Submitting your good work to the knowledge base is easy. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Introduction

1. Formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th-16th centuries

1.1 Major events during the 15th-16th century

1.2 Socio-economic development of Russia in the 15-16th century

2. Development of Russia in the 17th century

2.1 Causes of the political and economic crisis in Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries and the main events of the Troubles

2.2 Reign of Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I and II, Vasily Shuisky

2.3 Creation and results of popular militias

2.4 Results of the Time of Troubles. The state of the Russian state at the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

In the 15th-17th centuries, the formation of a unified Russian state took place. This problem is considered one of the key ones in historical science.

The Russian state was born in the 14th century under the yoke of an external yoke, built and expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries, amidst a stubborn struggle for its existence in the west, south and southeast. This external struggle restrained internal hostilities. The process of formation and development of the Russian centralized state took place in difficult conditions. Russia found its place in the world, its geopolitical space as a result of bloody victories and skillful policies. This process played an important role for the history of the state, predetermining its further position and development and was natural.

In the 17th century The centralization of the Russian state continued. In the 17th century there was time of troubles which led to economic decline. It was a formative time new government and reforms.

In this work we will cover both data the most important periods in the history of Russia.

The purpose of this course work is to study the position of the Russian state in the 15th-17th centuries.

Consider the main events in the period of the 15th-16th centuries;

Characterize the socio-economic development of Russia in the 15-16th centuries;

Study the causes of the political and economic crisis in Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. and the main events of the Troubles;

Characterize the reign of Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I and II, Vasily Shuisky;

Consider the reasons for the creation and results of people's militias;

Summarize the troubled times. Consider the state of the Russian state at the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov.

To write this course work, textbooks on the history of Russia were used by such authors as: Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseikina, T.M. Smirnova, Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M., Dvornichenko A.Yu., Kashchenko S.G., Kirillov V.V., Klyuchevsky V.O., Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. and others.

The structure of the course work is determined by the goals and objectives of the research and includes? introduction, two chapters divided into paragraphs, conclusion and list of sources used.

1. Formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th-16th centuries

1.1 Major events during the 15th-16th century

In the 2nd half of the 15th-1st third of the 16th centuries. Most of the Russian lands were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. Moscow became the capital of a unified Russian state.

The Grand Duke of All Rus' Ivan III Vasilyevich (reigned 1462-1505) annexed the Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474) principalities to the Moscow Grand Duchy, Novgorod Republic(1477), Tver Grand Duchy (1485), Vyatka Land (1489). The “standing on the Ugra” of the troops of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and Ivan III in 1480 ended with the retreat of Akhmat, which led to the final liberation of Rus' from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As a result of the Russian-Lithuanian wars of 1487-94 and 1500-03, the Verkhovsky principalities, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets and others went to Moscow. In 1487, the Kazan Khanate became a vassal of the Russian state (until 1521). From the end of the 15th century. A local system of land tenure developed.

The estate, the owner of which was a serving nobleman, and the supreme owner was the Grand Duke, could not be inherited, sold, etc. The nobility formed the basis of the armed forces of the state. The growing need of the state and feudal lords for money forced them to increase the profitability of estates and estates by transferring duties to cash taxes, increasing quitrents, introducing their own plowing, and transferring peasants to corvée. Code of Law 1497 legitimized a single period for the transfer of peasants to other owners, usually in the fall, a week before St. George’s Day (November 26) and a week after it. Under Ivan III, the process of forming the central state apparatus was underway. The Boyar Duma became a permanent advisory body under the supreme power. It included Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, from the beginning of the 16th century. - Duma nobles, later Duma clerks. The unification of the courts of the principalities annexed to Moscow as part of the Sovereign's court continued. The relationships between the Moscow and regional princely-boyar aristocracies were regulated by localism. At the same time, a number of special territorial courtyards still remained (Tver land until the 40s of the 16th century, Novgorod land until the 1st quarter of the 17th century). The central executive bodies (Treasury, palaces) acted. Local administrative, financial and judicial functions were performed by the established institution of governors and volostels in Rus', supported by feeding; the 2nd marriage (1472) of Ivan III with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Zoya (Sophia) Palaeologus served to increase the international authority of Moscow. Diplomatic and trade relations were established with the papal throne, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, the Principality of Moldova, the Ottoman Empire, Iran, the Crimean Khanate, etc. Ivan III attracted Italian architects Aleviz Fryazin (Milanza), Aleviz Fryazin to the construction of church and secular buildings in Moscow (New), Aristotle Fioravanti, etc.

Under Ivan III, the struggle between two movements in the Russian Orthodox Church intensified: the Josephites (founder and spiritual leader Joseph Volotsky) and non-covetous people (Nil Sorsky, Paisiy Yaroslavov, Vassian Patrikeev, etc.). An attempt by non-covetous people to put into practice at a church council in 1503 the idea of monasteries abandoning land ownership caused active opposition from Joseph Volotsky and his supporters.

Ivan III, who hoped to replenish the state’s land fund through secularization, was forced to recognize the program of the Josephites: “Church acquisition is God’s acquisition.” He also changed his attitude towards the circle of freethinkers (F.V. Kuritsyn, Ivan Cherny, etc.), which formed at the court of his son and co-ruler (from 1471) Grand Duke Ivan Ivanovich the Young (1458-93) and his wife (from 1483) Elena Stefanovna (died in disgrace in 1505), and yielded to Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod and other hierarchs who demanded cruel punishments representatives of the so-called Novgorod-Moscow heresy.

Grand Duke of All Rus' Vasily III Ivanovich(reigned 1505-33) annexed the Pskov Republic (1510) and the Ryazan Grand Duchy (1521) to Moscow. Conquered Smolensk from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1514). The size of the state's territory increased from 430 thousand km2 (early 60s of the 15th century) to 2800 thousand km2 (early 30s of the 16th century). Vasily III, following the policy of his father, strictly regulated his relations with the appanage princes; a number of appanages were liquidated. He began the construction of the Great Zasechnaya Line across the Oka River and, in the interests of medium and small feudal lords, supported the development of lands south of Moscow. He, like Ivan III, invited foreigners to Moscow: the doctor and translator N. Bulev, Maxim the Greek and others. To substantiate the divine origin of the grand ducal power, he used the ideas of Joseph Volotsky, “Tales of the Princes of Vladimir”, and the theory of “Moscow is the Third Rome”. Divorce from Solomonia Saburova (1525) and marriage to Elena Vasilyevna Glinskaya strained relations between Vasily III and part of the Moscow boyars.
During the regency years Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya (1533-38) and after her death, under the minor Grand Duke of All Rus' (from 1533) Ivan IV Vasilyevich (1530-84), the struggle between court factions intensified. It was attended by Elena's favorite - Prince I.F. Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky (died in prison), the princes Belsky, Shuisky, the boyars Vorontsov, the princes Glinsky. During this period, the estates of Vasily III's brothers, princes Yuri Dmitrovsky and Andrei Staritsky (both died in prison), were liquidated. Conducted currency reform(1535-38), description of lands (1536-44), labial reform began (1539-41), etc. Godunov Russian Troubles

In the 1st half of the 16th century. local land ownership in the central districts covered more than a third of the land, but the dominant form of land ownership remained the patrimony. There was an increase in fishing and handicraft production. Novgorod, the Serpukhov-Tula region, and Ustyuzhna-Zhelezopolskaya became major iron-making centers; salt making was practiced in Soli-Galitskaya, Una and Nenoksa (on the shores of the White Sea), Solvychegodsk; leather processing - in Yaroslavl, etc. The trade and craft elite of a number of cities included guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. Furs came from the North, where bread was delivered from the center. Trade with eastern countries (Ottoman Empire, Iran, Central Asian states) was more developed than with Western countries. Moscow has become the country's largest market. In the middle of the 16th century. the country already had up to 160 cities, most of which were military-administrative centers-fortresses.

Ivan IV Vasilyevich was crowned king, the royal title was considered equal to the imperial one. The tsar's closest adviser was Metropolitan Macarius. In the late 40s - 50s. 16th century Ivan IV together with the so-called. The elected rada (A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, etc.) participated in the drafting of the Code of Laws of 1550, completed the labial and carried out zemstvo reforms (during the latter, feedings were abolished), began to convene Zemsky Sobors, central national estate-representative institutions with legislative functions. The formation of an estate-representative monarchy took place. The Tsar ruled jointly with the Boyar Duma, relying on the decisions of the Zemsky Councils. The sovereign's court included the upper layers ruling class(including the princely and old boyar aristocracy) and was divided into ranks: Duma, as well as those close to them, which included representatives of the highest court positions, Moscow ranks and nobles from county corporations. The main categories of service people “according to the fatherland” and “according to the instrument” were formed. Localism regulated the system of clan and service relationships of noble families. At the same time, Ivan IV, by decree of 1550, limited the application of localism norms to military service taking into account military merits. In the middle of the 16th century. a system of central executive institutions-orders was formed (Ambassador, Local, Discharge, etc.). In 1550, 6 rifle regiments were established, divided into hundreds. The local army recruitment system was formalized by the “Code of Service” (1555-60).

