Language contacts - interaction and mutual influence of languages that arise as a result of contact between groups speaking these languages. Language contacts usually occur in certain geographical areas and are determined by ethnic, historical and social factors. The result language contacts is:
1) at the dialect level - interference (the imposition of some concepts on others, meaning the same thing: management - management),
2) at the level of languages in general - convergence(likening the sounds of one language to another) . For intense and prolonged language contacts convergent development can lead to the formation language unions(a community of people united by the same vocabulary and place of residence).
Language contacts are an important factor language evolution . Originality a specific language is determined by two groups of factors:
1) its origin, which determines the place of the language in the circle of related languages. The origin (genealogy) of language and its contacts with “its own kind” are forces that seem to argue with each other, with opposite sides forming the uniqueness of a particular language. Genetic inheritance acts as the internal structural certainty of language and the basis of its self-development.
2) the process of its interaction with related and unrelated languages, i.e. language contacts. Language contacts consist of their interaction and mutual influence on each other. Contacts are the most notable events in linguistic history; It is contact that changes languages the most.
Changes caused by language contacts occur in the history of every language. There are no genetically “pure”, “unmixed” languages that would develop over thousands of years without any influence from the environment. language environment, in complete isolation from neighbors. Any modern language- is a fusion of linguistic elements originating from different, related and unrelated, languages and dialects. For example, a list of those terms from which the <сплав> English language:
1) non-Indo-European Iberian dialects of the first known to science settlements in the British Isles;
2) Indo-European Celtic dialects of the Britons and Gauls;
3) Latin of Roman military settlements in the first centuries of our era, which later became the cities of England;
4) West Germanic dialects of the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes, who conquered Britain in the 5th - 6th centuries; Since then, Britain has become Germanic, with increasing differences between the Germanic language in Britain and on the continent;
5) North Germanic dialects of the Scandinavian Vikings who dominated England in the 10th century;
6) powerful Romance linguistic influence after the conquest of Britain in the 11th century. Norman feudal lords; in turn, the French language of the Normans was a fusion of Celtic (Gallic), Romance, West Germanic (Frankish, Burgundian, Visigothic), North Germanic (Scandinavian) components.
What determines the success of language contact?:
1) From social conditions Language contact determines the outcome of people’s interaction (if they speak the same language, they will understand each other, if they speak different languages, they will not).
2) on the level of borrowing need(if there are similar concepts in the language, there is no need to borrow new ones. If I borrow them, then the eloquence factor played a role: In Ptolemaic Egypt: Ptolemy Lag is a hare, i.e. it was emphasized that he is an upstart among the military leaders of Alexander the Great; Ptolemy Epiphanes is a blessed one - did a lot to develop the power of Egypt).
In the science of language, it is currently customary to distinguish following types language contacts:
1) adstrate- coexistence and contact of languages (usually in border areas) with their mutual influence; The term adstrat was introduced by one of the founders of the neolinguistic movement - M. Bartoli
2) superstrate- this term defines a language that is layered on the language of the indigenous population and dissolves over time in this latter; The term superstrate was first used by W. Wartburg at a congress of novelists in Rome in 1932.
3) substrate- this term refers to the underlying language, which dissolves in the language layered on it. In other words, the phenomenon is the opposite of a superstrate. The concept of superstrate has not yet received widespread use in linguistics, perhaps due to the fact that it has much in common with the substrate. At this stage of their study, one peculiarity can be noted: with superstrate phenomena, both participants in the ongoing struggle of languages are always known - both the victorious language and the defeated language. Another thing is the substrate, which often remains an unknown quantity and is often only assumed.
As a result of language contact, a situation of bilingualism can be created.
The interaction of languages, their mixing, was at one time recognized by linguists as a method of language development; way of forming languages and language families. This point of view was put forward by Russian academician N.Ya. Marr. IN "new teaching about language" N.Ya. Marra "crossing" of languages has been cited as the sole cause of language development. Currently, the term adopted by Andre Martinet and Uriel Weinreich is language contacts.
Historically, languages develop in two directions – 1) differentiation and 2) integration.
Differentiation finds expression in the territorial division of the language (dialect), resulting in related languages and dialects, and the number of languages is increasing.
Yu.S. Maslov gives a diagram of such development:
Single language Or it can break up into dialects A1, A2, A3..., each of which then turns into independent language- B, S, D... These languages subsequently retain some features of their common ancestor, which is where their linguistic relationship is manifested.
Integration manifests itself in the unification of languages and dialects; As a result of integration, the number of languages is decreasing.
Integration process diagram:
At integration originally different (unrelated) languages, preserved as different, can get closer to each other, forming language union.
If in languages of one geographical area structural similarities are observed, linguists believe that these languages form a historically established community. In contrast to the originally inherited community, that is, a branch or family of languages, a historically established community is called language union(Yu.S. Maslov, 2007, p. 232). This term was introduced into scientific use by the greatest linguist of the twentieth century. N.S. Trubetskoy.
There is, for example, Balkan Language Union, which includes Romanian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Albanian, Modern Greek languages belonging to different families.
The process of language integration historically can sometimes lead to the “absorption” of one language by another:
"Absorption" The difference between one language and another is due to the fact that the linguistic community, instead of its original language, gradually switches in communication to another language. Usually, in this case, the language that turns out to be the “winner”—the superstrate—absorbs, to a greater or lesser extent, individual features of the absorbed language—the substratum.
Substrate is the language of the indigenous population, which was destroyed as a result of contact with the language of aliens, but left some of its elements in the system of the new language. For example, substrate French is the language Gauls, Spanish – language Iberians, Romanian – language Dacians. All these languages are supplanted Latin who played the role superstrata. But under the influence of disappeared substrate languages, the Latin language did not remain unchanged, but gave rise to modern Romance languages. The very concept of linguistic substrate was formulated in 1821 Mr. J. Bredsdorf (“On the causes language changes"), but the final scientific development of the term substrate belongs to the Italian linguist G.I. Ascoli, who described the role of the substrate in the formation Romance languages.
