Textbook for universities. - M.: Russian language, 2003. - 305 pp. The work summarizes the experience of teaching Russian as a foreign language in secondary and higher school, as well as in the course training system. Contents: Preface.
Speech communication in the system of teaching Russian as a foreign language.
Communication training.
Aspectivity and complexity in training.
Education phonetic means communication.
Teaching lexical means of communication.
Education grammatical means communication.
Training in linguistic and cultural means of communication.
Teaching sociocultural means of communication.
Training in speech-behavioral communication.
Teaching communication activities.
Speech activity in the language teaching system.
Listening training.
Speaking training. Learning to read.
Teaching writing and writing.
Translation training.
Organization and support of the educational process.
Stages of training.
Practical lesson in Russian.
Independent work in the Russian language.
Literary text in language teaching.
Professionogram of a teacher of Russian as a foreign language.
Computer technologies in teaching Russian as a foreign language.
Learning profiles.
School profile.
Course profile.
Non-philological profile.
Philological profile.
History of domestic methods of teaching Russian as a foreign language. Pre-Soviet period.
Soviet and post-Soviet periods.
Russian language in modern world.
List of materials used and recommended for in-depth understanding of the course content. literature.
Reviewers:
Dr. ped. science prof. N. V. Bagramova(Russian State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen),
Dr. Philol. science prof. L. V. Miller(PGUPS),
Ph.D. ped. Associate Professor I. Erofeeva(SPbSU)
© Fedotova N. L. (text), 2013
© Zlatoust Center LLC (publication, licensing rights), 2013
Preface
The goal of the course “Methods of teaching Russian as a foreign language” is to master methodological techniques and methods of teaching RFL, the ability to apply received theoretical knowledge for the preparation of training materials on various aspects language and types speech activity. The program on methods of teaching RFL for philology students provides not only a lecture course, but also seminars. However, these classes, unfortunately, are still not provided with appropriate teaching tools. In this regard, the need arose to create an educational complex that would have a pronounced practical orientation.
The success of training future RFL teachers depends on psychological readiness students to master pedagogical skills and the appropriateness of educational actions aimed at developing professional competence.
Given educational complex is based on an activity-oriented approach to learning, which involves not direct guidance of students’ actions, but the formation of their personal foundations educational activities.
The proposed educational complex is aimed at developing the following abilities and skills:
Ability to improve and develop your intellectual and general cultural level (OK-1);
Abilities self-study new research methods, changing the scientific and scientific-production profile of its professional activities(OK-2);
Ability to take initiative, including in risk situations, to take responsibility for own solutions(OK-4);
Possessions communication strategies and stylistic tactics and language norms and techniques adopted in the areas of communication, the ability to adequately use them when solving professional tasks(PC-3);
Possession of conducting skills training sessions in institutions of general, secondary special and higher education, preparation educational materials(PC-8);
Possession of skills in organizing and conducting training sessions and practices, seminars, scientific discussions and conferences (PC-14).
After lectures and seminars in the course “Methods of teaching Russian as a foreign language” and theoretical disciplines, which are provided training programs universities, is carried out teaching practice, in preparation for which the educational complex we have developed can provide significant assistance.
The educational complex consists of lecture notes and a problem book, which include 11 course topics on methods of teaching RFL:
1. Basic concepts and categories of methods of teaching RFL.
2. Psycholinguistic foundations of foreign language acquisition.
3. Teaching Russian pronunciation.
4. Teaching Russian grammar.
5. Teaching Russian vocabulary.
Speaking training.
Listening training.
Learning to read.
Teaching writing.
Organization of control and independent work when teaching RCT.
Russian studies in RFL classes.
The appendices (CD) contain lecture notes, parameters comprehensive analysis lesson notes, keys to the most difficult tasks, a sample diary of teaching practice.
After a lecture on a topic (for example, “Teaching Russian pronunciation”), you need to turn to the corresponding section of the practical course (with the same name).
Each section of the practical course includes:
Assignments and tasks;
Sample summary of a lesson fragment;
Lesson notes prepared by students and undergraduates for teaching practice;
Video materials on DVD (fragments of RCT classes) are intended for analysis from the point of view of achieving the set goal, solving problems, and selecting educational material, its sequences, etc.
The author expresses deep gratitude to the head. Department of Russian Language of St. Petersburg state university Communications L.V. Politova, as well as the staff and teachers of the Russian Language Center of PSUPS for their invaluable assistance in preparing video materials for this manual.