The most important result foreign policy in the 1550s was the capture of Kazan, the annexation of the territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to Russia and the inclusion of the peoples of the Middle Volga region and Western Urals into the emerging multinational state. In the 2nd half of the 16th century. in Russia, in addition to Russians, there lived Tatars, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Mari, Chuvash, Mordovians, Komi, Karelians, Sami, Vepsians, Nenets and other peoples.

In order to prevent raids by the Crimean khans on the southern and central regions of the country, in 1556-59, campaigns by Russian and Ukrainian troops were undertaken on the territory subject to the Crimean Khanate. In 1559, governor D. F. Adashev landed on the coast of Crimea, captured a number of cities and villages and returned safely to Russia.

In 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War, with the goal of capturing the Baltic states and establishing himself on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Under the blows of Russian troops, the Livonian Order disintegrated. Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1569 - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) opposed Russia.

Around 1560, the government of the Chosen Rada fell, some of whose members opposed the conduct of the Livonian War, and also considered it necessary to continue the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Ivan IV also suspected his former associates of sympathizing with his cousin, the appanage prince Vladimir Staritsky. After the defeat of Russian troops from the Polish-Lithuanian side on the river. Ula near Polotsk (1564) the king put disgrace and executed princes M. P. Repnin, Yu. I. Kashin, governor N. P. Sheremetev and others. Trying to break the hidden opposition of some part of the aristocracy and achieve unlimited autocratic power, in December 1564 Ivan IV began organizing the oprichnina. Having retired to Alexandrov Sloboda, on January 3, 1565, he announced his abdication of the throne, placing the blame on the clergy, boyars, children of boyars and officials. A deputation from the Boyar Duma and the clergy arrived in the settlement, expressing agreement to grant the Tsar emergency powers. The king established a “special” court with its own army, finances and administration. The state was divided into oprichnina and zemstvo territories. In the oprichnina there was an oprichnina duma and financial orders (Cheti). The Zemshchina continued to be governed by the Boyar Duma. Evictions of feudal lords who were not included in the oprichnina were carried out, with the transfer of their lands to the oprichnina. Began in February 1565 oprichnina terror In 1568, boyar I.P. Fedorov and his alleged “supporters” were executed; in 1569, the Staritskys, Metropolitan Philip and others were exterminated. In January - February 1570, the tsar led a campaign against Novgorod, which was accompanied by the devastation of the Tver and Novgorod lands and the defeat of Novgorod. In the same year, many supporters of Ivan IV were executed (guardsmen A.D. and F.A. Basmanov, clerk I.M. Viskovaty, etc.). In 1571, the tsar and the oprichnina army failed to defend Moscow from a raid Crimean Khan Devlet-Gireya. At the same time, the zemstvo governors, princes M.I. Vorotynsky, D.I. Khvorostinin and others, inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. In the same year, Ivan IV abolished the oprichnina, and in 1575 appointed the Kasimov Khan Simeon Bekbulatvich as the Grand Duke of All Rus', he himself was called Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of Moscow, retaining full power. In 1576 he regained the royal throne.

Temporary successes during the Livonian War (the capture of Marienhausen, Lucin, Sesswegen, Schwanenburg, etc. in 1577) were replaced by a series of defeats from the troops of the Polish king Stefan Batory and the Swedish king Johan III. In 1581-82, the garrison of Pskov, led by Prince I.P. Shuisky, withstood the siege of the Polish-Lithuanian troops.

Domestic policy of Ivan IV and protracted war led the country in the 70-80s. 16th century to a severe economic crisis, the ruin of the population by taxes, oprichnina pogroms, and the desolation of large territories of Russia. In 1581, Ivan IV introduced a temporary ban on peasants going out on St. George’s Day. Continuing the policy of expanding the territory of the state, the tsar supported Ermak Timofeevich’s campaign against Khanate of Siberia(around 1581), marking the beginning of the annexation of Siberia to the Russian state. Livonian War ended (1583) with the loss of a number of Russian lands (Peace of Yam-Zapolsky 1582, Truce of Plyus 1583). The reign of Ivan IV, nicknamed “The Terrible,” ended with the collapse of many undertakings and the personal tragedy of the tsar associated with the murder of his son, Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Historians have been unable to clearly explain the reasons for his actions. The combination of talent, extraordinary education and sadistic inclinations of the king is sometimes associated with his severe heredity, mental trauma during his childhood, persecution mania, etc.

Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries. is represented by outstanding achievements in the field of book printing (the printing house of Ivan Fedorov, P. T. Mstislavets), architecture (the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square, the Ascension Church in Kolomenskoye), church painting (frescoes and icons of Dionysius), and applied art. In the 16th century Voskresenskaya, Nikonovskaya and other chronicles were compiled, Lytseva chronicle. Problems of power, the relationship between church and state, socio-political and economic structure were considered in the works of Filofey, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim the Greek, Ermolai-Erasmus, I. S. Peresvetov, Ivan IV the Terrible, Prince A. M. Kurbsky and others.

1.2 Socio-economic development of Russia in the 15-16th century

The Mongol invasion led to the death of huge masses of people, the desolation of a number of areas, and the movement of a significant part of the population from the Dnieper region to North-Eastern and South-Western Rus'. Epidemics also caused terrible damage to the population. However, population reproduction was expanded; over 300 years (from 1200 to 1500) it increased by about a quarter. The population of the Russian state in the 16th century, according to estimates by D.K. Shelestov, was 6-7 million people.

However, population growth lagged significantly behind the growth of the country's territory, which increased more than 10 times, including such vast regions as the Volga region, the Urals, and Western Siberia. It was typical for Russia low density population, its concentration in certain areas. The most densely populated were the central regions of the country, from Tver to Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod Land. Here was the highest population density - 5 people per 1 sq. km. The population was clearly not enough to develop such vast areas.

The Russian state was formed as a multinational state from the very beginning. The most important phenomenon of this time was the formation of the Great Russian (Russian) nationality. The formation of city-states only contributed to the accumulation of these differences, but the consciousness of the unity of the Russian lands remained.

The Slavic population between the Volga and Oka rivers experienced strong influence local Finno-Ugric population. Finding themselves under the rule of the Horde, the inhabitants of these lands could not help but absorb many features of the steppe culture. Over time, the language, culture and way of life of the more developed Moscow land began to increasingly influence the language, culture and way of life of the population of all North-Eastern Rus'.

Economic development contributed to the strengthening of political, religious and cultural ties between residents of cities and villages. Identical natural, economic and other conditions helped create among the population some common features in their occupations and character, in family and social life. In total, all these general signs and compiled national characteristics population of northeast Rus'. Moscow became a national center in the minds of the people, and from the second half of the 14th century. a new name for this region appears - Great Rus'.

Throughout this period, many peoples of the Volga region, Bashkirs, etc., became part of the Russian state.

After the Mongol invasion, the economy of North-Eastern Rus' experienced a crisis, starting only around the middle of the 14th century. slowly reborn.

The main arable tools, as in the pre-Mongol period, were the plow and the plow. In the 16th century The plow is replacing the plow throughout Great Russia. The plow is improved - a special board is attached to it - a policeman, which carries the loosened earth along with it and rakes it to one side.

The main crops grown at this time are rye and oats, which replaced wheat and barley, which is associated with a general cooling, the spread of more advanced plows and, accordingly, the development of previously inaccessible areas for plowing. Garden crops were also widespread.

The farming systems were varied, there was a lot of archaism here: along with the recently appeared three-field system, the two-field system, shifting system, and arable land were widespread, and in the north the slash-and-burn system dominated for a very long time.

During the period under review, soil manure begins to be used, which, however, lags somewhat behind the spread of the three-field system. In areas where arable farming with manure fertilizer dominated, livestock raising occupied a very important place in agriculture. The role of livestock farming was also great in those northern latitudes where little grain was sown.

When discussing agriculture and economics, it is necessary to take into account that the main foreground of Russian history was the non-Black Earth lands. This entire area is dominated by low-fertility, mainly soddy-podzolic, podzolic and podzolic-boggy soils. This poor soil quality was one of the reasons for low yields. The main reason for this is the specific nature and climatic conditions. The cycle of agricultural work here was unusually short, taking only 125-130 working days. That is why the peasant economy of the indigenous territory of Russia had extremely disabilities for the production of commercial agricultural products. Due to the same circumstances, there was practically no commercial cattle breeding in the Non-Black Earth Region. It was then that the centuries-old problem of the Russian agrarian system arose - peasant land shortage.

Ancient crafts continued to play a major role in the life of the Eastern Slavs: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. About the scale of use of “gifts of nature” up to the 17th century. This is evidenced by many materials, including notes from foreigners about Russia.