Superstrat– winning language; often the language of aliens, which influenced the language of the local population, but did not destroy its system, but only enriched it with individual elements. The term was introduced by W. Wartburg. In addition to these two terms, modern linguistics uses the concepts of adstrat (M. Bartoli) and interstrat.
Adstrat is a language that is acquired by another language, subject to the territorial proximity of populations speaking both languages. It is assumed that elements of the adstrate language penetrate into the assimilating language, first at the border of contacts of two peoples, then spread deep into the territory of the assimilating language. Thus, when the English language was formed from the Anglo-Saxon dialect of Low German, the language became an adstrate Normans, one of the dialects of the French language.
Interstrate languages are in a relationship of mutual influence on each other. Interstrate relationships take place, for example, between languages Tatar And Bashkir, Tatar And Mordovian, many languages of the peoples of Russia.
Wide study ethnic groups, living on large areas, led to the identification of many types of language interaction. In the modern study of the interaction of languages, a classification is known that takes into account the direction of contacts and the degree of participation of the tiers of the language system in them.
One-sided impact, in which pressure is exerted by only one level of any language, is most often observed in cases where one of the contacting languages is tongue dead, but is widely used as a literary or cultural language. This is, for example, the influence Latin, ancient Greek or Old Church Slavonic languages into Russian at the lexical level.
At mutual influence languages also interact at the level of vocabulary. An example would be the exchange of lexemes between English And French languages. The relationship of the Russian language with other languages of nations former USSR fits completely into this type of contact.
At transformative impact one language affects several layers of another language at once. For example, Persian literary language Farsi transformed as a result of long-term and widespread influence on it from the outside Arabic.
If, as a result of contacts, several tiers of interacting languages are affected, then they speak of crossing languages, which results in the emergence language unions, or leagues. The languages included in the union are characterized by similarities at all levels that arose only as a result of contact and are not a heritage common origin.
When a new language emerges from the interaction of two or more languages, merger. In Melanesia, for example, a peculiar Melanesian Esperanto: most vocabulary borrowed from the English language, and the grammar is from the language of the inhabitants of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain (A.T. Khrolenko, V.D. Bondaletov, 2006, pp. 364–366).
Language contacts
The uniqueness of a particular language is determined by 2 groups of factors:
its origin, which determines its place in the circle of related languages;
the process of its interaction with related and unrelated languages, i.e. language contacts.
There are no genetically pure, unadulterated languages. Any modern language is a fusion of linguistic elements originating from different, related and unrelated, languages and dialects.
Language contacts, interaction and mutual influence of languages that arise as a result of contact between groups speaking these languages. Y.K. usually occur in certain geographical areas and are caused by ethnic, historical and social factors. The result of linguistic language at the level of idiolect is interference. Interference is the interaction of language systems in conditions of bilingualism, which develops either through contacts between languages, or during individual mastery of a non-native language; is expressed in deviations from the norm and system of the second language under the influence of the native language.
Sometimes peoples spontaneously develop a special, simpler version of their language in order to communicate in it with foreigners. Over time, this particular variant may become the main one and even displace the original language. As a result, a whole group of geographically close and closely contacting languages sometimes acquires common properties. In such cases they talk about a linguistic union.
Models of language mixing
Substrate is the underlying language, traces of the local repressed language in the language of the aliens.
Superstrate – traces of the lost language of the aliens (who acquired the local language) in the language of the indigenous population.
Adstrat - result mutual influence languages in conditions of long-term contacts, in which there is no assimilation of languages.
For example, Roman expansion led to the Latinization of Gaul, Dacia, Raetia, and the population of the Iberian Peninsula, but the Norman conquest did not make the language of Britain Romance. (SUBSTRATE) Differences in the number of newcomers, in the intensity and depth of contacts with the local population, as well as differences in the nature of the relationship between the newcomers and their former homeland had an impact. Roman colonization, in comparison with the Norman conquest, was more widespread and widespread. At the same time, a mixture of multilingual populations occurred; however, the Roman provinces were included in the administrative and partly cultural life of the Roman Empire, so their linguistic connection with the metropolis did not cease.
In England after the Norman invasion, the socio-linguistic situation was different. England did not become a French province. The newcomers formed a small ruling class - the feudal aristocracy and clergy, but the main population remained German-speaking. The strict hierarchy and inertia of feudal society prevented inter-class contacts and thereby the shift of languages. At the same time ruling classes to some extent they had to know the language of the majority of the population. "Probably by the second generation the Normans could already use English, although the language of domestic and court use was probably Anglo-Norman. Subsequently, the Norman nobility became increasingly anglicized; for a period, perhaps for several centuries, they were bilinguals" (Ivanova, Chakhoyan 1976, 19). SUPERSTRAT)
Mixing of languages- the result of long-term bilingualism.
Borrowed:
articulatory features
Related languages- common origin.
Affinity of languages- a community of genetically unrelated languages that arises as a result of their long historical contacts.
Pidgin languages
Pidgin– a type of mixed language that arises as a result of the need to communicate in a multilingual territory. Pidgin languages can arise from related languages (for example, in Africa, based on the crossing of Bantu languages); unrelated languages, most often as a result of crossing European and local languages.
Examples of pidgins
Beachlamar is an English-based pidgin. Spread at the beginning of the 19th century. in coastal areas of Oceania; originated as a means of communication between indigenous people and the crews of European whaling and trading ships.
The Kyakhta language is a pidgin that existed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. in the regions of the Amur region, Manchuria and Transbaikalia, bordering China (the name is from the city of Kyakhta).