N. L. Fedotova
Section 1
Basic concepts and categories of methods of teaching Russian as a foreign language
Terms
ZUN– knowledge, skills and abilities.
Competencies in teaching a foreign language– knowledge, skills, abilities, experience acquired while learning a language, personal qualities that are necessary to use a foreign language to successfully solve communicative tasks (Common European Framework of Reference for Foreign Languages: learning, teaching, assessment).
Competence– a property, quality of personality, ability as “an individual psychological predisposition to master knowledge and carry out any activity” (S. L. Rubinstein).
Method– a system of functionally interdependent methodological principles, united by a strategic idea and aimed at mastering any type of speech activity (E. I. Passov).
Skill– speech operations brought to the level of automaticity, error-freeness and optimal execution time (A. A. Leontyev).
Operation– method of carrying out the action; a unit of activity related to changing operating conditions; concept of activity theory (A.I. Surygin).
Method of teaching- way of performing an action.
Learning Tool- a diverse verbal and mental action or any object used to achieve a goal (E. I. Passov).
Education technology– system of teaching methods, practical implementation principles of teaching, implementation of theory (E. I. Passov).
Skill– ability to implement certain activities in certain conditions based on acquired knowledge and developed skills.
Exercise- a means of teaching and learning, “specially organized in educational conditions single or multiple execution of a separate operation, a series of operations or actions of a speech (or linguistic) nature” (S. F. Shatilov).
Learning Objective- solving any educational problem.
In the traditional sense, the methodology of teaching a non-native language is “a science that studies the goals, content, methods, means, organizational forms teaching, as well as methods of teaching and education based on the material of the language being studied" (Azimov, Shchukin 2009: 140). The focus of the methodology is on the patterns of the process of teaching a certain contingent of students a foreign language in specific conditions.
In the methodology of teaching foreign languages, the term “method” is used in two meanings:
A special direction, which is a set of principles, techniques, content of training and is associated with a holistic educational process. There are grammar-translation, direct, audiovisual, conscious-practical teaching methods (Rauschenbach 1971; Rakhmanov 1972; Lado 1964, etc.);
A system of teaching and learning actions (showing, explaining, training, etc.) carried out during the learning process to achieve a specific goal.
The leading idea, being the core of the method (in the first meaning), “plays a methodological role: through the prism of this idea, all issues related to this method are resolved” (Passov 2009: 50).
In Russian psychology, two main schools emerged independently of each other, whose representatives developed the activity approach (method). The founders of this approach are A. N. Leontyev, the author of the theory of the common structure of internal and external activity, and S. L. Rubinstein, who considered the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity to be the basis of the activity approach. The activity approach is based on the category of activity, which is understood as the activity of a subject aimed at changing objects and creating products of spiritual or material culture(see the works of A. N. Leontiev, L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein, etc.).
E. I. Passov formulated the foundations of a communicative approach to teaching foreign languages, which was the result of the development of a communicative method of mastering speaking. Main characteristics of the communicative approach: learning goal– formation of communicative competence, guiding principles– communication, activity and visibility, teaching aid– communication exercises.
The teaching method, understood in the second meaning, is distinguished by differentiation, the ability to cover all aspects of mastering one or another type of speech activity. The method assumes functionality, situationality, focus on the individual, and communicative activity.
In didactics, it is customary to distinguish between the terms “teaching” and “teaching”. Instead of the term “language teaching,” E. I. Passov proposed the term “foreign language education” (2007), which can be used in four meanings:
sphere of human activity(foreign language education is carried out in relevant institutions and organizations);
process(students, teachers, researchers are directly involved in such activities as foreign language education);
product(as a result of foreign language education, students acquire knowledge, skills, abilities; they develop abilities and form mental mechanisms);
speciality(to implement foreign language education, professionals are needed who must undergo special training in educational institutions in the profile of “foreign language education”).
IN in a broad sense education is the process of transferring and acquiring knowledge, organizing the assimilation and mastery of skills, abilities and methods of educational activity. Consequently, two subjects participate in this process: the teacher (learning itself) and the learner (teaching). Learning how two-way process, involves managing the learning process from the outside and rational “self-government” (mastering the techniques of independent work and mental operations(analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc.). Trainees understand motives, goals and techniques teachings, perceive themselves as subjects of educational activities. Unlike teaching, teaching is joint activities two or more subjects, one of whom transmits experience, and the other (others) accumulate it (Azimov, Shchukin 2009: 169).