However, the craft is gradually beginning to revive. There are a number of significant changes in craft technology and production: the emergence of water mills, deep drilling salt wells, the beginning of the production of firearms, etc. In the 16th century. The process of differentiation of crafts is very intensive; workshops appear that carry out sequential operations for the manufacture of the product. Handicraft production grew especially rapidly in Moscow and other major cities.

Commercial products were circulated mainly in local markets, but the trade in bread had already outgrown their scope.

Many ancient trade ties have lost their former importance, but others have emerged, and trade with the countries of the West and East is developing quite widely. However, a feature of Russia’s foreign trade was high specific gravity such craft items as furs and wax. The scale of trade transactions was small, and trade was carried out mainly by small traders. However, there were also rich merchants who in the XIV-XV centuries. appear in sources under the name of guests or deliberate guests.

In the XIV century. patrimonial land ownership begins to develop.

The church estate found itself in more favorable conditions. After the invasion, the church enjoyed the support of the khans, who showed religious tolerance and pursued a flexible policy in the conquered lands.

From the middle of the 14th century. in the monasteries there is a transition from the “Keliot” charter to the “coenobitic” one - the life of monks in separate cells with separate meals and housekeeping was replaced by a monastic commune, which had collective property.

Over time, the head of the Russian Church, the metropolitan, became a large landowner, and was in charge of a ramified and multifunctional economy.

However, the main body of land in the XIV-XV centuries. made up the so-called black volosts - a kind of state land, the manager of which was the prince, and the peasants considered it “God’s, the sovereign’s and their own.” In the 16th century “palace lands” are gradually allocated from the massif of black lands, and the Grand Duke becomes one of the largest landowners. But another process was more important - the collapse of the black volost due to the distribution of lands to church and secular landowners.

An estate that has become widespread since the end of the 15th century. and became the economic and social support of power until later times.

Before the wide spread of estates, the main income of the boyars was all kinds of feeding and holding, that is, remuneration for the performance of administrative, judicial and other socially useful functions.

The remnants of the former princely families, boyars, and “landowners” gradually form the backbone of the “upper class.” The bulk of the population in the XIV-XV centuries. still consisted of free people, who received the name “peasants”.

The peasants, even finding themselves within the framework of the estate, enjoyed the right of free transition, which was formalized as large-scale land ownership developed and was included in the first all-Russian Code of Law of 1497. This is the famous St. George’s Day - the norm according to which peasants, having paid the so-called elderly, could transfer from one landowner to another.

In the worst position were the dependent peasants: ladles and silversmiths. Apparently, both of them found themselves in such difficult life situations that they were forced to take out loans and then work them off.

The main labor force of the estate was still slaves. However, the number of whitewashed slaves was decreasing, and the contingent of bonded slaves was increasing, that is, people who found themselves in servile dependence under the so-called service bondage.

At the end of the 16th century. The process of intensive enslavement of peasants begins. Some years are declared “reserved”, i.e. in these years the transition to St. George’s Day is prohibited. However, the main way of enslaving the peasants is becoming the “fixed summer,” that is, the period of time for searching for runaway peasants, which is becoming increasingly longer. It should also be borne in mind that from the very beginning the process of enslavement involved not only peasants, but also townspeople population countries.

The townspeople - black townspeople - unite in the so-called black townsman community, which existed in archaic forms in Rus' until the 18th century.

Another important feature characterizing the classes of the East Slavic lands of that time was their service character. All of them had to perform certain official functions in relation to the state.

2. Development of Russia in the 17th century

2.1 Causes of the political and economic crisis in Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries and the main events of the Troubles

At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Moscow state was experiencing a difficult and complex crisis, moral, political and socio-economic. The position of the two main classes of the Moscow population - servicemen and "taxi" people - was not easy before; but at the end of the 16th century. The situation in the central regions of the state deteriorated significantly.

With the opening for Russian colonization of the vast south-eastern spaces of the Middle and Lower Volga region, a wide stream of peasants rushed here from the central regions, seeking to escape the state and the landlord “tax”, and this outflow of labor led to a shortage of workers and to a severe economic crisis within the state. The more people left the center, the heavier the pressure of state and landowner taxes on those who remained. The growth of local land ownership placed an increasing number of peasants under the power of the landowners, and the lack of labor forces forced the landowners to increase peasant taxes and duties and strive by all means to secure for themselves the existing peasant population of their estates.

The position of “full” and “bonded” slaves has always been quite difficult, and at the end of the 16th century. the number of enslaved people was increased by a decree that ordered the conversion into enslaved slaves of all those previously free servants and workers who served their masters for more than six months.

In the second half of the 16th century. special circumstances, external and internal, contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent. The difficult Livonian War (which lasted 25 years and ended in complete failure) required enormous sacrifices of people and material resources from the population. Tatar invasion and the defeat of Moscow in 1571 significantly increased casualties and losses. The oprichnina of Tsar Ivan, which shook and undermined the old way of life and customary relationships (especially in the “oprichnina” areas), intensified the general discord and demoralization; During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, “a terrible habit was established of not respecting the life, honor, and property of one’s neighbor.”

To top off all the troubles, at the beginning of the century the country was struck by a terrible crop failure. It was a powerful impetus for the open manifestation of widespread social discontent with the existing political regime. This disaster brought the country's main tax population to complete ruin. Peasants, fleeing hunger and epidemics, left their homes and headed to the cities. Landowners, not wanting to feed their slaves, often kicked them out themselves without giving them the required vacation pay. Crowds of hungry and destitute people roamed the country.

Trying to ease social tension, the government in 1601 temporarily allowed the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another. Government work was organized in Moscow, including the completion of the Ivan the Great Bell Tower in the Kremlin. Bread from the royal granaries was distributed free of charge. But this could not save the country's population from extinction. In the capital alone, 127 thousand people died in two years.

At the same time, there was bread in the country. Usury and rampant speculation flourished. Large landowners - boyars, monasteries and even Patriarch Job himself - kept huge stocks of grain in their pantries, expecting a new rise in price.

Mass escapes of peasants and slaves and refusals to pay duties continued. Especially many people went to the Don and Volga, where the free Cossacks lived. The difficult economic situation within the country led to a decline in the authority of the government.

In 1603, a wave of numerous uprisings of the starving common people grew, especially in the south of the country. A large detachment of rebels under the command of Cotton Crookedfoot operated near Moscow itself. Government troops had great difficulty suppressing such riots.

While the rulers of the old familiar dynasty, the direct descendants of Rurik and Vladimir the Saint and the builders of the Moscow state, sat on the Moscow throne, the vast majority of the population meekly and unquestioningly obeyed their “natural sovereigns.” But when the dynasty ended and the state turned out to be “nobody’s,” the earth was confused and went into ferment. The upper stratum of the Moscow population, the boyars, economically weakened and morally humiliated by the policies of Ivan the Terrible, began a troubled struggle for power in a country that had become “stateless.”

Open unrest in the Moscow state began with the death of the childless Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (1598). It is generally accepted that it ended with the accession of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich to the throne (1613). During this period of time, Moscow life was full of the struggle of various social and political forces. Peering at the course of this struggle, we notice that at first its subject is the Moscow throne. Various “desirers of power” serve for its possession: the Romanovs with the Godunovs, then the Godunovs with the self-proclaimed prince Dmitry Ivanovich, and finally, having killed the impostor, the prince from the descendants of Rurik, Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky, takes possession of the throne. This time (1598 - 1606) is the period of dynastic Troubles. Soon after Shuisky's accession, a series of uprisings began against Tsar Vasily and the “dashing boyars” surrounding him. Although the rebels hide behind the name of Tsar Dmitry, who is not considered killed, it is clear that the movement is no longer guided by dynastic motives, but by the motives of class enmity. The lower classes—the Cossacks—are rising up to the slave-owning top of society in hopes of a political and state revolution. This open civil strife lasts from 1606 to 1610 and can be called a time of social struggle. Soon after its emergence, all kinds of foreigners begin to interfere in the Moscow civil strife in order to take advantage of Moscow’s weakness for their own private interests or for the benefit of their states - Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This intervention leads to the fact that the Novgorod and Smolensk outskirts of the state come under the rule of the Swedes and Poles, and in Moscow itself, after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily from the Moscow throne, a Polish-Lithuanian garrison is installed. Thus, the Social Troubles lead to the disintegration of social order in the Moscow state and to the decline of state independence. The intervention of foreigners and their triumph over Moscow arouses national feeling in Russians and directs all layers of the Moscow population against the people's enemies. In 1611, attempts to overthrow foreign power began; but they do not succeed as long as they are harmed by the blind intransigence of social strata. But when in 1612 it was formed in Yaroslavl combat organization, which united the middle classes of Moscow society, things take a different turn.

The Yaroslavl provisional government managed to influence so much - both by suggestion and force - on the Cossack masses that it achieved the unity of all popular forces and restored tsarist power and a unified government in the country. This period of Troubles (1611 - 1613) can be called a time of struggle for nationality.