Russenorsk (Russian-based) is a mixed Russian-Norwegian language (one example of a pidgin) that served the communication of Pomeranian and Norwegian traders on the northern coast of Norway.
Fanagalo is a Zulu-based pidgin common in South Africa, mainly in mines in Zambia, Zimbabwe and the Witwatersrand (South Africa). About 70% of the Fanagalo vocabulary comes from Zulu, the rest from English, Afrikaans and other Bantu languages (in Zimbabwe there is a strong influence of Shona, in Zambia - Bemba).
Spanish pidgins are creole languages and pidgins formed in the 15th - 20th centuries based on Spanish language and also common in different regions of the globe, in places of former Spanish colonization. (Mexico, Peru, Colombia)
The language of the commonwealth is simplified Japanese, used in the early years after the founding of Manchukuo.
Creole languages- a further stage in the evolution of pidgin, which from a simplified lingua franca gradually becomes native to a significant part of the population of mixed origin and turns into an independent language. Most creole languages, like pidgins, arose during the era of European colonization of America, Asia and Africa in the 15th-20th centuries. However, only a few of them are now independent languages: the Creole language of Haiti, the Cape Verdean Creole language of Cape Verde, Papiamento (Aruba), and still in Suriname. Traditionally, in the metropolis and even among residents who speak Creole languages, a disdainful attitude towards Creole speech prevails as incorrect, corrupted, and unprestigious. Most modern creole languages remain in one way or another connected to their source language, many of them (for example, the Luso-Creole languages of Asia) are on the verge of extinction, others have already become extinct, and still others are tending to converge with the source language in a process known as decreolization .
Simplifying sounds in Tok Pisin:
nail ("nail") nil knee ("knee") nildaun ship ("ship") sip sheep ("sheep") sipsip cut ("cut") kat,katim
Tok Pisin how national language
Specific features:
the intensity and speed of the process that allows representatives of different ethnic groups to understand each other;
level distribution of elements of mixed languages: vocabulary is borrowed from European languages (the content side of communication), phonetics, grammar are “native” (language communication techniques);
reduction of grammar and vocabulary.
Common features of pidgins in grammar:
lack of inflectional category of case;
the number is expressed analytically (for example – la - all “all”);
gender is expressed by a pronoun, phrase (for example, this woman, she is my brother);
The plural is expressed by a phrase (for example, by adding by and by – bymby).
in vocabulary: Vocabulary is limited, does not convey complex concepts; Many concepts are conveyed by metaphorical phrases.
in phonetics: Phonetics is characterized by the introduction of articulatory habits of the donor language.
Language contacts
Language contacts are recognized as one of the most important external factors in the historical development of language in modern linguistics. Science is practically unaware of structurally and materially homogeneous languages, the development of which would proceed in isolation from external influences: This circumstance obviously allows us to assert that in some very general sense all languages can be characterized as “mixed”. The consequences of language contacts are so diverse and significant - in some cases they lead to various types of borrowings, in others - to the convergent development of interacting languages (accordingly enhancing centrifugal tendencies in the development of individual representatives within groups of related languages), - thirdly, - to the formation of auxiliary “common” languages, fourthly, to linguistic assimilation, which in some areas of linguistics even saw the fact of contacts as a decisive stimulus for the development of the language system34. The importance of studying language contacts and their results is determined by the fact that it can shed light on the features of the very structure of the language system.
Language contacts are a complex and multi-stage process closely related to the development of society. Already such a general characteristic as the activity or passivity of one or another party participating in contact is determined by extra-linguistic factors - the cultural or social authority of the speakers of a particular language, which determines the functional importance of the latter: this is all the more obvious if we consider that language contacts usually involve the existence of a number of other - cultural, economic, etc. contacts, even ethnic ones.
Contact between two languages occurs as verbal interaction between people speaking these languages. Even minimal mutual understanding is impossible until both parties (or one of the parties) take at least one step towards the partner. This step consists of mastering at least a few words of the partner’s language. With prolonged and intensive contacts between multilingual populations, a significant part of the speakers, to one degree or another, know the language of their neighbors. Thus, the contact of languages is carried out through individual bilingualism (or bilingualism) of some part of the speakers, which creates a situation of bilingualism (see pp. 103 - 105).
Depending on the extent to which a bilingual speaks two languages, individual bilingualism can be symmetrical (a person knows both languages equally) or asymmetrical (one language is known to a person to a greater extent, the other to a lesser extent). Asymmetrical bilingualism is, of course, a more common case (as are unbalanced language situations.
Depending on how the two languages function in speech activity bilingual, a distinction is made between autonomous and combined bilingualism. In autonomous bilingualism, the bilingual constructs speech in each language using language means only the corresponding language (Fig. 1). With combined bilingualism, speech in the language that a person knows less well is constructed using the means of the first (primary) language.
An increase in the volume of speech activity in a 2nd language (for example, as a result of increased contacts with those for whom this language is the main one) increases the degree of knowledge of this language (as a 2nd) by a bilingual. However, if bilingualism continues to be combined, then the bilingual’s access to the means of the 1st language when speaking the 2nd language expands. Both trends lead to the fact that in the individual consciousness of a bilingual, his 2nd language is “built up” to the communicative power of the 1st language; For him, both languages come closer and to some extent begin to be identified, and in the 2nd language he is already able to speak as (or almost as) fluently as in the 1st. Even in speech in the 1st language, such a bilingual can turn to the means of the 2nd language - for various reasons (for example, some word of the 2nd language seems more expressive to him, or more understandable to the interlocutor, or simply due to the inertia of speech in 2nd language, or, finally, because in his mind both languages have more or less merged into one).
When similar processes of greater or lesser convergence of languages occur in the linguistic consciousness and speech activity of many speakers, this means that the process ceases to be individual speech, but embraces the language. There is a confusion of languages. Thus, partial identification and confusion different languages in the speech of bilinguals it acts as a synchronous basis for mixing languages in diachrony.