Different methods are used in teaching and learning. Teaching methods include: demonstration, explanation, organization of training, organization of practice, correction, evaluation, and teaching methods include familiarization, comprehension, participation in training, practice, self-assessment, self-control (Beam 1974) (Tables 1, 2).
The elements of a pedagogical system used to teach any subject are students, goals, content, learning process, organizational forms and teachers. Let's consider these elements in relation to teaching a non-native language.
Students characterized as subjects of the educational process who belong to a certain national culture, have cognitive and activity attitudes developed in a given culture, 1
See in detail: Gurin 1994.
Master the skills and abilities that ensure speech activity in non-native language.
The decisive factor for determining goals teaching RFL are the needs of society. Traditionally, learning goals are distinguished as practical, educational, developmental and educational.
The second factor is the learning conditions:
Level of development of methods of teaching RFL;
Age of trainees;
Duration of training;
Number of classroom hours;
Qualification as a teacher of Russian studies;
Technical equipment of the educational process.
Table 1
Teaching methods
Learning process foreigners learning the Russian language takes place in difficult conditions of intercultural interaction and is aimed at developing communicative competence in different areas of communication. In the situation of training foreign specialists who must speak Russian, their professional interests/needs are taken into account during the training process.
Table 2
Teaching methods
Organizational forms the educational process requires taking into account the level of, first of all, the socio-psychological adaptability of students studying in Russian language environment.2
See accounting principle adaptive processes(Surygin, Levina 1996).
Teacher Russian as a foreign language must have a high level methodological competence and a sufficient amount of knowledge about the national and cultural characteristics of students, which largely determines the success of the learning process and the effectiveness of the pedagogical system.
Principles of training 3
E.I. Passov notes that “there are no principles in nature. There are patterns there that science understands. And having known them, on their basis (and only this way!) he formulates principles” (Passov 2009: 8).
– basic theoretical principles with the help of which ways to achieve the effectiveness of the educational process are formulated. The principles constitute the teaching method. The principles of teaching a foreign language include:
general didactic principles that are implemented in any pedagogical system(systematicity, consistency, feasibility, activity, etc.);
psychological principles (motivation, activation reserve capabilities students, etc.);
linguistic principles (functionality, situational and thematic organization of material, stylistic differentiation, etc.);
private methodological principles related to the transfer of language knowledge and the formation of skills in all types of speech activity in a non-native language (for example, taking into account the national and cultural characteristics of students).
The principle should “encompass with its guiding, regulating influence the most important elements of the learning process - its content, methods, organizational forms - and not be reduced to any other provisions or replaced by them” (Didactics... 1982: 51). It should be borne in mind that only a system of principles makes it possible to make the learning process optimal. The criterion for recognizing a particular provision as a principle is its reflection of essential specific features learning process (Surygin 2000: 81). For example, the following are generally accepted methodological principles, as a principle of communication, a principle of accounting native language students, the principle of taking into account the level of language proficiency.
It is generally accepted that the goal of teaching RFL is the formation of communicative competence (Winter 1989). At the same time, there is no unanimity among methodologists regarding the interpretation of the concepts “competence”, “ communicative competence" and "communicative competence".
According to A.I. Surygin, “it is competence, and not competency, that is the correct term to denote the ability formed as a result of training” (Surygin 2000: 47). From this statement it follows that competence, understood as a range of issues (for example, knowledge about the phonetic system of a language), is phenomenon, and competence as awareness in any field of knowledge, the ability to perform speech activity or speech actions (phonetic formatting of an utterance in accordance with the system and norm of this language) – property personality. Communicative competence presupposes mastery of skills in all types of speech activity in areas of communication relevant to different stages training. In order to acquire the ability to perform speech acts, i.e., to master communicative competence, a student must learn to use knowledge about the language being studied, observing the rules and regulations language system.
In accordance with the recommendations of the Council of Europe, two documents were developed to define clear boundaries for each level of foreign language proficiency, as well as to assess the results of learning a foreign language according to the international system: “Common European Framework of Reference for Foreign Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment” and the European Language Portfolio.
The “Common European Framework of References...” formulates common criteria for determining the level of language proficiency for everyone European languages, which allows for educational and professional mobility. According to this document, standards for foreign languages should take into account:
Student status in the educational process;
The student’s personal responsibility for the result of learning a foreign language;
Motivation in teaching and learning different national cultures;
Cognitive aspects of teaching foreign languages related to the formation of a student’s linguistic picture of the world;
The need to expand the scope of the educational process by including the student’s individual experience in intercultural communication with native speakers of the target language.