2.2 Reign of Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I and II, Vasily Shuisky

The period of Troubles is closely connected in time with the moment of the election of Boris Godunov (1598 - 1605) to the Russian throne. After the death of the childless Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (in January 1598), Moscow swore allegiance to his wife, Tsarina Irina, but Irina renounced the throne and took monastic vows. When Moscow suddenly found itself without a tsar, it was natural that everyone’s eyes turned to ruler Boris Godunov. His candidacy for the throne was vigorously and persistently pursued by Patriarch Job, but Boris refused for a long time, assuring that it had never even crossed his mind to ascend to the highest throne of the Russian Empire. A Zemsky Sobor was convened from representatives of all ranks, people from all cities of the Moscow state, and the cathedral unanimously elected Boris Fedorovich to the throne, who reigned at the request and election of “the entire consecrated cathedral, and the bolyars, and the Christ-loving army and the nationwide multitude of Orthodox Christians of the Russian state " The solemn crowning of Godunov to the throne in September 1598, which seemed to mark his triumph political career, was the beginning of the collapse of the policy of state centralization, which Boris Godunov pursued following Ivan the Terrible. The accession of Godunov, who by origin did not belong to either the Rurikovichs or the Gediminovichs, unlike his competitors, the Mstislavskys and Shuiskys, further intensified the discord among the highest nobility. Rumors grew that Tsarevich Dmitry was killed in Uglich on the orders of Godunov.

Tsar Boris, both in domestic and foreign policy, developed the trends that emerged in the last years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. First of all, Godunov’s government was concerned about satisfying the urgent needs of the serving nobility, in whom it saw its main support. For this purpose, the Code on the abolition of tarkhanov (land exempt from taxes) of 1584 and the law on the allocation of the master's arable land of the feudal lords in the early 90s were adopted. A decisive limit was placed on the growth of the church's possessions. It was planned to improve the economy of military service landowners. A targeted series of events was designed to end the depopulation of the center of the country. For example, the so-called posad settlement was carried out - a census of the population of town settlements and hundreds, the purpose of which was to return people who had gone to privately owned yards and settlements in the cities. The decrees of 1597 on a five-year search for peasants and on slaves were intended to assign servants to service people.

Some weakening of internal social tension in the country was facilitated by foreign policy activities Godunov, which favored the development of the south and southeast of the country and advancement to Siberia. In the Volga region, in the southern and Siberian lands, a stream of peasants, serfs and artisans poured in, fleeing hunger and oppression. Fortresses and cities were built on new frontiers, and uninhabited lands were developed.

In foreign policy, the desire to find peaceful solutions to conflicts in 1584 - 1598 turned into the principle of maintaining friendly relations with neighboring countries. Russia during the reign of Boris Godunov practically did not wage bloody wars.

In implementing his political program, Godunov could not have done without a well-coordinated state apparatus. He attracted to government activities many outstanding administrators and streamlined the operation of orders. Boris sought to destroy the generic principle of formation of the Boyar Duma, replacing it with a family-corporate one, when proximity to the board played a decisive role in appointments to the Duma.

The achievements of Boris Godunov's policies were fragile, since they were based on the overstrain of the country's socio-economic potential, which inevitably led to a social explosion. Discontent covered all layers of society: the nobility and the boyars were outraged by the curtailment of their tribal rights, the serving nobility was not satisfied with the government's policy, which was unable to stop the flight of peasants, which significantly reduced the income of their estates, the townspeople opposed the townsman structure and increased tax oppression, even the Orthodox clergy dissatisfied with the reduction of their privileges and strict subordination to autocratic power.

In the neighboring Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth they were just waiting for a reason to intervene in the internal affairs of weakened Russia. In 1602, a man appeared there, posing as the miraculously surviving Tsarevich Dmitry, son of Ivan IV, who died in Uglich on May 15, 1591. In reality, the impostor was the Galich nobleman Yuri (Grigory) Otrepiev, who became a monk at the Chudov Monastery and then fled to Lithuania. Perhaps he was a protege of the disgraced Romanov boyars.

At first, the Polish king Sigismund III helped the impostor secretly. False Dmitry I, who converted to Catholicism, with the help of the Sandomierz governor Yuri Mnishek, whose daughter Marina he promised to marry, managed to assemble a detachment of mercenaries of 4 thousand people.

In October 1604, False Dmitry entered the southern outskirts of the country, engulfed in unrest and uprisings. A number of cities went over to the side of the impostor; he was replenished with detachments of Zaporozhye and Don Cossacks, as well as local rebels. By the beginning of 1605, more than 20 thousand people gathered under the banner of the “prince”.

On January 21, 1605, in the vicinity of the village of Dobrynichi, Kamaritsa volost, a battle took place between the troops of the impostor and the royal army led by Prince F. I. Mstislavsky. The defeat was complete: False Dmitry I miraculously escaped to Putivl. During this critical period for the impostor, on April 13, 1605, Tsar Boris Godunov suddenly died and his 16-year-old son Fyodor Borisovich Godunov ascended the throne. The boyars did not recognize the new king. On May 7, the tsar’s army, led by the governors Pyotr Basmanov and the princes Golitsyn, went over to the side of False Dmitry. The conspiratorial boyars organized a coup d'etat on June 1, 1605 and provoked popular indignation in the capital. Tsar Fedor was overthrown from the throne and strangled along with his mother.

On June 1, 1605, Moscow swore allegiance to the impostor who settled in the Kremlin. However, soon hopes for a “kind and fair” king collapsed. A Polish protege sat on the Russian throne. The foreigners who flooded the capital behaved as if they were in a conquered city. Throughout the country it was openly said that a fugitive monk had taken possession of Monomakh's hat. The boyars also no longer needed an adventurer tsar. The new conspiracy was preceded by the wedding of Otrepiev with Marina Mnishek - the Catholic woman was crowned with the royal crown of the Orthodox state. Moscow began to seethe. On the night of May 17, 1606, an uprising of the townspeople began. The conspirators broke into the Kremlin and killed False Dmitry I. After desecration, the corpse of False Dmitry was burned and, after mixing the ashes with gunpowder, they fired it from a cannon in the direction from which he had come.

Three days later, the noble boyar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky (1606 - 1610), the organizer of the conspiracy, was “called out” from Lobnoye Mesto on Red Square as the new tsar. Formally, power passed into the hands of the Boyar Duma, but this power was ephemeral.

The internal political condition of the state continued to deteriorate. The country was agitated by rumors about the rescue of “Tsarevich Dmitry.” A mass uprising began in the south, the center of which was the city of Putivl.

The rebellious Cossacks, peasants and townspeople elected Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov, a former military servant of Prince A. Telyatevsky from the Chernigov region, as the “great governor” in Putivl, who arrived with a detachment of Cossacks.

In the summer of 1606, Bolotnikov, at the head of a 10,000-strong rebel army, began a campaign against Moscow. The fortresses of Kromy and Yelets were taken, under which the regiments of Vasily Shuisky were defeated. By October 1606, Bolotnikov was joined by large detachments of serving nobles, the Streltsy centurion I. Pashkov and the Ryazan governor P. Lyapunov, as well as the nobleman G. Sumbulov, who opposed the boyar tsar. The Putivl governor, Prince G. Shakhovskoy, also provided assistance to the rebels.

Despite significant forces, the rebel troops were unable to capture the capital. In the battle near the village of Kolomenskoye on December 2, 1606 royal troops defeated the rebels, which was facilitated by the transition of noble detachments to the side of Tsar Vasily. After this, the rebel troops had to retreat and in December 1606 strengthened themselves in Kaluga. In May 1607, Bolotnikov retreated to Tula, where he was besieged. On May 21, hastily assembled government troops led by Tsar Vasily set out to defeat the besieged rebels. The besiegers built a dam on the Upa River and flooded the city. Only after this did the rebels surrender (in October 1607). At the same time, Vasily Shuisky promised to save the lives of all those who surrendered. However, the boyar government never kept its promise - a cruel reprisal was carried out against the participants in the peasant and noble unrest. Ivan Bolotnikov himself was exiled to distant Kargopol, where he was soon secretly blinded and drowned.

A new impostor appeared in Starodub in the summer of 1607. Contemporaries made many guesses about its origin. In the Barnulabov Chronicle, the Belarusian chronicler most reliably calls him Bogdanka, a teacher of children of a priest in Shklov. It was he who became the new protege of the Polish interventionists. In May 1608, the tsarist troops were defeated near Bolkhov, and False Dmitry II, at the head of large detachments of Polish and Lithuanian magnates, moved to Moscow. Along the way, he was joined by recent Bolotnikovites, as well as Cossack detachments Ataman Ivan Zarutsky. At the beginning of June 1608, the troops of the new impostor approached Moscow, but, having been defeated at Khimki and Presnya, they set up a fortified camp in the village of Tushino, from the name of which False Dmitry II received the nickname “Tushino Thief.” The siege of the capital began. Part of the capital's nobility defected from Tsar Vasily Shuisky to the new contender for the Russian throne, and Tushino began to have its own Boyar Duma and orders. Having captured Rostov in October 1608, Polish troops captured Metropolitan Philaret Romanov and, bringing him to Tushino, proclaimed him patriarch.