Errors in speech in a 2nd language caused by the use of means of the 1st language are a manifestation of interference. The general premise of interference is that a person, speaking a 2nd language, always, to one degree or another, uses speech skills in his native language ( or basic) language, for example, the skill of distinguishing between voiced and voiceless consonants, or the skill of using a noun as a predicate, or even the phonetic and semantic similarity of the Russian word theater and the English theater. In some cases, speaking skills in your native language helps in speaking in a foreign language, but in other cases they lead to errors.
So, despite the similarities between Russian sounds [t], [d] and English [t], [d], each language has its own peculiarities of their pronunciation (in Russian these are dental sounds, in English - alveolar), and if these peculiarities not learned, then the pronunciation will be with an “accent”.
In vocabulary, similar phenomena, i.e. words that are similar in appearance, but different in meaning, are called “false friends of the translator” or, more strictly, “interlingual homonyms”. Compare: English, genial means “cheerful, kind, warm-hearted; sociable”, and Russian. genius - “exceptionally gifted” in English, decade - “10 years”, and Russian. decade - "10 days". However, a translator does not have “false friends”: any similar two words from different languages, upon closer examination, turn out to be non-identical both in terms of meaning and place in their lexical subsystem.
Interference in syntax is the most difficult to overcome, and especially in those cases when it manifests itself not in gross errors (such as the sentence * Nobody has come, built on the English model Nobody has come), but in the “inorganicity”, artificiality of the phrase. At a certain stage of learning a foreign language, the “learners” themselves feel this. Indicative in this regard are the mocking, supposedly English, dialogues (which originated in school folklore), parodying the primitive tracing from Russian: Which time? - Six watch. - So much? etc.
It is clear that the closer the two languages are, the more the bilingual individual relies on his 1st language in speech activity in the 2nd language. Therefore, related languages are generally easier to learn than distant ones, but there is also interference with this kind of bilingualism
The theory of language contacts, which began to take shape in the works of G. Schuchardt and was developed in the works of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, L.V. Shcherby, N.S. Trubetskoy, E. Sapir, is very important for sociolinguistics. A deep study of the history of a language, its development and functioning urgently requires taking into account all extralinguistic factors, one of which is the relationship between languages.
Languages are in contact with each other and are the result of centuries of interaction between many languages. Each nation owns a certain number of words, terms, even phrases that no other nation has and cannot have. But all peoples are members of one great family - humanity, and therefore an exchange of concepts, and therefore words, is necessary between peoples. Languages are rarely self-sufficient. So, in Albanian language the main vocabulary includes only a few hundred original words, the rest are borrowings from the dominant languages: Latin, Romance, Greek, Slavic and Turkish. About 60-70% of the English vocabulary is made up of borrowings, since the formation of English civilization, in the words of E. Sapir, is characterized by various layers of borrowings from ancient Latin, medieval French, Latin and Greek humanists of the Renaissance and modern French.
E. Sapir connects language contact with processes of cultural mutual influence, “when there is cultural borrowing, there is every reason to expect a corresponding borrowing of a word.” Analysis of the origin of words in a language is convincing evidence of the direction of cultural influence.
E. Sapir points to five languages (classical Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek and Latin), which played an important role in the history of civilization as conductors of culture. Even such culturally important languages as Hebrew and French fade into the background, and the general cultural influence of the English language, E. Sapir believed, in this regard is almost negligible.
The cultural influence of a language is not always directly proportional to its own literary significance and the place occupied by its speakers in world culture. Thus, the Hebrew language, which conveys extremely significant cultural tradition, did not have the same influence on the languages of Asia as its related Aramaic language.
The problem of contacting is not only of theoretical interest. The development of national languages, improvement of speech culture and much more - all this requires constant access to language contacts. Contacting languages is a historical-geographical, social, psychological and cultural issue.
Language contacts are determined by four main factors - economic, political, religious and prestige. Let's limit ourselves to a few examples.
Since the end of the 19th century. in India there was a clear division between Hindus and Muslims according to linguistic feature. Hindi began to be perceived as one of the distinctive signs of a Hindu, and Urdu - of a Muslim. And this made it difficult for mutual contacts between the two most major languages Hindustan.
The same language, serving two parts of a historically divided people (the Germans of Germany and the GDR in the recent past and the Koreans of the North and South at the present time), use different sources of borrowings, which is due to the ideological and political orientations of one or another part of the people. For example, Korean in the DPRK it borrows from Russian, and the language of South Korea borrows from English.
It has been noticed that in recent decades, the Arabic language has been significantly influenced by Indian languages due to the popularity of Indian and Pakistani films in the Arab world, as well as the large number of teachers and nannies from India working in Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, etc. The dominant language is also affected such a circumstance as national composition school teachers, journalists.
Language contacts- a complex and diverse phenomenon. They are carried out on the basis of bilingualism. It is usually accompanied by interference (errors in speech in a foreign language under the influence of the native language system). In this regard, two types of bilingualism are distinguished: differentiated and undifferentiated.
If in linguistic consciousness A bilingual person draws fairly clear boundaries between the two languages, his bilingualism is differentiated. It is characteristic of persons specially studying a foreign language. For example, Russian aristocrats of the 19th century. were fluent in Russian and French.
However, in the conditions of everyday bilingualism, a person, constantly switching from one language to another, loses a clear sense of the boundaries between languages. Such bilingualism is called undifferentiated.
Typology of contacts
The contact of languages is diverse in the degree of influence of one language on another - from borrowing individual elements to complete merger Therefore, attempts to create a classification of linguistic relationships are quite legitimate. L.V. Shcherba, in a special article “On the concept of mixing languages,” distinguished between three types of contact (“mixing languages”):
1) borrowings in the proper sense of the word made by a given language from foreign languages;
2) changes in a particular language, which it owes to the influence of a foreign language. This is, say, tracing paper, for example, tracing paper of Latin, German and Slavic languages according to Greek models;
3) facts resulting from insufficient mastery of a language.