In the level system " Common European competences..." there are three levels and six sublevels:
Level A (basic) – basic language proficiency: A1 (survival level) and A2 (pre-threshold level);
level B (intermediate) – independent language proficiency: B1 (threshold level) and B2 (threshold advanced level);
level C (advanced) – fluent language skills: C1 (proficiency level) and C2 (perfect proficiency level).
At each level, a certification system is offered for five types of skills: reading, writing, listening, oral dialogue and oral presentation(monologue speech).
The European language portfolio is necessary in order to teach independent study of a foreign language for a long time, to objectively evaluate own level possession of skills and abilities. A language portfolio can be presented to educational institutions where a person will continue his education, as well as to employers.
The language portfolio consists of the following sections:
I. Passport, where achievements in mastering a foreign language are recorded; the level of language proficiency is assessed in accordance with the level system of the “Common European Framework of Reference...”; indicates when, where and by whom the certification was carried out (by the owner himself, the teacher or the examination committee).
II. Language biography , which helps a foreign language learner plan the learning process in a mode convenient for him and evaluate achievements achieved. The student records what exactly he can do in a given language, provides information about his linguistic and intercultural experience within the framework of the formal and informal educational context.
III. Dossier, which contains works in the best possible way demonstrating developed skills and abilities in the target language (Morrow 2004).
Despite the positive impact of using the European Portfolio in learning a foreign language, methodologists note that the European Portfolio has a number of disadvantages: too strict framework of self-certification requirements, difficulties in using and updating educational materials, a significant amount of work required to implement the European Portfolio of Languages in the classroom. process.
Teaching aids can be divided into operational (verbal and mental actions) and activity-based (exercises). “A means is a different kind of verbal and mental action or a different kind of object used to achieve a goal” (Passov 2009: 30). As a means of learning, the actions performed by the student can be receptive(perception of illustrative means, identification by form/content), reproductive(transformation, formation of form by analogy), productive(choice speech means adequate to the situation, production itself), verbal(plan, text), figurative(photos, symbols), iconic(diagram, model speech sample), mixed(diagram + plan).
Methods of teaching represent the way of performing an action. The following methods are distinguished: quality(under the guidance of a teacher, independently), quantitative(limited in time, unlimited in time), organizational(individually, in groups), ways of presenting material(audio recording, video recording).
TO important concepts methods of teaching foreign languages include teaching techniques And teaching methods. A teaching technique can be considered as the main structural and functional unit of educational influence that implements teaching tactics. Reception of training is associated with conscious choice a specific action by which the goal must be achieved. The main requirement for a technique is its adequacy to the purpose. Teaching methods differ in that they are chosen by the student himself in accordance with his own style of educational and cognitive activity (figurative-actional or verbal-logical style of perception, thinking, memory, etc.).
Teaching techniques in their content can be correlated with learning strategies. 4
It is this concept that is found in the works of Western methodologists.
The learning strategies used by learners in acquiring a second language are “an active and dynamic process in which individuals use a variety of information and strategic ways its processing" (O'Malley, Chamot 1990). When we look at language use in terms of how information is learned and stored, it is a complex cognitive skill. In this understanding, language acquisition is a path “from preliminary understanding and active manipulation of information to complete automation of language use” (O’Malley, Chamot 1990). In addition, learning strategies correlate with theoretical understandings of cognitive processes and may influence the effectiveness of foreign language learning outcomes.
Current page: 2 (book has 15 pages total) [available reading passage: 4 pages]
Literature
1. Azimov E. G., Shchukin A. N. New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching). – M.: Ikar, 2009.
2. Bim I. L. On the issue of methods of teaching foreign languages // Foreign languages at school. – 1974. – No. 2. – P. 23–29.
3. Gurin A. B. Teaching students of the preparatory faculty of a technical university abstract terminological vocabulary(based on the material of teaching RFL to French-speaking bilinguals in Africa): abstract. dis... cand. ped. Sci. – St. Petersburg, 1994.
4. Didactics high school. Some problems modern didactics/ ed. M. N. Skatkina. – M.: Education, 1982.
5. Zalevskaya A. A. Introduction to psycholinguistics. – M.: RSUH, 1999.
6. Zimnyaya I.A. Psychology of teaching a non-native language. – M.: Rus. lang., 1989.
7. Kolesnikova I. L., Dolgina O. A. English-Russian terminological reference book on methods of teaching foreign languages. – M., 2008.