Released from Moscow in July 1608 under the terms of the truce with the Poles, Marina Mnishek and her father also ended up in Tushino and recognized the new impostor as her husband.

During this period, a virtual regime of dual power was established in the country. Detachments of Tushinites controlled a significant part of the Russian state, robbing and ruining the population. In the Tushino camp itself, the impostor was completely controlled by the leaders of the Polish detachments. Their robbery actions provoked armed resistance from the surrounding peasants and townspeople. For 16 months (from October 1608 to January 1610), the Polish-Lithuanian troops of Jan Sapieha besieged the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, but its defenders repulsed all enemy attacks.

During this period, Tsar Vasily Ivanovich decided to ask for help from Sweden, whose throne was claimed by the Polish king. The tsar's nephew, 24-year-old Prince M.V. Skopin - Shuisky, was sent to the north to gather troops. On February 28, 1609, he concluded an agreement with Sweden in Vyborg, according to which instead of a 15,000-strong military detachment, instead of a 15,000-strong military detachment, Sweden sent only 7,000 mercenaries led by J. P. Delagardie.

Skopin-Shuisky's army moved through Novgorod and Tver, replenished along the way with local militias. It was able to defeat the Tushins and lift the siege from the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. On March 12, 1610, the commander entered Moscow. The impostor fled to Kaluga. Most of the Polish troops went to King Sigismund III. In Moscow, during the celebration of the victory, Skopin-Shuisky unexpectedly died in April 1610. It was believed that he was poisoned by the royal relatives.

2.3 Creation and results of popular militias

The Polish occupation of Moscow dragged on, Vladislav did not accept Orthodoxy and did not go to Russia, the rule of the Poles and Polish minions in Moscow aroused more and more displeasure against themselves. Now, among the service people, and among the “Zemstvo” people in general, and among those Cossacks who had a national consciousness and religious feeling, there remained one enemy - the one who occupied the Russian capital with foreign troops and threatened the national Russian state and the Orthodox Russian faith.

At this time, Patriarch Hermogenes became the head of the national-religious opposition. He firmly declares that if the prince does not accept Orthodoxy, and the “Lithuanian people” do not leave the Russian land, then “Vladislav is not our sovereign.” When his verbal arguments and exhortations had no effect on the behavior of the opposing side, Hermogenes began to turn to the Russian people with direct calls for an uprising in defense of the church and fatherland.

The patriarch's voice was soon heard. The “great devastation” of the Russian land caused a widespread upsurge of the patriotic movement in the country. The conscription letters of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Hermogenes, and the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov did their job.

Prokopiy Lyapunov became the organizer of the First People's (or, as it is called, zemstvo) militia, which set out for Moscow in early March 1611.

However, on March 19, a new uprising of Muscovites broke out in the capital. Street battles broke out, in which the interventionists began to fail. Then they set the city on fire. The Polish garrison took refuge behind the walls of the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod.

When the militia entered Moscow, they found ashes in its place. By that time, Lyapunov had already been joined by the Tushino nobles led by D.T. Trubetskoy and the Cossacks under the command of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky. The siege of the enemy garrison began. Soon after the murder of Prokopiy Lyapunov by the Cossacks in June 1611, the First Zemstvo Militia disintegrated. Only Cossack detachments remained near the capital.

Meanwhile, Sigismund III took bloodless Smolensk. The Swedes began negotiations with the Novgorod boyars on the recognition of the son of King Charles of Sweden, Philip, as the Russian Tsar.

The failure of the First Zemstvo Militia upset, but did not discourage the Zemstvo people. In the fall of 1611, the Russian state, which did not have a central government and troops, was on the verge of a national catastrophe. But a force was found that saved the country from foreign enslavement. The entire Russian people rose up in armed struggle against the Polish-Swedish intervention. In provincial cities, a movement soon began again to organize a new militia and a campaign against Moscow.

The banner of the struggle for national liberation was raised in Nizhny Novgorod. Here in October 1611, the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin-Sukhoruk, a small meat and fish merchant, appealed to the townspeople to collect militia for the liberation of Moscow. The patriotic appeal found a warm response among Nizhny Novgorod residents, who decided to give “a third of their money”, i.e., a third of their personal property, to create a militia. On Minin’s initiative, the “Council of the Whole Earth” was created, which became a provisional government. Prince D. M. Pozharsky, who distinguished himself during the Moscow uprising against the Poles, is invited to lead the zemstvo army. At the beginning of March 1612, the militia began a campaign against Moscow through Yaroslavl, which became a gathering place for military forces.

At the end of August 1612, the army of Minin and Pozharsky approached the capital. On August 22-24, a fierce battle took place under the walls of Moscow with the royal army under the command of Hetman K. Khodkiewicz, who was rushing to the aid of the besieged garrison. The Poles were completely defeated and fled home.

The interventionists entrenched behind the Kremlin wall capitulated on October 26. The capital of Russia was completely liberated. The complexity of the political situation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the lack of funds to continue military operations forced Sigismund III to temporarily abandon his claims to the Russian throne.

2.4 Results of the Time of Troubles. The state of the Russian state at the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov

The liberation of Moscow made it possible to restore state power in the country. In January 1613, the Zemsky Sobor of almost 700 representatives from the nobility, boyars, clergy, 50 cities, archers and Cossacks gathered in the capital. The issue of electing a new Russian Tsar was being decided. After long and fruitless disputes, on February 7, 1613, under the pressure of the Cossacks, sixteen-year-old Mikhail Romanov (1613 - 1645), the son of Metropolitan Philaret, who was at that time in Polish captivity, became the leader.

The election of Mikhail Fedorovich is usually considered the end of the Troubles. The new Tsar of Moscow could only fight the consequences of the catastrophe the state had experienced and the last weak outbreaks of acute social unrest.

The struggle for power and for the royal throne, begun by the Moscow boyars, subsequently led to the complete collapse of the state order, to the internecine “struggle of all against all and to terrible demoralization, which found especially vivid expression in the Tushino “flights” and in those wild and senseless atrocities and violence against the civilian population, which was committed by gangs of thieves.”

Conclusion

The purpose of this work was to study the position of the Russian state in the 15th-17th centuries. During the work, the author studied educational literature on the topic being developed and made the following conclusions.

During the period under review, the formation of a unified Russian state took place. There have been reforms and popular uprisings related to this situation. But despite this, the creation of a single state created favorable conditions for the economic, social and cultural development of the Russian people. Thanks to the elimination of fragmentation, Russia expanded its territory, achieved independence and began to pursue an independent foreign policy, becoming a subject of international relations.

However, the historical features of the development of Russian civilization led to the formation of a despotic form of state, which will decisively influence the entire further course of Russian history.

Feudal land tenure was further developed, and the differences between fiefdoms and estates began to disappear. The boyars and the upper classes of the service class were united within the framework of the Sovereign's court, and their material and official position was increasingly determined by their proximity to the princely power.

The Russian city as a whole lagged behind in its development and could not fully meet the needs of society and the state for industrial products. Local markets developed around cities, but a national one would appear much later.

Thus, the development of Russia was characterized by a variety of socio-economic structures and, in general, a progressive movement forward, the political basis of which was created by the unification of the country. However, given the enormous role acquired by the state, which decisively influenced all spheres of life, the future of the country became strongly dependent on the policies of the grand ducal power.

...

The origin of the socio-political system of Ancient Rus'

The state (Ancient Rus') was formed at the end of the 10th century on the territory Eastern Slavs. It is headed by a prince from the Rurik dynasty, who promises patronage and protection to the surrounding feudal lords. In exchange for this, the feudal lords give part of their lands for the use of the prince as payment.

At the same time, part of the lands conquered during wars and military campaigns is given for the use of the boyars, who receive the right to collect tribute from these lands. To remove the tribute, warriors were hired, who could settle in the territory to which they were attached. Thus, a feudal hierarchy begins to form.

Prince -> patrimonial owners -> boyars -> small land holders.

Such a system contributes to the fact that the prince from an exclusively military leader (4-7 centuries) turns into politician. The beginnings of a monarchy appear. Feudalism develops.

Socio-political system of Ancient Rus'

The first legal document was adopted by Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century and was called “Russian Truth”.

The main objective of this document is to protect people from unrest and regulate public relations. The Russkaya Pravda stated various types crimes and punishments for them.

In addition, the document divided society into several social categories. In particular, there were free community members and dependent ones. Dependents were considered not full citizens, had no freedoms and could not serve in the army. They were divided into smerds (common people), serfs (servants) and temporarily dependents.

Free community members were divided into smerds and people. They had rights and served in the army.

Features of the political system of Ancient Rus'

In the 10th-12th centuries, the head of the state (which united several principalities) was a prince. The council of boyars and warriors were subordinate to him, with the help of whom he administered the state.

The state was a union of city-states, since life outside the cities was poorly developed. City-states were ruled by princely mayors.