In fact, it is not languages that are in contact, but language groups, socialems. The language of the people that prevails politically and culturally wins.
Linguistic interaction between two language groups is carried out only with the help of bilinguals (shaded part).
In the modern study of the interaction of languages, a classification is known that takes into account the direction of contacts and the degree of participation of the tiers of the language system in them.
One-sided impact in which pressure is exerted by only one level of a language, is most often observed in cases where one of the languages in contact is a dead language, but is widely used as a literary or cultural language. Such, for example, is the influence of Latin, ancient Greek or Old Slavonic languages into Russian at the lexical level.
At mutual action languages also interact at the level of vocabulary. An example is the interchange of lexemes between English and French. The relationship of the Russian language with other languages of the peoples of the former USSR fully fits into this type of contact.
At transformative impact one language affects several layers of another language at once. For example, the Persian literary language Farsi was transformed as a result of long-term and widespread influence on it from the Arabic language.
If, as a result of contacts, several tiers of interacting languages are affected, then they speak of crossing languages, which results in the emergence of so-called language unions, or leagues. The languages included in the union are characterized by similarities at all levels that arose only as a result of contact, and are not a legacy of common origin. An example is the Balkan language union, which includes Bulgarian, Romanian, Albanian and Modern Greek.
The Scandinavian, Ethiopian and other language leagues are also known. It is believed that German, French, Italian and Romansh languages are single state Switzerland form a linguistic union within which languages are subject to qualitative changes, promoting the ethnic consolidation of multilingual Swiss citizens in one nation.
When a new language arises from the interaction of two or more languages, we have merger. In Melanesia, for example, a unique Melanesian Esperanto arose: most of the vocabulary was borrowed from English, and the grammar from the language of the inhabitants of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain.
Based on the role that languages play in language contacts, it is customary to distinguish between substrate, superstrate, adstrate and instrate.
Substrate(lat. suhstratus“litter, lining”) are the traces of the language of the indigenous population, which was destroyed as a result of contact with the language of the aliens, but left in its system some of its elements that became relict (residual, survival).
One of the contacting languages disappears completely, the other develops, absorbing elements of the language of the disappeared one.
For example, over 900 Slavic borrowings in the Hungarian language: rozs"rye", len"flax", bab"bean", So"poppy", szena"hay", grablya"rake", Isa"street" etc.
Superstrat(lat. super"on top" and stratus“blanket, flooring”, in general - bedspread, pad.) - traces of the alien language, which influenced the language of the local population, but did not destroy its system, but only enriched it. An example is the impact of Turkish on Bulgarian. No less famous is the linguistic situation in medieval France. When the Scandinavian Vikings came to its territory, they adopted the language of the French, and elements of their Germanic language, which penetrated into the French language, formed a superstrate.
Adstrat- the language of the aliens, which influenced the development of the language of the indigenous population, but did not disappear completely, but was preserved as a neighboring language. Thus, the traces of the Norman conquest in the English language can be considered as a superstrate phenomenon (the former Normans switched to English in a given territory), and the very influence of the French language on English can be considered as an adstrate phenomenon, because this language was preserved in the neighboring territory. The phenomenon of adstratus is summed up by the Swedish influence on the Finnish language.
The specificity of the adstrate phenomenon is V the fact that outside the contact zone, the contacting languages completely retain their functions; bilingualism is not widespread.
In order to clarify the typological varieties of language contacts, the term instrat to describe cases of “geographical” contact of two languages, when the territory of one ethno-linguistic community includes wedges and islands of speakers of another language.
An example is the Romansh instrate in the German borderlands of Switzerland, the Kurdish instrate in the territory of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, the Polish instrate in the territory of Ukraine and Belarus, as well as Uzbek-Tajik or Latvian-Russian interpenetration.
Contact languages
In the formation of new means of mass communication, the processes of pidginization and creolization occupy a special place. This is the result of extreme language contact.
Pidginization(from distorted English. business"business") - the process of formation special type languages (pidgins) with situationally limited and unsystematic contacts of two or more multilingual peoples. In this case, a pidgin language does not arise as a result of the natural influence of languages during their development, but as if as a result of their collision, when one of the languages (the source language) is “broken into pieces.” From these kinds of “pieces” a reduced pidgin language is formed (from Middle Lat. reductio"decrease, reduction") From other languages, “participants in the collision” (they are called substrates), only individual words are borrowed. The source language for pidginization is always the language of the dominant ethnic group. In the XVI-XVII centuries. The source languages in the processes of pidginization in West Africa were the languages European colonialists- Portuguese, Spanish, French and English, and the substrates are languages local residents. Lusophone, Spanish-language, French-language and English-language pidgins emerged.
In the theory of language contacts, as a rule, two factors of pidginization are distinguished:
1) incorrect and incomplete assimilation of the source language by native speakers of local substrate languages (the reason for this is the extremely limited time for assimilation of the source language without any systematic training, from hearing);
2) the desire of native speakers of the source language (colonizers) to extremely simplify their speech when communicating with the local population in order to be better understood.
Thus, both native speakers of the source language and native speakers of the substrate language participate in the creation of a pidgin. The main condition for the emergence of a pidgin language is the lack of mutual understanding between native speakers of the local language and native speakers of the source language. In the presence of mutual understanding, a situation of bilingualism or multilingualism arises, which leads not to pidginization, but to interference - deviation from the norms of each language in the speech of bilinguals due to their knowledge of more than one language.
Pidginization occurs in places brisk trade, port and other activities, in conditions of forced labor, when in contact large number multilingual population.
It may happen that a pidgin, which is not native to anyone, will begin to be used in interethnic communication, expand its functionality and may turn into the native language of some ethnic communities, i.e. to become nativized (to become native). These extended pidgins are called Creole languages.
Creolization is a process of nativization of an extended pidgin, accompanied by large expansion its functional valency and structure. The Creole language and the source language are already two different systems.
Mandatory components of the creolization process should be considered:
a) enrichment of pidgin through internal means (replenishment of vocabulary through word formation, development grammatical structure etc.);
b) enrichment through interaction with other languages.
An example of a Creole language is the Roussenorsk language, which existed for 150 years in the Arctic region of Europe. This is the language of the Russian Pomors, who had contacts with Norwegian fishermen. Russenorsk was formed as a result of the interaction of the Russian Pomeranian dialect and the northern version of the Norwegian language. Many texts have been recorded on given language. About 400 words of Russenorsk have been recorded. 47% of the dictionary are lexemes of Norwegian origin. The morphology is extremely simple: there is practically no inflection or word formation. Syntax is Russian with free word order.
ABSTRACT
Interaction of languages in modern linguistics using the French language as an example
Introduction
The theory of language contacts, which began to take shape in the works of G. Schuchardt and was developed in the works of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, L.V. Shcherba, N.S. Trubetskoy, E. Sapir, U. Weinreich and E. Haugen, is very important for sociolinguistics. A deep study of the history of a language, its development and functioning urgently requires taking into account all extralinguistic factors, one of which is the relationship between languages.
Languages are in contact with each other and are the result of centuries of interaction between many languages. (Khrolenko, 2004: 362).
According to the research of F. de Saussure in geographical linguistics, languages are not always mixed in an absolute sense - their coexistence in any area does not exclude the possibility of their relative territorial demarcation. We can see a similar phenomenon on the language map of the Roman Empire. Thus, in Campania, towards the end of the Roman Republic, they spoke the following languages: Oscan (as Pompeian inscriptions prove), Greek (which was spoken by the colonists who founded Naples and other cities), Latin and, perhaps, even Etruscan, which dominated this area before the advent of the Romans. In Carthage, the Punic (aka Phoenician) language continued to exist along with Latin (it is attested even during the era of the Arab conquest), not to mention the fact that Numidian was spoken in part of the Carthaginian territory. There is even reason to believe that in ancient times monolingual countries were the exception in the Mediterranean basin. (Saussure, 1999: 194).
Chapter I. The problem of interaction of languages in modern linguistics
1.1. Language contacts
According to the definition of the Great Encyclopedic Dictionary volume “Linguistics”, language contacts are the interaction of two or more languages, influencing the structure and vocabulary of one or many of them.
Social conditions YAC are determined between representatives of different ethnic and language groups, entering into intensive connections with each other. YACs occur due to constantly repeating dialogues, constant communication between speakers of different languages, in which both languages are used either simultaneously by both speakers or separately by each of them. According to the latest data from neurolinguistics, UC is carried out within each of the bilingual speakers in such a way that one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex speaks one language (usually the left, or dominant, speaks the main language of communication in a given area, for example American version English in the USA), while the other hemisphere (most often the right) understands or knows to a limited extent a second language (for example, one of the American Indians in the USA); Through interhemispheric communication channels, the forms of one of the languages located in the LC are transmitted to the other hemisphere, where they can be included in a text spoken in another language or have an indirect impact on the structure of this text. (Linguistics, 1998; 237).
Thus, in modern English, about 60-70% of the vocabulary fund is made up of borrowings, since the formation of English civilization is characterized by various layers of borrowings from ancient Latin, medieval French, Latin and Greek humanists of the Renaissance and modern French. (Khrolenko, 2004: 362).
The result of UC has a different effect on different levels of language depending on the degree of inclusion of their elements in the global holistic structure.
The least structured (integrated within the dictionary as a whole) are groups of special terms for narrow areas of language use, so they can be borrowed entirely. The relative freedom of an individual word within the part of the dictionary in which it is included facilitates borrowing or semantic shift (in particular, tracing - the transfer of the internal form of a foreign language word under the influence of linguistic language (Linguistics, 1998: 237).
But before moving on to the study of borrowings, let's consider the typology of contacts.
1.2. Typology of contacts
A.T. Khrolenko and V.D. Bondaletov, in their work on language contacts, presented two classifications of language interaction, highlighting that language contact is diverse in the degree of influence of one language on another - from the borrowing of individual elements to complete merging.
The first classification that they bring to our attention belongs to L.V. Shcherba. He distinguished between three types of contact:
· borrowings in the proper sense of the word made by a given language from foreign languages;
· changes in a particular language that it owes to the influence of a foreign language (tracing);
· facts resulting from insufficient mastery of a language. (Khrolenko, 2004: 364).
In the modern study of language contact, a classification is known that takes into account the direction of contacts and the degree of participation of the tiers of the language system in them.
Unilateral influence, in which pressure is exerted by only one level of a language, is most often observed in cases where one of the languages in contact is a dead language, but is widely used as a literary or cultural language. This is, for example, the influence of Latin, Ancient Greek or Old Church Slavonic on Russian at the lexical level.
With mutual action, languages also interact at the level of vocabulary. An example is the interchange of lexemes between English and French.
With a transformative effect, one language affects several layers of another language at once. For example, the Persian literary language Farsi was transformed as a result of a long and widespread influence on it from the Arabic language.