8. Methodology teaching Russian as a foreign language for foreign philologists-Russians (inclusive training) / ed. A. N. Shchukina. – M.: Rus. lang., 1990.
9. Moskovkin L.V. Theoretical foundations of choice optimal method training (Russian as a foreign language, initial stage). – St. Petersburg: SMIO Press, 1999.
10. Tabletop book of a foreign language teacher: reference book. village / E. A. Maslyko, P. K. Babinskaya and others - 6th ed., stereotype. – Minsk: Higher School, 2000.
11. Pan-European foreign language competence: learning, teaching, assessment / trans. from English – M., 2003.
12. Passov E.I. Content of foreign language education as a methodological category // Foreign languages at school. – 2007. – No. 4. – P. 13–23.
13. Passov E.I. Terminological system of methodology, or How we speak and write. – St. Petersburg: Zlatoust, 2009.
14. Surygin I. A. A theory of learning in a student's non-native language. – St. Petersburg: Zlatoust, 2000.
15. Surygin I. A., Levina V. I. Problems of standardization of pre-university preparation of foreign students // Training of foreign students at the stage of pre-university preparation: collection. scientific – method. Art. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house of St. Petersburg State Technical University, 1996. – P. 3–18.
16. O'Malley J. M., Chamot A. U. Learning strategies in second language acquisition. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
17. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment / Council of Europe. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
18. Morrow K. Background to the CEF // Insights from the Common European Framework/Ed. K. Morrow. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Section 2
Psycholinguistic foundations of foreign language acquisition
Terms
Bilingualism– a product of interaction between systems and norms of the native and studied languages.
Intermediate language(interlanguage, approximative system, transitional competence, idiosyncratic dialect, learner language) - a knowledge system that is formed in an individual in the process of learning a foreign language (Gass, Selinker 1994).
Strategies for learning a foreign language- one of the ways of acquiring, storing and using information that serves to achieve a specific goal (Yager, Rappoport 1991).
Methodological foundations of psycholinguistics
American psychologists and linguists C. Osgood, J. Carroll, N. Chomsky, J. Miller, T. Slama-Kazaku and T. Sibeok played a major role in the development of psycholinguistics as an independent science.
The methodological foundations of psycholinguistics are laid in the works of L. S. Vygotsky. He proceeded from the need to combine those developed in psychological science and linguistics theoretical and experimental methods research of language and speech phenomena, complex processes speech communication and internal intellectual activity of a person. L. S. Vygotsky formulated ideas about the dialectical unity of the processes of thinking and speech, about the patterns of speech formation and language acquisition during ontogenesis. Scientific concept L. S. Vygotsky about the relationship between the processes of thinking and speech was the basis various models generation and perception of speech, as well as classification of linguistic signs and psycholinguistic units, which are structural components speech activity. L. S. Vygotsky considered the relationship of thought to word as a two-way process (“internal movement through a whole series of plans”). Such an understanding involves studying the phases of this movement and the planes through which thought passes.
Particularly valuable is the idea of L. S. Vygotsky about the heuristic nature of speech production processes and their conditionality by general psychological, differential psychological and socio-psychological factors. L. S. Vygotsky distinguished between the concepts of grammatical and real (psychological) predicativity, gave a conceptual definition of meaning as a general psychological category, and explored the concept of objective meaning.
A. A. Leontiev became a follower of L. S. Vygotsky, whose merit is the development theoretical foundations studying speech activity from a psycholinguistic perspective. A. A. Leontyev critically analyzed the main scientific directions leading psycholinguistic schools different countries, made a significant contribution to solving the problems of modern psycholinguistics. From the point of view of A. A. Leontyev, psycholinguistics should study the connection between the mechanisms of generation and perception of speech, the functions of speech activity in society and the characteristics of personality development. This goal predetermines the object of study of psycholinguistics:
Man as a subject of speech activity and a native speaker;
The process of communication, the main means of implementation of which is speech activity;
Processes of speech formation and language acquisition in the course of individual human development.
The works of I. A. Zimnyaya present an original concept of speech activity, which has a pronounced methodological orientation, since general principles, proposed for the study of speech activity, are subordinated to the needs of language teaching and the formation of mechanisms of speech activity as an active, purposeful, conscious activity.
Achievements of psycholinguistics related to the study of the patterns of speech formation and the implementation of speech activity, the process of speech communication, the use of linguistic signs for the implementation of speech and mental activity should become the property of teachers involved in teaching a foreign language.