Rural lands were ruled by boyars and patrimonial lands, to whom these lands belonged.

The prince's squad was divided into old and young. The ancient one included boyars and older men. The squad was engaged in collecting tribute, carrying out trials and managing locally. The junior squad included young people and less noble people. The prince also had a personal squad.

Legislative, executive, military and judicial powers were in the hands of the prince. With the development of the state, these branches of government began to separate into separate institutions.

Also in Ancient Rus' there were the beginnings of democracy, which were expressed in the holding of popular assemblies - veche.

The final formation of the political system in Rus' was completed by the end of the 12th century.

6. Legal proceedings of Kievan Rus (according to Russian Truth).

7 AND 8. Feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus: causes and consequences. State and law of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and Galicia-Volyn land.

9. State and social system of Novgorod and Pskov.

11. Criminal law and process according to psg.

12. State and law of the Golden Horde (XIII-XV centuries).

13. The formation of the Russian centralized state. The political system of the Moscow state in the XIV-XV centuries.

16. Social system of Russia XV-XVII centuries.

17. The highest and central authorities of Russia during the period of the estate-representative monarchy (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries).

18. Reform of the local government system in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.

19. Development of law in Russia during the period of the estate-representative monarchy (mid-16th – mid-17th centuries).

20. Cathedral Code of 1649: history of creation, structure and general characteristics.

21. Criminal law in Russia in the 17th century (according to the Council Code of 1649).

22. Judicial system and legal proceedings in Russia in the 17th century (according to the Council Code of 1649).

24. Development of family law in Russia in the XV-XVIII centuries.

25. The formation of absolutism in Russia. Reforms of the highest and central bodies of state power in the 18th century.

26. Formation of the class structure of Russian society in the 18th century. Legal status of various classes.

27. Bodies of local government and self-government in the 18th century. Provincial reforms of Peter I and Catherine II.

28. Features of the development of law in Russia in the 18th century. Civil law.

29. Criminal law in Russia in the 18th century. Military articles of Peter I.

30. Judicial system and legal proceedings in Russia in the 18th century.

1 Period.

4 Period.

31. Changes in the system of supreme bodies of the Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. Projects for transforming the state system of M. M. Speransky.

32. Local governments in the first half of the 19th century. Features of the management of the outskirts of the Empire (Finland, Poland, the Baltic states, Bessarabia, Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Siberia).

34. Systematization of Russian legislation in the first half of the 19th century.

35. Civil and family law of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. (according to the Code of Laws).

36. Criminal law of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. (according to the Code on Criminal and Correctional Punishments of 1845).

37. Criminal proceedings in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. (according to the Code of Laws).

38. Abolition of serfdom in Russia. Preparation and main provisions of the peasant reform of 1861

39. Local governments of the second half of the 19th century. Zemstvo reform 1864. Urban reform 1870

41. Civil and criminal trials (according to judicial statutes of 1864).

42. Counter-reforms in the field of local government and in the judicial system of the 80–90s. XIX century

43. Development of law in post-reform Russia (2/2 19th century): civil, criminal, labor and family law.

44. Changes in the political system during the First Russian Revolution of 1905–1907.

45. The procedure for the formation and legal status of parliament in 1905-1907.

46. State and law of Russia during the First World War.

47. The political system and law of Russia after the February Revolution (February - October 1917).

48. October Revolution of 1917. Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly. Creation of the Soviet state (October 1917 – 1918).

49 Question. History of the creation and main provisions of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918.

50. State and law of Russia during the civil war (1918 – 1920).

51. Formation of the Soviet legal system: labor, land, civil and family law of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1917 – 1920s.

52. Formation of the Soviet legal system: criminal law, criminal and civil procedure of the RSFSR in 1917 - 1920s.

53. Education of the USSR. First Union Constitution of 1924

54. History of the adoption and main provisions of the Constitution of the USSR of 1936.

Chapter XIII was devoted to the procedure for changing the Constitution of the USSR, according to which it could be changed only by decision of the Supreme Council of the USSR, adopted by a majority (at least 2/3) of votes in each chamber.

55. Development of the Soviet state apparatus in the 1920s–1930s. Law enforcement reforms.

58. Soviet state and law during the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945).

59. The Soviet state apparatus in the post-war period (1945–1985).

60. General characteristics of the development of Soviet legislation in the post-war period (1945 – 1985)

62. The Soviet state and law during the years of perestroika (1985 – 1991).

63. Soviet state: emergence, nature and stages of development.

64. Collapse of the USSR. Creation of the CIS. Formation of the Union State of Belarus and Russia.

65. Formation of the sovereign state of the Russian Federation. Formation of new authorities in Russia in 1990 - 1993.

66. Changes in the law of Russia in 1991 - 1993. History of the adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation in 1993.

16. Social order Russia XV-XVII centuries.

Feudal lords.

The feudal class was not homogeneous. At the top of the feudal ladder was the Moscow prince. Next are the appanage princes, who entered the service of the Grand Duke and lost their independence. They had to perform military service; over time, appanage princes became part of the boyars, forming its elite. The next group of feudal lords - the boyars - are the largest and most influential landowners. They were distinguished by actual advantages - wealth and power. Following the boyars were free servants and boyar children, that is, medium and small feudal lords. The lowest group were the servants of the feudal lords, who performed various administrative and economic duties and received land for their service.

In the 15th century there were serious changes in the composition of the feudal class. The boyars became the most important court rank, but the boyars lost the right to freely choose the prince, and the nobility was formalized. The lower, but most common part of the feudal lords was the nobility, which thirsted for new lands and sought to enslave the peasants. During the period of the estate-representative monarchy in Russia, the procedure for filling government positions in accordance with birth - that is, the principle of localism, which was abolished only in 1682, remained in force.

Dependent population.

The peasants were divided into black drafters who lived on the land of the Grand Duke and appanage princes, and privately owned, living in the estates and estates of other feudal lords. They carried duties - corvée and quitrent.

They were divided into 3 categories: 1. Taxes - state taxes that did not have the right of transfer; 2. Privately owned - quitrents and duties in favor of the masters; 3. Free peasants - colonists, exempt from taxes and duties for a certain grace period, after which they were enrolled either in taxation or in private ownership.

Serfs. It became smaller than before, but the legal situation remained the same. They were joined by enslaved people, who were formed from free people, but formalized their position with a letter of servitude. It is forbidden to servile the children of boyars. Among the enslaved, servitude was not passed on by inheritance or by will. Slaves placed on the ground are sufferers.

Urban population. It lost the right that it had during the era of Kievan Rus and began to pay the same taxes and duties as peasants. They began to be called townspeople. They were divided into Beloslobodsky - those who were exempt from the duties of a number, and Chernoslobodsky - small traders and artisans.

17. The highest and central authorities of Russia during the period of the estate-representative monarchy (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries).

I. Boyar Duma. Compound:

1) Boyar (Highest Duma rank);

2) Okolnichy;

3) Duma nobleman;

4) The bureaucratic Duma apparatus.

Functions of the Boyar Duma:

1) Exercise of legitimate power;

2) Resolving issues of domestic and foreign policy;

3) The highest judicial authority (highest judicial function).

II. Zemsky Sobor- This is the council of the Russian land, dedicated to solving state affairs.

Registration periods:

1) 1549-1584 – Formation and design of zemstvo cathedrals;

2) 1584-1610 – The time when the main function is election to the kingdom;

3) 1611-1612 - Zemsky councils under the people's militias turn into the supreme body of power;

4) 1613-1622 – Act continuously as an advisory body to the king;

5) 1632-1653 – Zemsky Sobors meet rarely, on major issues of domestic and foreign policy;

6) 1653 - until the end of the 80s - The time of the fading of Zemsky Sobors.

They included: tsar, Boyar Duma, the top of the clergy, while the lower house is elected from the nobility, the top, and townspeople.

Activity:

1) Domestic policy;

2) Foreign policy;

3) Taxation;

4) Election of the patriarch.

Formation methods:

1) By purpose;

2) Through elections.

III. Orders- These are the central bodies of sectoral management.

Classification:

1) Palace and financial:

a. Konyushenny;

b. Great Palace;

c. Big treasury.

2) Military orders:

a. Bit;

b. Streletsky;

c. Cossack;

d. Pushkarsky;

e. Bronny.

3) Judicial and administrative orders:

a. Local;

b. Serfs;

c. Zemsky.

4) Those in charge of individual or special industries:

a. Ambassadorial;

b. Pharmaceutical;

c. Printing;

d. Yamskaya;

e. Petition.

Orders(headed by judges - chiefs) were divided into tables (deacons), which were divided into povoyas (deacons). The clerks, in turn, were divided into young, middle-class and old.

Government system:

1) Political form of government

2) Structure and competence of central and local government bodies and authorities

3) Military organization

4) Judicial system

State system of the Moscow Principality.