If, as a result of contacts, several tiers of interacting languages are affected, then they speak of the crossing of languages, which results in the emergence of so-called language unions, or leagues. The languages included in the union are characterized by similarities at all levels that arose only as a result of contact, and are not a legacy of common origin. An example is the Balkan language union, which includes Bulgarian, Romanian, Albanian and Modern Greek. The Scandinavian, Ethiopian and other language leagues are also known. It is believed that German, French, Italian and Romansh languages, in the conditions of a single state of Switzerland, form a linguistic union, within which languages undergo qualitative changes that contribute to the ethnic consolidation of multilingual citizens of Switzerland into a single nation. Swiss-German (the country's most widely spoken language) in its literary form emerges as a language very different from the German of Germany and Austria.
When a new language arises from the interaction of two or more languages, we have a merger. In Melanesia, for example, a unique Melanesian Esperanto arose: most of the vocabulary was borrowed from English, and the grammar from the language of the inhabitants of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain. (Khrolenko, 2004: 364-366).
So, we have looked at the typology of language contacts. Now let's move on to the question of the interaction of languages.
1.3 Borrowings - as a result of contacting languages
Manifestations of the areal community of languages are extremely diverse and varied in scale. The most common and elementary case is borrowing from one language into a neighboring one. Sometimes, due to sociocultural circumstances, such borrowings are characterized by significant geographical latitude and penetrate into distantly related and unrelated languages. For example, Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian school, Slavic sola, Polish szkola, German Schule, English school, Latin schola, French ecole, Hungarian iskola, Finnish koulu, Turkish okul - this is a common borrowing, through various linguistic media, going back to the Greek schole (originally meaning “to have free time", "to be idle", "to procrastinate", "to procrastinate"; then - “do something during leisure time”, “spend time in learned conversations”).
the real similarity of neighboring, and sometimes distant, but culturally gravitating languages is manifested at all levels. (Mechkovskaya, 2001: 28).
Most favorable condition contacting is bilingualism - an individual's proficiency in two language systems. An example is the interaction of the Russian and Buryat languages. In force vital necessity Russians were taught the Buryat language and gradually became bilingual. Buryat words became familiar to the Russian Siberian, and he did not feel their foreign origin: zhalgai “pothole”, tulun “leather bag”, dymbey “in vain”, otkhon “junior”. Typical phrase: “My brother and I were gushing through the elani, and in the fall of the adali the guran roared” - “Recently, we cousin The two of them rode on one horse (sundula), half-trot, and in the ravine it was as if a goat screamed (adali).
The problem of contact is always connected with the question of the degree of stability of the language, the possibility of borrowing on the phonemic and morphemic tiers of the language. If no one questions lexical and syntactic borrowings, then borrowings in the field of morphology and especially phonetics are often disputed. Wide case studies showed that borrowing is possible at these tiers. True, new phonemes are found most often in borrowed words, which gives some scientists reason to doubt the possibility of “purely phonetic” borrowings.
Wide grammatical borrowings are possible, however, only as a result of close and prolonged contact in special conditions. (Khrolenko, 2004: 368-369).
One of the most visible parts of language interactions is lexical borrowing. They exist in any language, although to varying degrees. (Mechkovskaya, 2001: 108).
Borrowing is a universal phenomenon. The universal nature of this phenomenon is manifested in the fact that it can cover any languages - related and unrelated, standing at the same or different stages of development, under conditions of both direct and indirect language contacts.
Borrowings from languages of approximately the same level of development of society differ from borrowings when the languages correspond different levels development of society. At the same time, such factors as economic and social development, as well as the level of development of infrastructure and technology. Specific historical conditions development of language and society and the nature of interaction between languages.
Close contact between languages can exist in a situation where at least two nationalities live on the same territory. As a rule, the donor language in this situation is a language at a higher level of development of society.
Borrowings penetrate into the recipient language orally and represent words from a variety of spheres of life, especially those that are characteristic of a more developed society and are new to the society of the recipient language (for example, the sphere of administrative and legal relations, everyday life, military affairs ). During the period of contact of languages, a large number of words are borrowed, denoting objects that penetrate into the country of the receiving language along with representatives of the nationality that inhabits this country. History knows examples of such close contacts between different nationalities and their languages as a result of the conquest and colonization of underdeveloped countries by more developed and powerful ones. (Shlykova, 2004 - 202).
In addition to direct lexical borrowings, tracing also occurs (including semantic tracing - the development of a new meaning in a word under the influence of the semantics of the corresponding word in a foreign language). (Mechkovskaya, 2001: 28).
As a result of the influence of foreign speakers semantic models various tracing papers appear - word-formation, semantic, phraseological, syntactic. The source of cripples is the speech practice of bilinguals (translators, journalists, shuttle traders, migrants, tourists, etc.). Calques appear as a result of a literal translation (morphemic, word-by-word, often preserving the features of someone else’s control, etc.) of foreign language speech. (Mechkovsaya, 2001: 109).
· shuttle - associated with movement (at first the word was used to denote the movement of trains, buses, then people. Let's compare the neologism - shuttle diplomacy). From English a shuttle - shuttle; to shuttle - move back and forth.
· pirated - illegal (pirated copies, pirate studio). Used in the field of copyright and related law.
· menu, memory, window, mouse, virus, World Wide Web - used in computer science. (Mechkovskaya, 2001: 109).
interaction language contact linguistics
Chapter II. Language contacts in the history of the development of the French language
Let us consider the origin and contact of the French language during the period of its development.
First of all, we note that the French language is formed by mixing the Celtic language with Latin, then Gallo-Roman with Frankish. (Skrelina, 2001: 74).
Already at the inception stage we see the interaction of languages. Linguistic situation in Romanized and then Germanized Gaul, there was a situation of bilingualism and even trilingualism, as L.M. Skrelina notes. In the Gallo-Latin period, the main result of YAK is changes at the phonetic and grammatical levels. And in the Romano-Germanic period, changes already occur at the lexical level (Frankish elements: proper names and military terms). (Skrelina, 2001: 50-52).
During the Old French period social life was different high level contact of cultures in the process of Romanization of Gaul, then its Germanization; during crusades, wars with England, etc. Thus, the dictionary distinguishes between Latin fund, Gallic substratum, Germanic superstrate and borrowings.
The lexical fund of the Old French language consists mainly of words Latin origin. Vulgar Latin also enriched him with a large vocabulary of various origins, borrowed as a result of its contacts with local languages during the Roman conquests outside Rome and Italy. There are about 12 thousand Latin elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes), Celtic (substrate) - about 300, Germanic (superstrate) - about 400. There are significantly fewer borrowings from other languages:
· Greek (arcevesque, eglise (iglise), canon, poacre, chiere, etc.);
· Arabic (amiral, calife);
· Italian (rampsone, canton);
· Provençal (casse, etc.).
From Latin language a lot of book words are borrowed, often Greek origin, forming a layer of theological and religious-cult vocabulary.
Researchers believe that the number of book borrowings in Old French was insignificant.
The young French language lived almost exclusively from the original fund and was updated with the help of its own resources. (Skrelina, 280).
So, based on what we have studied, we conclude that in the Old French period, during contacts with other languages and cultures, changes primarily occurred at the lexical level. Slower changes affect grammatical and phonetic structures.
During the Middle French period, the political formation of France and the formation of the French nation and the creation of the French national language took place. The basis for its formation is the French dialect, which turns into a national language, gradually displacing other dialects, so that by the 16th century. it becomes a national language. (Skrelina, 297-298).
During this period, intralingual changes occur at the phonetic, grammatical and syntactic levels.
As for changes in language at the lexical level, here we see that the dictionary of the Middle French language reflected the events of the era in its composition. External and internal wars and upheavals, political and economic transformation feudal society, the development of science, arts and crafts along with the flourishing of culture and literature, all this was reflected in the vocabulary of the XIV-XVI centuries. The importance of the Middle French period for the formation of the dictionary can hardly be overestimated. This is not only an era of development and enrichment of the vocabulary fund, but also a period of creation special vocabulary(scientific and professional). Both processes took place under strong influence Latin. Speaking about the Middle French period, it with good reason called the period of romanization and relatinization French dictionary.
The French vocabulary was enriched through the formation of new words and borrowings from other languages. (Skrelina, 392).
Borrowings from other languages were very in an important way replenishment and development of the dictionary in the XIV-XVI centuries.
The first part of borrowings is almost exclusively bookish in nature, appearing as a result of translation activities; second - in to a greater extent colloquial, appearing as a result of contacts between peoples (mainly French and Italian). This explains the qualitative difference between two large streams of borrowings of this period - scientific terminology (Latin and Greek borrowings) and the very varied Renaissance vocabulary (Italian borrowings).
In the XIV century. certain number Latin terms were introduced by translators. For the most part, these terms were simply transliterated, dropping the Latin ending and changing the accent, for example fragilis > fragile. Translators preferred Latin borrowing available French word and even newly formed from the language’s own resources. (Skrelina, 395).
In the XIV-XV centuries. French terminology is enriched with general scientific and legal terms.
In the 16th century Special terminology systems appeared in medicine, mathematics, chemistry, etc., and often Latin terms themselves were borrowings from Greek, so that the result was indirect borrowing in French from Greek through Latin.
Borrowings from other languages are very rare in the 14th-15th centuries. and, on the contrary, they were very common in the 16th century, although during this period they were limited mainly to the Italian language.
Provençal gave French words such as brancard, cigale, dorade, yeuse, etc.
Borrowing and Italian language began during the Crusades (XI-XIII centuries), thanks to Arabic words. But most Italianisms date back to the Middle French period. These are terms of art, military and naval affairs, trade, fashion terms. French borrowed from Italian the suffix -esque, for example, in the word livresque, and the suffix -ade (sometimes called Provençal) in the words arcade, baslonade, salade, and in a series of verbal derivatives: bourrade, roucoulade, enfilade, etc. (Skrelina, 396) .
In the process of forming scientific terminology, words are borrowed from Latin and Greek languages, as well as from the Italian language (military terminology). (Skrelina, 397, 399).
Conclusion
Thus, we can conclude that due to borrowings from other languages during language contacts, the lexical composition of the language is replenished both in the field of words of everyday use and in the field of scientific terminology.
During the period of classical French (XVII-XVIII centuries), language policies were aimed at normalizing and codifying the language. (Skrelina, 406).
As for YAK, we see their reflection in borrowings dating back to this period of time - the era of Classicism and Enlightenment. They can be divided into the following etymological groups:
) Italian borrowings: sonate, solo, cantaloup;
) Spanish and Portuguese loanwords; This book words or exotic, which came through Spanish or Portuguese from the languages of overseas colonies (cacao, chocolat, mais, tomate, etc.);
) German borrowings during Thirty Years' War(bivouas, sabre, etc.), as well as in the 18th century. scientific terms: cobalt, gneiss, quartz;
) some Polish terms: caleche;
) Czech: coche, obus, which entered French through German;
) English maritime terms (dock, draque, yacht), trade, political. English fashion brings pudding, punch, sandwich;
) Latin and Greek borrowings (in scientific terminology). (Skrelina, 454).
So, we see that with UC in different areas of interaction, the French language is constantly replenished with new words borrowed from other languages. YAC also influences the formation of the phonetic and grammatical system of the French language.
Literature
1. Arbekova T.I. Lexicology. Textbook manual for II-III courses of institutes and departments of foreign languages: M.: Higher school, 2007.
Arnold I.V. Lexicology. M.: 2006.
Arnold I.V. Lexicology modern language. Textbook manual for institutes and fak.foreign languages. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher school, 2007. - 295 p., ill. - In English.
Vorno E.F., Kashcheeva M.A., Malishevskaya E.V., Potapova I.A. Lexicology. Manual for teachers: Leningrad: Education, 1955.
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