Bilingualism
The study of speech mechanisms that ensure the process of mastering a foreign language is based on the theory of bilingualism. Its development in modern conditions associated with the emergence of cognitive theory, which examines intermediate language and second language acquisition strategies. To describe the features of the production of foreign language speech, different models are used (for a list of models, see: Zalevskaya 1999: 290).
Regardless of the description model, one should agree with the opinion that it is impossible to identify factors that facilitate or hinder the acquisition of a foreign language, “since each individual has unique abilities, knowledge and experience, as well as needs, according to which one needs a rich vocabulary, correct pronunciation and syntax, while others have enough technical terms and basic syntax rules, while the third will make do with everyday phrases” (see: Bialystok, Hakuta 1994).
Let's consider the concepts "first language"(Y1), "second language"(Y2); "native language"(RY), "foreign language"(AND I). They are contrasted according to the order of learning languages (L1 and L2) and according to their belonging to the language community (RL and FL). In a situation of everyday bilingualism (if the parents are native speakers of different languages and communicate with the child in both languages), both the first and second languages can be native. Often L2 becomes dominant, displacing L1. Thus, in multinational countries (for example, in Russia, Canada, Switzerland, etc.) R2, being state language, is studied in educational settings, but is not foreign.
From a methodological point of view, the terms L2 and FL are equivalent, and their conditional distinction is necessary only to emphasize that an individual learns a second language, including in the linguistic environment of native speakers of a given language (natural/everyday bilingualism), and the acquisition of a foreign language occurs primarily in a classroom setting under the guidance of a teacher using special methods and teaching methods (artificial/educational bilingualism) (Chirsheva 2012; Protasova, Rodina 2011; Madden 2011).
The role of the primary system (L1) is the student’s native language, since, as a rule, it is the “language the best degree possession and functionally prevailing" (Vinogradov 1976: 41). The formation of a secondary system (L2) can also be influenced by a previously learned language, which is confirmed in the practice of teaching a foreign language.
There is a point of view according to which “a violation of the implementation of the secondary language system, i.e., the system of the studied language, is possible under the simultaneous influence of the system of the native language and other previously studied languages” (Lyubimova 2006: 8). It seems important to resolve the question of which language in to a greater extent interferes with the assimilation of L2.
Interference and transference
Representatives of behaviorism (Fries 1945; Lado 1957) considered skill as a mechanically fixed connection between a certain stimulus and the corresponding reaction and believed that when mastering any language, the formation of skills occurs on the basis of practice and training exercises. Strong speech skills in the native language have a decisive influence on the development of speech skills in the target language.
Transfer of existing skills can be positive – transference(if there is similarity linguistic phenomena) and negative – interference(if there are discrepancies between L1 and L2). According to this view, it is the differences between language systems that cause differences between the processes of L1 and L2 acquisition. This means that before starting to teach L2, it is necessary to identify similarities and discrepancies, to establish “ hazardous areas”, which the teacher must take into account in the educational process. With the help of a comparative analysis of contacting language systems, it is possible to prevent the interfering influence of the L1. Thus, contrastive analysis makes it possible to obtain lists of discrepancies between linguistic phenomena, which serve as “the basis for predicting difficulties and the resulting errors of students” (Zalewskaya 1999: 295).
As such, the effect of interference that occurs when two languages come into contact is a hidden process associated with the activity human brain, so its study is very difficult. Only errors in speech, which are the result of “failures” in brain processes and indicate the action of interference, can become the subject of study of the psycholinguistic side of mastering foreign language skills.
Interference can occur not only between two different languages(interlingual interference), but also between variants of the same language (intralingual interference). It arises in those cases when “the interaction of norm and antinorm within the same language system” occurs in the mind of an individual (ibid.).
According to N.V. Imedadze, any form of mastering L2 should be considered on the basis of comparison with the features of mastering L1. In the process of developing speech in L1, changes occur in the individual’s psyche, as a result of which he begins to study L2 as already a “speaking being” (Imedadze 1979: 5).
Many methodologists are unanimous that the mechanisms of speech activity in native and foreign languages are identical, similar to the stage speech development students, the types of errors are similar (see: Winter 1989). This approach involves a change in view on the role of transference in foreign language acquisition.
Contrastive analysis
Contrastive analysis(KA) – one of linguistic methods describing the interaction of RL and L2/FL, is used, as a rule, to identify the peculiarities of contact between these languages. Based on contrastive analysis, a series of teaching aids in foreign languages (for example, English as a foreign language). However, with sharp criticism of this research method N. Chomsky spoke (1962, 1972), who expressed doubts about the appropriateness of mechanistic ideas about the process of mastering L2. N. Chomsky insisted on the need to take into account the mental capabilities of students.
In addition, the forecasts obtained during the contrastive analysis were not always justified: the actual set of violations turned out to be either much wider or much narrower than predicted. Observations of the process of mastering L2 have shown that “interference more often appears when the phenomena of L1 and L2 are similar than when they are completely different, moreover, not all errors can be explained through the interference of skills” (Zalevskaya 1999: 295). The following reasons are given:
Students deliberately do not use such rules of L2, which have no analogues in L1 (avoidance effect);
Some restrictions on the use of linguistic phenomena that do not coincide in the languages being compared may only appear under certain conditions;
Learners turn to L1 for resources that can be used in cases of communication difficulties due to insufficient proficiency in L2.
As a result of revision of some basic concepts CA researchers came to the conclusion that it is necessary to take into account individual characteristics the learner, manifested in the choice of certain strategies for using a foreign language, in the attitude of a native speaker of one language to the facts of another language, etc.
As for the positive transfer of language skills and speech skills when mastering L2, the use of knowledge from L1 “may be one of the manifestations of basic mental process relying on existing knowledge to facilitate the assimilation of new knowledge” (ibid.).
Despite its shortcomings, CA can be useful in a comprehensive study of errors in foreign language speech (error analysis, observation, experiment, introspection).
The concept of “error in speech in a non-native language”
Errors in speech in a non-native language can occur under the influence of a number of factors:
linguistic(idiomatic systems of each language);
psychological(interference of skills developed in the native language or a previously learned first foreign language, and skills developed in the language being studied);
psycholinguistic(interconnection and interdependence in the consciousness of a bilingual of the processes of perception linguistic units and their implementation);
methodological(choice of teaching techniques and methods).
The error can be seen as:
Actually an erroneous action;
The result of an erroneous action by an individual learning L2;
Basic concept in theory language contacts necessary for studying the mechanisms of perception and production of foreign language speech;
Object of diagnosis and correction in the educational process.
Researchers unanimously emphasize the complexity and ambiguity of the error phenomenon. In this regard, the statement that “to reach new level analysis and explanation of error mechanisms requires integration of this problem into a more general picture of the work of the human speech mechanism in the conditions of mastering and proficiency in one or more languages, taking into account the specifics individual knowledge and the principles of its functioning" (Zalewskaya 1996: 71).
For a normally occurring ontogenesis of speech activity, errors in the acquisition of the native language are a natural phenomenon. According to pedagogical observations, a child, when comprehending the language system, most often relies on a “productive” grammatical model. In other words, children extend a new rule to a known one. language material, the use of which is subject to different rules. This phenomenon is called overgeneralization. For example, I get up instead of I get up, chairs instead of chairs. F. Saussure figuratively called deviations from the norm and many isolated erroneous linguistic phenomena “linguistic dust.”
The results of a number of studies convincingly prove that the types of phonetic, lexical and grammatical errors and slips of the tongue in the native language are largely consistent with those that can be observed in speech in a foreign language. For example, anticipation (anticipation), replacement the right word close or opposite in meaning, violation lexical compatibility, replacement within a certain closed row words (mixing prepositions, pronouns, etc.), etc. 5
See Wessart 1980, Sirotinina 1981, Tseytlin 1982, Hotopf 1983. Examples lexical errors based on the Russian language: anticipation: Spread butter on bread instead of Butter the bread; replacing a word with a synonym or antonym: He's not stupid at all, I mean he's not smart.; violation of lexical compatibility: He fulfilled his vow instead of He kept his vow; replacements within a closed row: for her instead of for her.
“In fact, the same categories of errors are observed in the situation of bilingualism” (Zalewskaya 1996), although the types of violations and their number will vary, in particular, under the influence of interference.