Supreme power in the Russian state of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. carried out by the Grand Duke. However, he did not carry it out individually, but together with the Boyar Duma, the highest advisory body under the prince. Local government is also being restructured; the feeding system that existed during the formation of the Russian centralized state is gradually becoming obsolete.

Top of the urban population waged a continuous struggle with the feudal aristocracy (for lands, for workers, against its atrocities and robberies) and actively supported the policy of centralization. She formed her own corporate bodies (hundreds) and insisted on exemption from heavy taxes (taxes) and the elimination of privileged feudal trades and trades in the cities.

In the current political situation, all three social forces: feudal(secular and spiritual) aristocracy, the serving nobility and the elite of the settlement - formed the basis of the estate-representative system of government.

Until the middle of the 15th century. V North-Eastern Rus' the state mechanism existed in the form next system. One boyar was responsible for the princely kitchen (for example, the chashnik), another - for the wardrobe (bedroom), the third - for entertainment (falconer), etc.

During Moscow's conquest of the North-Eastern and Northwestern Rus', it was important for the Moscow princes to overcome the separatism of neighboring princes. And if they bowed their heads loyally, then both Ivan III and Vasily III generously left them their inheritances. Only the following has changed.

Firstly, the formal legal position of appanage princes. The newly annexed territories were governed on the basis of agreements between the Moscow prince and the former appanage prince.

Secondly, the principalities annexed to Moscow were renamed into counties, and those, in turn, were divided into volosts and camps. Governors were sent from Moscow to the districts, and volostels to the volosts and camps.

Boyar Duma. At the top of this apparatus was the “Duma” (or, as historians later began to call it, the “Boyar Duma”). From the end of the 15th century. it turns into a permanent body under the prince. It includes representatives of the most ancient princely and boyar families: princes of Chernigov-Seversky (Glinsky), Rostov-Suzdal (Shuisky), descendants of the Lithuanian sovereign Gedemin (Belsky) and Moscow boyars (Morozov, Vorontsov, Zakharyev-Yuryev), etc., but not as princes and boyars - they are assigned certain ranks. Princes receive the rank of “boyar”, boyars - “okolnichy”.

During the reign of Vasily III, in addition to these two ranks, “Duma nobles” and “Duma clerks” (secretaries) appeared.

The Duma very rarely considers any issues on its own initiative. As a rule, these were problems the need for solution of which was indicated by the sovereign. The decisions of the Duma received the force of law only after their approval.

Foreign boyars still retain the right to leave, but their own - Moscow - in the 70s. XV century it is already being lost.

All this means that a relationship of citizenship is being formed.

Orders. Bureaucratic apparatus in the XIII-XIV centuries. consisted of two parts - “free servants”, which were the boyars, and dependents, courtyard people - nobles. Over time, a certain differentiation took place in this dependent category of employees: its top layer received the status of “secretaries”, and the lower ones - “clerks”. From the time of Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389), the names of three clerks have been preserved, therefore, the status of this position was insignificant, and from the time of Vasily II (1425-1462) - 20 clerks and clerks.

During the reign of Ivan III control The principality gradually passed from the hands of “free servants” into the hands of the bureaucratic apparatus. The Grand Duke's office appears.

The key role in the grand ducal system was played by the “Palace” and the “Treasury”. The first was in charge of the lands of the Grand Duke, the second was in charge of finances, foreign policy, and also served as a storage place for archives and printing. When new lands were annexed to Moscow, structures were created there by analogy with Moscow ones: Novgorod Palace, Tverskoy, Nizhny Novgorod, Dmitrovsky, etc.

In the 60s XV century industry orders began to appear: Local, in charge land distributions nobles, Razryadny, who provided them with salaries and kept records of them, Razboyny, Posolsky and Petition, Yamskoy, etc. At the beginning of the 16th century. there were already about 10 of them. The orders were headed by “good” boyars (“path” is the direction of activity). They had a large staff of clerks and clerks under their command.

Local authorities. The unified Moscow state arose during the reigns of Ivan III and Vasily III. But the power of the Moscow prince was still weak at that time, so neither Ivan III nor Vasily III actually interfered in the internal affairs of the annexed principalities.

Meanwhile, complex international situation in an undeveloped economy, it required the concentration of efforts of the entire state. Under these conditions in the 30-50s. XVI century the remnants of feudalism were eliminated. And on the site of the former appanage principalities, a system of local government bodies arose - “labial” and “zemstvo huts”.

The task of the “labial huts” was to fight against “robberies” and “dashing people”. Their competence was determined by the statutory "labial letters"(the first of which dates from 1539). This local government structure consisted of two elders chosen from the local "children of the boyars", as well as wealthy peasants, townspeople and appointed police officials. Office work in the “lip hut” was carried out by sextons. Administratively, these structures were subordinate to Robber's order.

Judicial system. There were no uniform judicial bodies throughout the country. The court was not separated from the administration Therefore, judicial functions were carried out within the framework of their jurisdiction by state bodies, class, church and private (patrimonial).

State ones were divided into central (in the form of the court of the Grand Duke, the Boyar Duma, palace departments and orders) and local (in the form of the court of the governor and volost).

Army. Until the end of the 15th century. The country's armed forces consisted of the army of the Grand Duke, regiments of appanage princes and boyars. If necessary, a people's militia was assembled. At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, in conditions of constant military danger, these formations were no longer enough, and a noble local militia was created. Wars received estates for military labor. Their service lasted from spring until the first snow (there were no military operations in winter).

The state's attack on the privileges of the church. The church was one of the elements political structure countries. Therefore, as the power of the Moscow princes strengthened, the former independence of the church began to irritate them.

Social system of the Moscow principality.

Under Ivan III relationship the Grand Duke to the boyar class change significantly. This was expressed in a change in treatment of the boyars; it becomes arrogant.

But Ivan III still had legends that the boyars were advisers and that the prince should consult with them before starting any business; under Ivan's successor, Vasily III, the autocracy of the Grand Duke manifested itself in a more powerful way. The Grand Duke decided matters without consulting the boyars, which Bersen is known to have complained about; He also did not like to be contradicted. The power of the Grand Duke also becomes autocratic in relation to the clergy: he has the right to participate in the selection and deposition of the metropolitan. First he led. the prince only recommends his candidates, as did, for example, Ivan II regarding Alexei and Dmitry Donskoy regarding Mityai. Dmitry, by his will, either invites Cyprian to the Moscow metropolis, or overthrows him. Vasily Vasilyevich the Dark already directly says that the choice of the metropolitan always belonged to his ancestors; but neither in his reign, nor in the reign of Ivan III, metropolitans are appointed simply by the will of the Grand Duke.

This order was established only under Vasily III. With the development of princely power, the position in the Moscow state of the upper class, the boyars, also changed. From a wandering squad, it little by little turns into a settled class of large landowners and, as a reward for its service, receives land grants from the prince. At the same time, the right of the boyar to leave for other princes begins to be limited: the departing boyar lost his possessions.

The main importance of the boyars, as assistants to the prince in government and his Duma members, noticeably decreases with each reign, and Vasily III can already do without their advice. The institution with which the prince conferred was Boyar Duma. The prince entrusted and ordered the management of current affairs to individuals. From here the orders were subsequently formed (perhaps from Ivan III); At first, individual branches of management were called paths. This is how the courtier, or butler, the equer, the falconer, the hunter, and somewhat later the stolnik, the chashnichi, and the okolnichi appeared. From Ivan III, the organization of the princely court became more complicated and the number of court positions increased; at the same time, the service receives a strictly hierarchical order. At the head of this hierarchy are members of the sovereign's Duma: boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles and Duma clerks. They are followed by a whole series of court positions assigned to manage the household of the Grand Duke or for his personal services: butler, housekeeper, treasurer, armorer, marquee keeper, equerry, nurseryman, hunter, falconer, printer, bookkeeper, steward, cup keeper, bed keeper, sleeping bags, solicitors, bells, tenants.

The boyars who occupied various branches of government were called good; the highest class of boyars were the introduced boyars, who occupied, by the will of the prince, and senior positions. The number of boyars in the Moscow principality increased by immigrants from various appanage principalities and Lithuania. Inevitable clashes occurred between the old boyars and the new arrivals. These clashes marked the beginning of tribal disputes - localism. For their service, the boyars received three types of remuneration: feeding, estates and estates. The lower class of the military service class, which in the appanage-veche period was called youths, children's and gridi, in Moscow begins to be called nobles and boyar children. The junior category of service people were “free servants” or “household people.” They performed minor positions as customs officers, bailiffs, door closers, and so on.

There was also a whole class of semi-free « servants under the court»: beekeepers, gardeners, grooms, trappers, fishermen, other industrialists and artisans. From among these semi-free and serfs, various officials of the princely private economy were appointed: tiuns, ambassadors, housekeepers, treasurers, clerks, and clerks. In addition to the boyars and service people, there was also a commercial and industrial class in Moscow. Their highest rank were guests, and then lesser merchants - merchants.

