− bosons to be particles): G<...>Using the smallness of the parameter η, it is advisable to choose an intermediate scale A on the x axis such that A └<...>Region of intermediate values ​​of the dynamic parameter λ ¿ χ2 ¿ 1.<...>Z-boson is equal to zero.<...>Feynman diagram for the reversal of neutrino helicity during scattering through the intermediate plasmon γ∗

29

The expression for general transformation Foldy - Wouthuysen using the chiral representation of Dirac matrices and in the presence of bosonic fields Bμ(x,t) interacting with the fermionic field ψ(x,t).

Foldy–Wouthuysen transformation using the chiral representation of Dirac matrices and in the presence of bosonic<...>there is no interaction between real particles and antiparticles - such interaction is possible only in intermediate<...> <...>and interact only with gauge bosons, W Z±μ μ gluons and photons.<...>Foldy–Wouthuysen transformations for free motion of fermions (in the absence of bosonic fields (

30

Supersymmetry. From the Higgs Boson to the New Physics, Supersymmetry and Beyond: From the Higgs Boson to the New Physics

M.: Knowledge Laboratory

Book written famous theoretical physicist, working in the field of elementary particles and string theory, is devoted to the hypothetical symmetry between particles of matter and particles that carry interactions - supersymmetry. If experiments confirm that nature is indeed supersymmetric, then there is a new class of particles called superparticles. From this book, the reader will learn about how superparticles and supersymmetry will help scientists create a complete physical picture of the world. The final theory will not only describe all observable phenomena, but will also be able to answer the question of why the world works the way it does. Written in the genre of popular science literature, this publication does not require special preparation from the reader.

It is necessary to add an intermediate stage, namely a detector that collects information about behavior<...>Information could be recorded on tape and studied later, adding more intermediate stages<...>Decay into  can occur through some intermediate particles and much less frequently than all other modes, although<...>Due to the fact that the decay occurs through intermediate particles, it is sensitive to additional contributions<...>It is necessary to add an intermediate stage, namely a detector that collects information about behavior

31

Group American physicists announced the possible existence of a fifth fundamental interaction. Scientists devoted their work to the possible interactions of a new particle of the protophobic X-boson, which, according to the authors of the study, reacts only with electrons and neutrons, and most importantly, is part of the dark sector of nature. With its help, physicists tried to explain the anomaly observed in the experiment during the transition to the ground state. energy state beryllium-8

In particular, if the mass of the Higgs boson formed as a result of the decay of the reheaton is small, then the mass of the rest<...>The mass of the Higgs boson in such a theory appears after a phase transition above critical point. <...>Scientists devoted their work to the possible interactions of a new particle of the protophobic X-boson, which,<...>the existence of an anomaly and then proposed another explanation for it: the existence of a protophobic X-boson<...>The pentaquark arose as an intermediate state in this reaction.

32

No. 2 [Earth and Universe, 2013]

Articles are published on current problems astronomy, cosmonautics, ecology, geophysics and geodesy. Particular attention is paid to articles promoting the most important scientific achievements containing the results of the experiments in the study outer space, showing the ideological significance of the sciences about the Earth and the Universe and their connection with other areas of knowledge, exposing the anti-scientific essence of all kinds of sensational hypotheses and theories in the field of astronomy, cosmonautics and geophysics. Published materials provide methodological assistance to teachers and lecturers, promote broad participation of astronomy, cosmonautics and geophysics enthusiasts in space observations and research

After passing through an intermediate short-term stage of evolution with limited tidal forces and a final<...>Then the singularity is only an intermediate link in a single process of evolution, starting with compression and transforming<...>The W boson has an electrical charge of +1 or –1, equal in magnitude to the charge of the electron, and the Z boson has an electrical charge<...>and vector bosons.<...>For low solar cycles (W*≤ 80), and there were only two of them, the maximum phase consisted of several intermediate

33

Questions of the physics of elementary particles in flat and curved space-time, a collection of articles dedicated to the 70th anniversary of V.P. Neznamova

Russian Federal Nuclear Center - All-Russian Research Institute experimental physics

The collection presents works on the physics of elementary particles in flat and curved space-time.

In this case, the Higgs bosons are responsible only for the gauge invariance of the bosonic sector of the theory<...>The single-velocity theory is not applicable to systems using intermediate and thermal neutrons.<...>Let us present some intermediate calculations and the final result of this work.<...>quarkonium states, θ,Ψ ϒ including Higgs bosons, no interactions of Higgs bosons<...>Higgs bosons are responsible for the gauge invariance of the bosonic sector of the theory and interact

34

No. 2 [Nuclear Physics, 2017]

Founded in 1965. Publication topics include experimental and theoretical research structure, spectra and properties of radiation, fission and nuclear reactions, caused by photons, leptons and hadrons of fundamental interactions and symmetries of particle collisions at high and ultra-high energies gauge and unified quantum field theories, quark models, supersymmetry and supergravity, articles on astrophysics, cosmology, mathematical problems nuclear physics. The journal is peer-reviewed and included in the List of Higher Attestation Commissions.

level i to final level f; nλi - number of intermediate levels of cascades in small energy intervals<...>Dependence of average densities of intermediate levels of two-quantum cascades (points with errors) on energy<...>The φ2 operator represents four heavy bosons.<...>So η sets the mass of W-bosons, and therefore η = 246 GeV.<...>This also applies to interactions of the H boson with SM particles.

35

Superconductors and superconductivity. T. 2. Theory and properties of the dictionary-reference book

Rostov n/d.: Southern Federal University Publishing House

The second volume of the three-volume dictionary-reference book includes about 3,500 concepts and terms related to analytical methods and theoretical approaches to the study of superconductors and superconductivity, and also contains a lot of data on the properties of condensed matter. Much attention is paid to the relevant mathematical and physical methods, used to evaluate them. The chemical and physical basis of superconductivity is widely presented, as well as the results of modeling the structure-sensitive properties of superconductors and related materials. All terms presented in the dictionary are arranged alphabetically. A separate article is devoted to each term, revealing its semantic scientific, technical and/or mathematical content, scope and relationship with other terms, with all terms provided English equivalents. In addition, a number of articles are devoted to issues related to superconductivity from related topics.

Quantum chromodynamics), field of intermediate vector bosons (see Electroweak interaction).<...>symmetry and the appearance of masses in intermediate vector bosons (carriers of the weak interaction<...>Weak V. is carried out through intermediate vector bosons.<...>These bosons are intermediate in the same sense as the photon () in the scattering of charged particles.<...>The theory of E. v. uses charged intermediate bosons, introduced for the first time by J. Schwinger (J.

36

M.: PROMEDIA

The article is devoted to the Krige intermediate, due to which the Earth will experience global cooling.

In a pivotal experiment, biochemists Mahlon Hoagland and Paul Zamenik discovered reaction intermediates<...>But then Ziegler discovered that the intermediate product, triethylaluminum Al(CH 2 CH 3) 3, catalyzes even better<...>In chemistry, an intermediate is an intermediate compound that is formed during the interaction of the starting materials.<...> <...>

37

No. 4 [Bulletin of Moscow University. Series 3. Physics. Astronomy, 2017]

Founded in 1946 Authoritative scientific publication, articles and materials of the magazine reflect the topic the most important areas theoretical and experimental research on the entire range of scientific issues studied at the Faculty of Physics of Moscow State University

Decay of the Higgs boson into a Z (W) boson and a fermion pair If the mass of the Higgs boson is less than the sum of the masses<...>with Higgs bosons.<...>Decay of the Higgs boson into a photon and a Z boson Since the mass of the Higgs boson is greater than the mass of the Z boson, it is possible<...>If wave attenuation is sufficiently weak and convective losses predominate at β2 = π, then in the intermediate<...>Introduction Liquid crystals (LCs) are unique materials that can exist in states intermediateintermediate, and at the same time<...>replacing a real hydrocarbon compound with some fictitious substance that decomposes without intermediate<...>replacing a real hydrocarbon compound with some fictitious substance that decomposes without intermediate

39

No. 4 [Bulletin of Moscow State Technical University named after N.E. Bauman. Series "Natural Sciences", 2016]

The series pays significant attention to works in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, theoretical mechanics, ecology, linguistics, cultural studies and other branches of knowledge characteristic of the Research Technical University of the 21st century.

The upper and lower estimates in relation (23) coincide at = 0VC and =1,VC but for intermediate values<...>ellipsoidal inclusions (a), with a chaotic arrangement of ellipsoidal inclusions with limit (b) and intermediate<...>c) semiaxial ratios Calculation results for an isotropic composite with inclusion shape options, intermediate<...>regularities in the location of curves constructed using the self-consistency method are preserved for intermediate<...>The ways in which they appear in the boson environment can be different.

40

M.: PROMEDIA

Article about catalysts.

But in equally Intermediate products that are obtained in the catalytic reaction also deserve our attention.<...>A + Cat > Cat A Cat A +B > P + Cat Cat is the designation of the catalyst and Cat A is the intermediate product<...>In fact, if desired, the intermediate product itself could be patented.<...>In 1949, he proposed a mechanism. Recently, the whole world has been vigorously discussing the discovery of the Higgs boson,<...>By the way, its existence, as well as the Higgs boson, was predicted theoretically - this was done back in 1949

41

No. 6 [Young technician, 2013]

Published since September 1956. During the Soviet era, periodicals were published in large circulations and had a fairly broad focus, based on the age and interests of teenagers. One of the popular magazines for young men was the magazine " Young Technician”, consisting of popular science articles, reviews of the latest innovations related to physics, mechanics, chemistry and other practical inventions. Our team has preserved this wonderful legacy and provides you with the opportunity to get acquainted with this magazine again. The main objective of the magazine was the desire to tell and teach young people how to use everyday life laws of physics and mechanics, gain skills for independent creativity using various tools and materials. Today, in the age of high technology, surrounding gadgets and significant development of robotics, in order to create something with your own hands or invent something new, you first need to learn to distinguish a transistor from a diode, read electrical circuits, understand drawings, solder, plan and tighten bolts and nuts The magazine “Young Technician” also became famous for its applications “For Skillful Hands" and "Lefty". If the magazine itself was popular among teenagers, then the supplements were also appreciated by adults who paid tribute practical advice and recommendations.

Types of interactions. Today, four types of interaction are known: strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational. The main parameters of these interactions are presented in Table. 1. It is well known that strong interactions hold nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus of an atom, as well as quarks (constituents of nucleons) inside nucleons.

–15 10–23–10–22 Gluon Electromagnetic 1/137 Any 10–20–10–18 Photon Weak 10–5 2×10–18 10–10–10–8 Intermediate<...>boson Gravitational 10–38 Any >1018 Graviton Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency

43

No. 3 [Philosophy of Science, 2011]

Published since 1995. This is the first Russian magazine devoted to problems of philosophy, logic, methodology and history of natural sciences. The main directions of the journal: analysis of philosophical, methodological and logical problems of modern natural science (physics, chemistry, geology, biology, medicine) and mathematics; history of natural science in the context of the development of its philosophy, logic and methodology; in the “From the Archives” section unknown or forgotten due to various reasons, but the work has not lost its relevance famous philosophers and natural scientists.

Some hypothetical entities are in an intermediate position, since not all criteria are truly<...>carried out one at a time), discrete (read one command at a time) and predictable (signals are not lost in intermediate<...>Neurons can be divided into three large groups: receptor, intermediate and effector.<...>Intermediate neurons process information received from receptors and form control<...>(photon, W+, W–, Z0 bosons, gluon).

44

No. 12 [Knowledge is power, 2012]

“Knowledge is Power” is a Russian popular science and scientific art magazine founded in 1926. Publishes materials about achievements in various fields of science - physics, astronomy, cosmology, biology, history, economics, philosophy, psychology, sociology.

Expert magazine is one of the most influential weekly business analytical publications in Russia. Over the 14 years of its existence in difficult political and economic conditions, the publication managed not only to survive and retain its readers, but also to expand their circle, earning a reputation as the undoubted leader of the Russian business magazine press. All our knowledge and experience are aimed at assisting Russian companies in their development, helping to navigate complex world modern economy and business.

And the Chicago results remained in the intermediate category of “very likely.”<...>Intermediate victory After the historic victory of the Standard Model, is it possible to say that theoretical physicists<...>& Kniga-Service Agency LLC fought and brought technologies immediately to the industrial stage and, bypassing intermediate bosons intermediate -

The possibilities and problems of unifying cosmology and high-energy physics within the framework of the program developed by A.D. Sakharov are considered.

The carriers of the weak interaction are intermediate vector bosons, the strong interaction is carried by gluons, and the electromagnetic<...>resulting from mathematical considerations, there was an assumption about the need for the existence of a triplet of intermediate<...>it was necessary to postulate the existence of another particle responsible for breaking the symmetry between the bosonic<...>And the main difficulty lies in the need to unify matter and forces, i.e. fermions and bosons.<...>The formalism of a new type of symmetry - supersymmetry, connecting bosons and fermions into a single multiplet,Intermediate calculations" A3 "Re" B3 "Im" A4 =IF(Sheet1!

INTERMEDIATE VECTOR BOSONS

Physical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia . . 1983 .

INTERMEDIATE VECTOR BOSONS

- vector particles, due to the exchange of which is carried out weak interaction. They are called "intermediate" according to history. reasons, since their existence was predicted theoretically long before their direct discovery as real particles (1983), namely, local four-fermion between charged currents And neutral ticks was presented as the result of an “intermediate” exchange of virtual particles [in Fig. in ka-

As an example, it is shown how this exchange occurs in electron scattering

]. These bosons are intermediate in the same sense as (g) in charge scattering. particles. Exchange of vector bosons (electric, respectively + e And - e),(electrical charge 0) and g communicates between currents in unified theory electroweak interaction, based on symmetry group S.U.(2)x U(l). In this theory of masses (mass

and are equal) and -bosons are calculated theoretically and expressed through the Fermi constant and Weinberg angle:

where a=1/137 is the fine structure constant. The Weinberg angle and masses are measured in independent

experiments, therefore the validity of the given relationships with percentage error is very important argument in favor of the theory of electroweak interaction.

Weight () and width of charge. The W-boson widths are 80.60.4 GeV and 2.250.14 GeV, respectively, and the neutral -boson widths are 91.1610.031 GeV and 2.5340.027 GeV. Charge The W boson decays into hadronic states in 70% of cases, into leptonic states in 30%, and ( relative probability each lepton is equal to 10%). The Z° boson decays into hadronic states in 71% of cases, its leptonic decay modes and their relative ones are respectively: (3.2%), (3.36%), (3.33%) and

(19,2%). M. V. Terentyev.

Physical encyclopedia. In 5 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Editor-in-chief A. M. Prokhorov. 1988 .

See what "INTERMEDIATE VECTOR BOSONS" are in other dictionaries:

W, Z0 particles with masses of the order of 80 and 90 GeV are carriers of weak interaction. Experimentally opened in 1983... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Particles W±, Z0 with masses of the order of 80 and 90 GeV, due to the exchange of which weak interaction occurs. Experimentally discovered in 1983. * * * INTERMEDIATE VECTOR BOSONS INTERMEDIATE VECTOR BOSONS, particles W, Z0 with masses of the order of 80 and ... Encyclopedic Dictionary

W+, Z0 particles with masses of the order of 80 and 90 GeV, due to the exchange of which weak interaction occurs. Experimentally opened in 1983... Natural science. Encyclopedic Dictionary

intermediate vector bosons- Particles with spin 1, performing weak interactions... Polytechnic terminological explanatory dictionary

Introduction. E. particles in the exact meaning of this term are primary, further indecomposable particles, from which, by assumption, all matter consists. In modern physics term "E. h." usually used not in its exact meaning, but less strictly for the name... ... Physical encyclopedia

The composition of matter is incredibly simple. All visible matter in the Universe on Earth and in space consists of fundamental particles of three different types: electrons and two types of quarks. These three particles (like the others described below) are mutually attracted and... ... Collier's Encyclopedia

Common name class internal symmetries of equations of field theory (i.e., symmetries associated with their elements, and not with the properties of space-time), characterized by parameters depending on the point in space-time (r, t). In physics it is accepted... ... Physical encyclopedia

- (QFT), relativistic quantum. theory of physics systems with an infinite number of degrees of freedom. An example of such an electrical system. mag. field, for a complete description of which at any moment in time it is necessary to set the electrical intensities. and mag. fields at each point... Physical encyclopedia

Unified gauge theory el. mag. and weak emotions. (see WEAK INTERACTION). Physical encyclopedic dictionary. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Editor-in-chief A. M. Prokhorov. 1983 ... Physical encyclopedia

- (Fermi Bose symmetry), symmetry connecting fields, quanta to ryh have integer numbers. spin (which are bosons), with fields, quanta of which have a half-integer spin (which are fermions). The fields transformed during S. transformations through each other form... ... Physical encyclopedia

INTERMEDIATE VECTOR BOSONS

Group of vector heavy h-ts, transferring the weak interaction, which includes two charged particles (W+, W-) with a mass of 80 GeV and one neutral particle (Z°) with a mass of 90 GeV. Discovered in 1983 at CERN. (see WEAK INTERACTION).

• - Organisms in which both parents influence the development of characteristics; they occupy an intermediate position between the parent pair...

  Terms and definitions used in breeding, genetics and reproduction of farm animals

• - hypothetical spinless particles that provide a mechanism for spontaneous breaking of gauge symmetry of physical states. systems...

  Physical encyclopedia

• - particles or quasiparticles with integer spin subject to Bose-Einstein statistics...

  Beginnings modern Natural Science

• - form connective tissue between other tissues or groups of cells...

  Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

• - wooden or metal. lattice structures used to suspend overhead catenary wires between anchor supports...

  Technical railway dictionary

• - W+, Z0 particles with masses of the order of 80 and 90 GeV, due to the exchange of which weak interaction occurs. Experimentally opened in 1983...

  Natural science. Encyclopedic Dictionary

• - G., located on the internodal branches of the sympathetic trunk in the cervical and lumbar regions, less often in the thoracic and sacral regions; provide fibers to the vessels and organs of the relevant areas...

  Large medical dictionary

• - - image of an object on a plane using parallel vectors, the magnitude of which is proportional to their distance from the points of the object to the projection plane...

  Geological encyclopedia

• - Petrochim. diagrams, the composition and position of the g.p. within which are established not only by the position of the corresponding point, but also by the direction and magnitude of the vector...

  Geological encyclopedia

• - direction-dependent, as opposed to scalar, direction-independent. S.k.v. identical in opposite directions are called bivectorial, different ones are called monovectorial...

  Geological encyclopedia

• - products, goods that are completely consumed in the production of final goods and services...

  Dictionary of business terms

• - goods that are completely consumed in the production of final goods and services...

  Large economic dictionary

• - W, Z0 particles with masses of the order of 80 and 90 GeV are carriers of weak interaction. Experimentally opened in 1983...

  Large encyclopedic dictionary

• - A type of semantic phraseological antonyms denoting opposite, multidirectional actions, signs. For example: do not forget the way somewhere - forget the way somewhere...

  Terms and concepts of linguistics: Vocabulary. Lexicology. Phraseology. Lexicography

• - A type of semantic phraseological antonyms denoting opposite, multidirectional actions, signs. For example: do not forget the way somewhere - forget the way somewhere...

  Dictionary linguistic terms T.V. Foal

"INTERMEDIATE VECTOR BOSONS" in books

I. Intermediate stages

author Saint-Exupéry Antoine de

I. Intermediate stages Many contemporaries talked about this brief but full of events life. In the beginning there was Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, a “strong, cheerful, open” boy who, at the age of twelve, had already invented an airplane-bicycle and declared that it would fly into the sky under

Intermediate dishes

From the book The Best Dishes for the Holiday Table. Simple, cheap, beautiful, tasty author Zvonareva Agafya Tikhonovna

Intermediate goals

From the book Theory of Constraints by Goldratt. Systematic approach to continuous improvement by Detmer William

Intermediate goals During implementation main task we have to take a number of steps, go through several stages, and each of them is an intermediate

Year of birth and vector couples

From the book Astrology of Love and Relationships. Your date of birth will tell you how to meet your other half and create a strong family author Solyanik Katerina

Year of birth and vector pairs Of course, eastern astrology is much more complex than those horoscopes based on zodiac signs eastern calendar which are widely known. However, even these twelve characteristics can at the first stage clarify the situation with the prospect of building

40. Intermediate chakras

From the book Pranayama. The path to the secrets of yoga author Lisbeth Andre van

Intermediate bodies

From the book Life of the Soul in the Body author Sheremeteva Galina Borisovna

Intermediate bodies Experience of travelers in past lives Disruption of unity with the world, loss of a number of qualities and deformation of the matrix can create conditions for the soul to spend an intermediate life in the body of a plant or animal. Very rarely she can get a body

Vector commandments

From the book Practical course Gregory Kvasha. Structural horoscope author Kvasha Grigory Semenovich

Vector commandments 1. For some, vector marriage is obvious evidence of divine intervention in our lives, for others it is an equally obvious consequence of the devil’s machinations. Hence the main commandment: when entering into a vector marriage, do not expect to remain in the shadows. Vector

5.6. Intermediate states

From the book of Kabbalah. Upper world. The beginning of the journey author Laitman Michael

5.6. Intermediate States In the spiritual world, there are intermediate states between the four main states (nonliving, vegetative, animal and human). There is a certain set of elements, the order of which determines the transfer of information. IN animal nature- This

1. Scalar, vector and tensor fields

From the book Gravity [From crystal spheres to wormholes] author Petrov Alexander Nikolaevich

1. Scalar, vector and tensor fields In the main text and further in the Appendix we use the concepts of scalar, vector and tensor fields. To avoid discomfort when encountering these terms, we will give some explanations. It's better to start with a vector. In normal 3D

3. Fermions and bosons

From the book Five unresolved problems science by Wiggins Arthur

3. Fermions and bosons All particles that make up the Universe fall into two groups: fermions and bosons. A similar distinction was introduced by graduate students at Leiden University (Holland) Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck. Goudsmit, more occupied with research, noticed

Interim conclusions

From the book Stalin's Assassins. The main secret of the 20th century author Mukhin Yuri Ignatievich

Intermediate conclusions What do we need to isolate and remember from here? firstly, some kind of conspiracy has matured among the elite of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, and not just the “peaceful opposition” or people “dissatisfied with Stalin’s policies,” but a conspiracy of evil and determined people, capable of killing anyone

Subtotals

From Book Two world war author Utkin Anatoly Ivanovich

Intermediate results German troops approached a distance of less than one hundred kilometers from the capital Soviet Union. Under their rule there was already a territory in which 65 million inhabitants of the USSR lived. There were already three million Soviet prisoners in German camps. Colonel

B.3. Vector read and write

From the book Programming for Linux. Professional approach by Mitchell Mark

4.6.5 Vector Parameters

From the C++ book by Hill Murray

4.6.5 Vector Parameters If a vector is used as a function parameter, then a pointer to its first element is passed. For example:int strlen(const char*);void f() (* char v = “a vector” strlen(v); strlen(“Nicholas”); *);In other words, when passed as a parameter, a parameter of type T is converted to T*.

6.1.10. Create vector images

From the book Self-instruction manual for working on Macintosh author Sofia Skrylina

6.1.10. Creating vector images To complete the task, we will need the material from section. 5.1.10 and 5.1.11.Task No. 1Draw a house using vector graphics tools, using Fig. 6.10. The task is located on the first page of the document in the file: /pages/tasks/6.

Electromagnetic interaction and strong interaction can be described using the exchange of quanta of the corresponding fields - photons (γ-quanta) and gluons. Photons and gluons are gauge bosons of electromagnetic and strong fields.
The weak interaction is also due to the exchange of heavy charged bosons W + and W − and a neutral boson Z with spin 1. Neutron decay

n → p + e − + e

D-quark decay diagram

at the quark level it appears to take place in two stages. At the first stage, the d-quark transforms into a u-quark and a W − boson

on the second, the W - boson decays, turning into an electron and an antineutrino

W − → e − + e .

IN standard model, developed in the works of S. Weinberg, A. Salam and S. Glashow, W − , W + , Z 0 -bosons and
-quanta are quanta of a single electroweak field. The Standard Model, which combines the electromagnetic and weak interactions, predicts a relationship between the electromagnetic and weak interaction constants and the relationship between the masses of charged and neutral bosons:

, ,

where W is the Weinberg angle. The value extracted from experiments is sin 2 W = 0.23.
Experimentally obtained values ​​of boson masses (m exp (W ±) = (80.419 + 0.056) GeV, m exp (Z) = (91.1882 + 0.0022) GeV) were in very good agreement with the standard theory. (10 years passed between the discovery of neutral currents and the observation of vector bosons.)
By analogy with the strong interaction, members of the same family generated by the W − or W + boson are combined into weak left-handed helical isospin doublets

with weak isospin T = 1/2, to which the values ​​T 3 = +1/2 (e,u) and T 3 = -1/2 (e,d) are assigned. For antifermions, weak isospin projections have opposite signs.
Weak interactions with charge changes (charged currents) are described by the states |T = 1, T 3 = +1> and |T = 1, T 3 = -1>. They occur with the emission or absorption of W − or W + bosons. Weak processes involving the Z boson were called processes with neutral weak currents.
In the standard model, leptons and quarks are grouped into left-handed spiral doublets - generations.

1st generation	2nd generation	3rd generation

Charged currents in leptonic processes are obtained when moving along the columns. Charged currents in processes with quarks are possible not only when moving along columns, but also between generations, i.e. the weak interaction mixes quarks. Changes in the flavor of quarks occur only with the help of charged currents. Neutral currents do not change the flavor of quarks.

W ± , Z - looked for in collision reactions of protons and antiprotons

The energy of colliding beams is 2*270 GeV.
W ± , Z bosons are formed as a result of the interaction of one of the proton quarks with the antiproton antiquark

u+ → W+	u + → Z
+ d → W −	d+ → Z

The total cross section for the interaction of protons with antiprotons at an energy of colliding particles of 2·270 GeV is almost 60 mbarn. While the cross section of reaction (1) is 10 -8 of the total cross section. That is, W ± bosons had to be detected against a background of -10 -8 foreign particles.
To reliably isolate W ± , Z bosons at such a high background of hadrons, we used the fact that W ± , Z bosons can decay with the emission of leptons. Then event (1) can be identified as follows. At the interaction point p, electrons with an energy > 15 GeV should be emitted in a direction perpendicular to the beam.
Restoring the full kinematics of events made it possible to determine the mass of the W ± boson
Modern meanings characteristics of W ± , Z bosons are given in the table.

Type particles	Electric chesical charge	Weight, Gav	Width, Gav	Decay modes %
W ±	+1(-1)	80.419 + 0.056	2.12 + 0.05	e + ν 10.7% μ + ν 10.5% τ + ν 10.4% hadrons 68.5%

The discovery of intermediate bosons completed a very important cycle of research, which showed that weak and electromagnetic forces, despite their apparent differences, are closely related to each other and essentially turn out to be manifestations of the same interaction, called electroweak.
With the introduction of an intermediate boson, the picture of weak processes fits qualitatively into general scheme interactions at the elementary level. Some empirical rules established for weak processes also receive their natural explanation.
The lifetime of intermediate bosons is about 10 - 25 s, and they can only be detected using decay products.
However, together with intermediate bosons, many hadrons are produced in pp collisions.
This occurs when the mass of the intermediate boson is mw (in energy). As the energy of the process increases, the results obtained using Lagrangians (2) and (3) become different.
The presence of a virtual decay stage with an intermediate boson W (a charged particle) automatically ensures the fulfillment of the selection rule: the strangeness changes in a four-fermnon node by one, and one virtual boson with a unit charge corresponds to the node.
The heaviest particle currently known (the intermediate boson) is almost 100 times more massive than the proton.
Higgs, which give mass to three of the four intermediate bosons using their vacuum averages. In chromodynamics, the non-emission of color is postulated, gluons are hidden in hadron bags and you don’t have to worry about their masslessness for the time being.
Let us see how correctly and completely the theory with intermediate bosons describes the properties of weak processes.
He realizes the internal inconsistency of the four-fermion theory and the need for vector and scalar intermediate bosons.
First of all, the question arises of how to introduce the masses of intermediate bosons into the theory. After all, from experiment we know that these particles must have masses (and quite large ones. At first glance, it seems that nothing bad will happen if we introduce the mass term m2A into the Lagrangian, which is called hands. In the case of Abelian gauge fields, this does not lead to any which is bad, as we saw when discussing the issue of the photon mass. For a photon, there is a soft one.
The non-renormalizability of the theory without R-bosons is even more clearly demonstrated in the processes of scattering of intermediate bosons by each other.
Currently, the model of weak interactions based on the idea of ​​intermediate bosons, which are quanta of a non-Abelian gauge field - the Weinberg-Salam model, has become very popular.
The condition of gauge invariance, associated with the need for renormalizability of the theory, requires the presence of four intermediate bosons, i.e. In addition to the photon, W - bosons, it is necessary to assume the existence of a neutral boson Z, which will be responsible for weak neutral currents.
At low energies, the fact that the interaction between currents occurs due to the exchange of intermediate bosons turns out to be insignificant.

In this book we will consider in detail the structure of weak currents, charged and neutral, and the properties of intermediate bosons. The first part of the book is devoted primarily to a phenomenological analysis of various weak processes at low energies, below the threshold for the production of W and Z bosons. In the second part of the book, we mainly consider the physics of the weak interaction at high energies, above the threshold for the production of W and Z bosons.
Considering a massless two-component neutrino, we can consider the transfer of momentum during its interaction with the medium to be small compared to the masses of intermediate bosons.
To explain weak interactions in accordance with common approach a weak interaction carrier is introduced, the role of which is played by a hypothetical particle - the intermediate W boson. Its mass should be greater than the nucleon mass, and its charge should be positive or negative.
In this article we consider only four-fermion SV, although the theory with an intermediate boson is mainly used to estimate Λ in the works cited above.
In the other particles section we include, first of all, the undiscovered Higgs H bosons, which in the standard model are used to give mass to intermediate bosons. It is possible that the introduction of H signals that we have stumbled upon another effective field, which will turn out to be a manifestation of the collective effects of some interaction at a more fundamental level.
The significant difference in the masses of the heavy bosons W and Z and the masses of photons determines the observed difference in the cross sections of weak and electromagnetic processes, although both W and Z and photons are intermediate bosons of a single electroweak interaction. The formation of virtual photons, which determine purely electromagnetic processes, does not require the expenditure of energy to create the rest mass of the photon, since it is equal to zero.
The existence of intermediate bosons may also determine the behavior of C.
Based on this analogy, the authors indicated (see also) that a similar situation should arise in MET. As a result, the masses of intermediate bosons, as well as fermions, will disappear and the weak interaction will become, like electromagnetic, long-range.
Weak interaction is common to all particles; An example of weak interaction is p-decay. The weak interaction is explained by the exchange of intermediate bosons - particles that have a large rest mass (about 100 GeV) and spin A.
It was discovered during the explanation of p-decay processes. The radius of the weak interaction is determined by the masses of the intermediate bosons m and m.
Zweig / is that all particles participating in strong interactions are built from more fundamental particles - quarks. Apart from leptons, photons and intermediate bosons, all already discovered particles are composite.
The greatest interest lies in the search for intermediate bosons in weak interactions and the study of energetics.
Beta decay occurs due to the weak interaction. Therefore, an intermediate boson must participate in it.
Advances in elementary particle physics at high energies made it possible to begin studying the processes that took place at the very beginning of the expansion of the Universe. According to the theory, at T1013 K, matter consisted mainly of quarks. At V-1015 K, the substance contained a large number of intermediate bosons - particles that carry out a single electroweak interaction. At even higher temperatures (T - 1028K), processes occurred that probably determined the very existence of matter in today's Universe. With the participation of these particles, quarks can transform into leptons and back again. At this time, the number of particles and antiparticles of each type was probably exactly the same.

According to standard theory, the appearance of mass in intermediate bosons occurs when the symmetry SU (2) X U (i) to U1) em is spontaneously broken.
So, gently break the conservation electric charge fails: the practical masslessness of the photon prevents this. Unlike photons, intermediate bosons-very heavy particles, so soft introduction of intermediate boson masses is quite possible. On the way to constructing a renormalizable theory of weak interaction, we only have to consider the spontaneous violation of gauge non-Abelian symmetry, in which massless non-Abelian photons will acquire mass and turn into massive intermediate bosons, not only neutral, but also charged.
It is therefore very tempting to reduce the four-particle interaction to a three-particle interaction, carried out through a new particle called the intermediate boson W. Figure 23 shows (shown earlier in Figure 22 the decay diagrams of the muon and neutron with the participation of the intermediate boson - the dotted line.
The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Glashow, Salam and Weinberg for their work unifying the electromagnetic and weak forces through gauge theory. The weak force part of this theory describes the interactions between previously unobserved gauge particles called intermediate bosons and known particles, particularly neutrinos. Although this theory is not as firmly established as electromagnetism, it has made significant progress in organizing experimental data.
This term describes how free movement scalar fields, and their interaction with gauge fields A and Bc. When the field φ has a vacuum average equal to l/K 2 (see the seventh term of the Lagrangian), the sixth term will give masses to intermediate bosons in a similar way to how it was described in previous chapter.
This growth stops when the R-boson is turned on due to the mutual compensation of diagrams a, b and c. That is why, if the mass of the R-boson is very large, the scattering of intermediate bosons can exceed its unitary limit before the diagram c comes into play, and we are dealing with the strong interaction of intermediate bosons.
True neutral particles are placed in the middle between particles and antiparticles. The change in the parity sign P for antibarios is not indicated, as is the change in the signs C bу of all antiparticles. For leptons and intermediate bosons, internal parity is not exact (conserved) quantum number and therefore not marked. Numbers in brackets at the end of the given physical quantities indicate the existing error in the value of these quantities, relating to the last of the given figures.
Gravitational, electromagnetic and strong interactions involve the graviton, photon and pion; and in the case of weak interactions, their role is played by the W particle. It is also called an intermediate boson because it must obey the Bose-Einstein statistical rules and have an intermediate decay rate. But it has not yet been possible to actually detect this particle.
In order to get rid of this growth completely, it is necessary that with the appearance of mass in the intermediate bosons, additional fields appear in the Lagrangian, the contribution of which compensates for the discussed divergences. This soft inclusion of the mass of intermediate bosons occurs during spontaneous breaking of gauge symmetry, which we will consider in the next chapter. In it, using a number of examples, we will see that in the mechanism of spontaneous violation of gauge symmetry central role scalar fields play. Expected physical properties particles corresponding to these fields, the so-called Higgs bosons, will be discussed in Chap.
Thus, the neutral axial current of and - and d - quarks is a pure isovector. It is included in one triplet with axial charged currents emitting W - and N - - bosons. Let us recall that it arose from the mixing of isovector and isoscalar intermediate bosons (see Chap.
The set of gluons that ensures the transfer of all colors between all quarks is, of necessity, quite extensive. According to the predictions of the theory, there should be eight of them. At the same time, electromagnetic interactions are caused by the exchange of particles of one type - photons, and weak interactions are caused by the exchange of three types of intermediate bosons: U. Unlike photons, gluons interact with each other. Gluons, like quarks, do not exist in a free state.
Ultimately, the constituent elements of its different types are quarks of six flavors (and three colors) and leptons, also of six flavors. Various interactions between these fundamental particles arise due to the exchange of specific material objects- carriers of interactions: gluons, photons, intermediate bosons and gravitons. All of them are also among the fundamental particles.

Since strong and weak interactions do not appear at the macroscopic level, there are no corresponding macroscopic fields with their force description. When they talk about fields of strong and weak interactions, they mean a quantum description: fields are collections of quanta. Such particles are real and exist in a free state. A hypothetical particle is called a carrier of weak interactions - an intermediate boson; it has not yet been found in a free state. Carriers of gravitational and electromagnetic interactions we called before; these are gravitons (hypothetical) and photons, or y-quanta.
Weak interactions also play a very important role in particle physics. The question of what the mechanism of action of weak forces is has long been discussed. It has been suggested that these forces are due to the exchange of special quanta of the field of weak interactions, which are called intermediate bosons. Unlike gluons, intermediate bosons, like photons, must exist in a free state.