V. A. Vinogradov considers the mechanism of errors to be identical for the processes of language acquisition by a child and the learning of a second language by adults. When mastering L1, the child does not have ready-made schemes correlated with the system and ready-made standards correlated with the norm. When studying L2, interference errors are possible (can be caused by both the system and the L1 norm) and analogy errors caused by the influence of the norm: their source is “the learned system itself, influencing the norm in such a way that the systemically possible replaces the normatively accepted” (Vinogradov 1983 : 55). The author understands interference as the substitution of schemes and models of the target language with “corresponding elements of the native language, or a change in the former according to the model of the latter” (Vinogradov 1983: 55). The source of errors caused by a false analogy is “the internalized system itself, which influences the norm in such a way that the systemically possible replaces the normatively accepted” (ibid.). When teaching L2, it is necessary to form new patterns and standards in students, as well as develop the ability to “turn off” the system and norm of L1 when using L2.
Psychologists proceed from the fact that any purposeful activity is remembered, therefore, in a similar situation, information about an action once performed can be used as support. It is important that both correct and erroneous actions remain in the subject’s memory, and information about the algorithm for performing correct action stored even in the event of an erroneous action. In turn, ignorance of how to perform any action prevents the detection of an error. This happens because due to insufficient development of the apparatus providing reverse afferentation 6
Afferentation– psychological concept process related nervous excitement By nervous system in the direction from the periphery of the body to the brain.
And comparing it with the original intention, does not give the command to begin the formation of a new action (see: Anokhin 1968).
It is known that speech action takes special place V general structure actions: “...an action in which the language system is realized as a means of communication is a speech action, and the skills that underlie its functioning are speech skills” (Alkhazishvili 1988: 100).
According to the theory of gradual formation mental actions, developed by P. Ya. Galperin, erroneous speech actions are characteristic of type I of the indicative basis of the action, 7
Indicative basis of action– a system of ideas of the subject of action about the goals, plan and means of action, including methods of performing and controlling all operations, signs of their correct/incorrect execution and completion (Galperin 1966).
Which is incomplete, ungeneralized. Peculiarity of this type The indicative basis of the action is that the subject replenishes and adjusts it using the trial and error method. This method is the basis for mastering a foreign language, which, being creative process, is a kind of labyrinth. And in this case the individual either uses everything possible options in any order, or looks for ways to reach the finish line with the least amount of time and effort.
When training, it is important to consider that any action performed is extremely sensitive to any disruptive influences. In addition, the developed skills and abilities are not transferred to similar objects and tasks, or the transfer itself is erroneous. In psychology there is a so-called Ranschburg phenomenon: a person perceives identical (homogeneous) stimuli less actively than different ones, therefore, in the case of exposure to identical stimuli, the probability of error increases.
From the standpoint of psycholinguistics, erroneous speech acts can be classified as follows:
Actually erroneous speech acts, i.e. actions that for one reason or another are inappropriate in a given situation;
Erroneous programming of speech action;
Errors in the implementation stage of the statement program, i.e. erroneous operations;
Errors associated with motor programming of speech and its implementation (Leontyev 1970; Trusova, Tsvetkova 1972: 95).
Taking into account methodological approach Three criteria for classifying erroneous speech acts can be proposed.
One of the criteria is degree of severity of deviation from the norm- assumes that the speech act leads to a result indicating violations or systems, or norms the language being studied.
Based on the division of speech acts into persistent(repeated under the same conditions) and unstable(carried out in individual cases) lies the criterion - the degree of resistance.
Finally, erroneous speech acts may vary in degree of acceptability/inacceptability depending on the stage of learning. Errors that arise in the speech of students after studying certain phenomena are considered unacceptable and are proof of the lack of progress in learning a foreign language.
A classification of the causes of erroneous speech acts has been developed.
The first reason – the insufficient abilities of the trainees – is due to the fact that “the learner is not able to objectify misuse elements of the language being studied" (Alkhazishvili 1988: 14). The fact is that if a speech act is identified, it is not adequate to the conditions In this situation, objectification must occur, i.e. suspension of action in order to understand the reason for the failure.
Due to an insufficient level of preparation, the student performs erroneous speech actions caused by ignorance language rules or ignoring them. Such speech actions of students may be due to miscalculations in the organization of learning, when either motivational basis for the assimilation of linguistic phenomena, either the organization of educational material is not optimal, or corrective pedagogical strategies are ineffective.
Learners may use the following strategies that lead to errors: overgeneralization(going beyond a certain rule due to failure to distinguish similar phenomena), ignoring restrictions on the application of a rule - analogy(extension of the rule to contexts in which it is not used in L2), incomplete application of the rule(reluctance to learn more complex structures, considering it sufficient for communication to use relatively more simple rules), formation of erroneous hypotheses about the linguistic phenomena being studied(the result of an incorrect understanding of the characteristics specific to L2 linguistic phenomena), etc.