The merchant class was divided into hundreds of living and clothiers. The lowest category of townspeople - small traders and artisans - is known as black people, which were imposed taxes in favor of the prince and his governors. The black people also included the peasantry.

The lands they sat on were black, proprietary and monastic. The peasants sitting on the black lands were directly subordinate to the princes and their tiuns; the remaining categories paid quitrent to their owners and bore certain duties in favor of the state.

Along with the free peasantry there is also semi-free indentured servitude. As the appanage principalities merge with Moscow, a new administrative division - county, that is, a district assigned to some city, from where he was tried and tribute was collected from him; parts of the county are now called volosts. This division was extremely uneven. There were governors in the city, and volostels in the volosts; the latter were not always subordinate to the governors, and sometimes, especially in large volosts, they communicated directly with the prince.

Sometimes, next to the division into volosts, there is also division into camps. There is no veche in the Moscow Principality; monuments and volostels hold all administration and court in their hands. In urban and rural communities we meet elected councilors and elders, the significance of which is primarily financial and administrative. They gather secular gatherings, which carry out the allocation of taxes and duties (measurements and cuts). The most important taxes and duties were: tribute and yam- fees to the princely treasury in money and in kind from households, land and industries; food - maintenance of princely officials; city affairs- duty to build fortresses; bridging- duty to build bridges. Taxes and duties were distributed according to the requirements; three obzhi were equal to a plow.

Under Ivan III, the Novgorod volosts were charged half a hryvnia per plow. Taxes from other taxable items were also equal to the plow: the plow was equal, for example, to a leather vat, a trading shop, and so on. Duties in kind were sometimes converted into money. Extortions from residents before Ivan III increased with tribute in favor of the Tatars. An important advantage of the Moscow princes was that the Horde gave them the right to collect their income.

The princes often withheld these revenues, and sometimes charged more than they should have. Thanks to this, they always had extra money, with which they bought lands from other princes. Customs and trade duties were also an important source of income: myt - duty on outposts and transportation; coastal - from those stuck to the shore; bones - from trading people, not goods; turnout - from goods and people who arrived at the auction; living room - for placing goods in the living room; tamga - duty on the sale of goods; osmnic, measured, weighty, spot, horny, manured crowns - from newlyweds. Josaphat Barbaro says that Ivan III took into the treasury the right to brew honey and beer and consume hops.

Socio-economic and political development of ancient Rus'. Political system of ancient Rus'

Submitting your good work to the knowledge base is easy. Use the form below

Introduction

In the 15th-17th centuries, the formation of a unified Russian state took place. This problem is considered one of the key ones in historical science.

In the 17th century The centralization of the Russian state continued. In the 17th century there was time of troubles which led to economic decline. It was a formative time new government and reforms.

In this work we will cover both data the most important periods in the history of Russia.

1. Formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th-16th centuries

1.1 Major events during the 15th-16th century

In the 2nd half of the 15th-1st third of the 16th centuries. Most of the Russian lands were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. Moscow became the capital of a unified Russian state.

1.2 Socio-economic development of Russia in the 15-16th century

Throughout this period, many peoples of the Volga region, Bashkirs, etc., became part of the Russian state.

After the Mongol invasion, the economy of North-Eastern Rus' experienced a crisis, starting only around the middle of the 14th century. slowly reborn.

The main crops grown at this time are rye and oats, which replaced wheat and barley, which is associated with a general cooling, the spread of more advanced plows and, accordingly, the development of previously inaccessible areas for plowing. Garden crops were also widespread.

The farming systems were varied, there was a lot of archaism here: along with the recently appeared three-field system, the two-field system, shifting system, and arable land were widespread, and in the north the slash-and-burn system dominated for a very long time.

Ancient crafts continued to play a major role in the life of the Eastern Slavs: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. About the scale of use of “gifts of nature” up to the 17th century. This is evidenced by many materials, including notes from foreigners about Russia.

Commercial products were circulated mainly in local markets, but the trade in bread had already outgrown their scope.

In the XIV century. patrimonial land ownership begins to develop.

The church estate found itself in more favorable conditions. After the invasion, the church enjoyed the support of the khans, who showed religious tolerance and pursued a flexible policy in the conquered lands.

From the middle of the 14th century. in the monasteries there is a transition from the “Keliot” charter to the “coenobitic” one - the life of monks in separate cells with separate meals and housekeeping was replaced by a monastic commune, which had collective property.

Over time, the head of the Russian Church, the metropolitan, became a large landowner, and was in charge of a ramified and multifunctional economy.

An estate that has become widespread since the end of the 15th century. and became the economic and social support of power until later times.

Before the wide spread of estates, the main income of the boyars was all kinds of feeding and holding, that is, remuneration for the performance of administrative, judicial and other socially useful functions.

The remnants of the former princely families, boyars, and “landowners” gradually form the backbone of the “upper class.” The bulk of the population in the XIV-XV centuries. still consisted of free people, who received the name “peasants”.

In the worst position were the dependent peasants: ladles and silversmiths. Apparently, both of them found themselves in such difficult life situations that they were forced to take out loans and then work them off.

The main labor force of the estate was still slaves. However, the number of whitewashed slaves was decreasing, and the contingent of bonded slaves was increasing, that is, people who found themselves in servile dependence under the so-called service bondage.

The townspeople - black townspeople - unite in the so-called black townsman community, which existed in archaic forms in Rus' until the 18th century.

Another important feature characterizing the classes of the East Slavic lands of that time was their service character. All of them had to perform certain official functions in relation to the state.

2. Development of Russia in the 17th century

2.1 Causes of the political and economic crisis in Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries and the main events of the Troubles

At the same time, there was bread in the country. Usury and rampant speculation flourished. Large landowners - boyars, monasteries and even Patriarch Job himself - kept huge stocks of grain in their pantries, expecting a new rise in price.

Mass escapes of peasants and slaves and refusals to pay duties continued. Especially many people went to the Don and Volga, where the free Cossacks lived. The difficult economic situation within the country led to a decline in the authority of the government.

In 1603, a wave of numerous uprisings of the starving common people grew, especially in the south of the country. A large detachment of rebels under the command of Cotton Crookedfoot operated near Moscow itself. Government troops had great difficulty suppressing such riots.

2.2 Reign of Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I and II, Vasily Shuisky

In foreign policy, the desire to find peaceful solutions to conflicts in 1584 - 1598 turned into the principle of maintaining friendly relations with neighboring countries. Russia during the reign of Boris Godunov practically did not wage bloody wars.

At first, the Polish king Sigismund III helped the impostor secretly. False Dmitry I, who converted to Catholicism, with the help of the Sandomierz governor Yuri Mnishek, whose daughter Marina he promised to marry, managed to assemble a detachment of mercenaries of 4 thousand people.

Three days later, the noble boyar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky (1606 - 1610), the organizer of the conspiracy, was “called out” from Lobnoye Mesto on Red Square as the new tsar. Formally, power passed into the hands of the Boyar Duma, but this power was ephemeral.

The internal political condition of the state continued to deteriorate. The country was agitated by rumors about the rescue of “Tsarevich Dmitry.” A mass uprising began in the south, the center of which was the city of Putivl.

The rebellious Cossacks, peasants and townspeople elected Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov, a former military servant of Prince A. Telyatevsky from the Chernigov region, as the “great governor” in Putivl, who arrived with a detachment of Cossacks.

Released from Moscow in July 1608 under the terms of the truce with the Poles, Marina Mnishek and her father also ended up in Tushino and recognized the new impostor as her husband.

2.3 Creation and results of popular militias

Prokopiy Lyapunov became the organizer of the First People's (or, as it is called, zemstvo) militia, which set out for Moscow in early March 1611.

However, on March 19, a new uprising of Muscovites broke out in the capital. Street battles broke out, in which the interventionists began to fail. Then they set the city on fire. The Polish garrison took refuge behind the walls of the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod.

Meanwhile, Sigismund III took bloodless Smolensk. The Swedes began negotiations with the Novgorod boyars on the recognition of the son of King Charles of Sweden, Philip, as the Russian Tsar.

2.4 Results of the Time of Troubles. The state of the Russian state at the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov

The election of Mikhail Fedorovich is usually considered the end of the Troubles. The new Tsar of Moscow could only fight the consequences of the catastrophe the state had experienced and the last weak outbreaks of acute social unrest.

Conclusion

The purpose of this work was to study the position of the Russian state in the 15th-17th centuries. During the work, the author studied educational literature on the topic being developed and made the following conclusions.

However, the historical features of the development of Russian civilization led to the formation of a despotic form of state, which will decisively influence the entire further course of Russian history.

The Russian city as a whole lagged behind in its development and could not fully meet the needs of society and the state for industrial products. Local markets developed around cities, but a national one would appear much later.

Similar documents

Russian city

The origin of the socio-political system of Ancient Rus'

Socio-political system of Ancient Rus'

Features of the political system of Ancient Rus'

16. Social order Russia XV-XVII centuries.

17. The highest and central authorities of Russia during the period of the estate-representative monarchy (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries).