The name of a period in Russian history. Periodization of the history of Russia and its statehood

Topic: Stages of study and periodization Russian history

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Stages of studying and periodization of Russian history.

Stages of studying Russian history. Chronicle period. Nestor. The origins of historical science. V.N. Tatishchev. Norman theory and its criticism M.V. Lomonosov. The heyday of history in the 19th century. N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky. Soviet historical science and its prominent names. Periodization of Russian history.

Stages of studying Russian history.

Historiography is divided into several periods. The first of them is pre-scientific. In this period, it is worth studying medieval philosophy, human perception of time, traditions, and the functions of history. Note that during this period, which lasted until the beginning of the 18th century, the main forms of historical narration were formed, such as chronicles - keeping records by year. It was this source that became the main one; it was this source that was studied by the historiography of Russian history. When studying chronicles, it is necessary to pay attention to the principles by which they were written, the forms and style in which the works were written. The principle of chronography is especially important, which allows you to compare events and relate them to certain dates, connect in the concept “earlier” - “later”. The second source during this period that historiographers studied was the lives of saints. It is important to note here that the lives of saints have stronger subjective shades than chronicles - they turn into a kind of legends and stories. Another form of expression of historical consciousness that scientists are interested in is folklore. It is from it that you can learn about people’s ideas about their heroes and enemies.

The second period of historiography of Russian history begins in the eighteenth century and lasts until the beginning of the twentieth century. This time had a qualitative impact on the development of history as a science and the study of the source base. This should include such changes as the secularization of science and the development of secular rather than church education. For the first time, translation sources imported from Europe are beginning to be processed, historical research as such, they stand out independently, and at the same time, auxiliary disciplines are formed that help to study history. A qualitatively new stage in this period was the beginning of the publication of primary sources, which largely changed the attitude towards the history of their country, and primarily for Russian intelligentsia. It is she, the intelligentsia, who initiates historical expeditions and research. The third stage is the development of historiography in the second third of the nineteenth century. Here, problems such as relations between the Russian state and Western countries are studied, and the first concepts of the development of national history arise.

The fourth stage is the second half of the nineteenth - the beginning of the twentieth century. At this time, the methodological foundations of historiography were being formed. The historiography of Russian history is influenced by positivism, materialism, and neo-Kantianism. The range of research is expanding, with particular attention paid to socio-economic problems in history. At the fourth stage, the question arises about vocational training historical footage.

The fifth stage is Soviet historiography of Russian history, which is based on class approach to the development of society, which, in turn, was reflected in the scientific approach.

Chronicle period.

The most remarkable phenomenon ancient Russian literature there were chronicles. The first weather records date back to the 9th century, they were extracted from later sources of the 16th century. They are very brief: notes in one or two lines.

As a national phenomenon, chronicle writing appeared in the 11th century. People became chroniclers different ages, and not only monks. A very significant contribution to the restoration of the history of chronicle writing was made by such researchers as A.A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920) and A.N. Nasonov (1898 - 1965). The first major historical work was the Code, completed in 997. Its compilers described the events of the 9th-10th centuries and ancient legends. It even includes court epic poetry praising Olga, Svyatoslav, and especially Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, during whose reign this Code was created.

One of the figures of European scale must include the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, who by 1113 completed his work “The Tale of Bygone Years” and compiled an extensive historical introduction to it. Nestor knew Russian, Bulgarian and Greek literature very well, being a very educated man. He used in his work the earlier Codes of 997, 1073 and 1093, and the events of the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. covered as an eyewitness. This chronicle gave the most full picture early Russian history and was copied for 500 years. It must be borne in mind that the ancient Russian chronicles covered not only the history of Rus', but also the history of other peoples.

Secular people were also involved in chronicle writing. For example, Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. It was as part of the chronicle that such wonderful works of his as “Instructions to Children” (c. 1099; later supplemented, preserved in the list of 1377) have reached us. In particular, in the “Instructions” Vladimir Monomakh pursues the idea of ​​​​the need to repel external enemies. There were 83 “paths” - campaigns in which he participated.

In the 12th century. the chronicles become very detailed, and since they are written by contemporaries, the class and political sympathies of the chroniclers are very clearly expressed in them. The social order of their patrons can be traced. Among the most prominent chroniclers who wrote after Nestor, one can single out the Kiev resident Peter Borislavich. The most mysterious author in the XII-XIII centuries. was Daniil Sharpener. It is believed that he owned two works - “The Word” and “Prayer”.

“Hagiographic” literature is very interesting, since in it, in addition to describing the life of canonized persons, it gave a true picture of life in monasteries. For example, cases of bribery for obtaining one or another church rank or place, etc. were described. Here we can highlight the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, which is a collection of stories about the monks of this monastery.

The world-famous work of ancient Russian literature was “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the date of writing of which dates back to 1185. This poem was imitated by contemporaries, it was quoted by the Pskovites already at the beginning of the 14th century, and after the victory on the Kulikovo Field (1380) in imitation of “The Tale. ..” was written “Zadonshchina”. “The Word...” was created in connection with the campaign of the Seversk prince Igor against the Polovtsian khan Konchak. Igor, overwhelmed by ambitious plans, did not unite with Grand Duke Vsevolod Big Nest and was broken. The idea of ​​unification the day before Tatar-Mongol invasion runs through the entire work. And again, as in the epics, here we are talking about defense, and not about aggression and expansion.

From the second half of the 14th century. Moscow chronicles are becoming increasingly important. In 1392 and 1408 Moscow chronicles are created, which are of an all-Russian nature. And in the middle of the 15th century. “Chronograph” appears, representing, in fact, the first experience of writing world history by our ancestors, and in “Chronograph” an attempt was made to show the place and role of Ancient Rus' in the world historical process.

Chronicle writing as a leading genre of historical literature existed in Russia until the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. It could not help but be affected by individual parties European social thought. In Russian chronicles of the 15th - 17th centuries. Attention to the human personality and the motives of people’s activities has increased; historical works appear that are not related to the form of presentation by year. There are attempts to go beyond literary etiquette.

Nestor

The Monk Nestor the Chronicler was born in the 50s of the 11th century in Kyiv. As a young man he came to the Monk Theodosius and became a novice. The Monk Nestor was tonsured by the successor of the Monk Theodosius, Abbot Stefan. Under him, he was ordained a hierodeacon. His high spiritual life is evidenced by the fact that he, along with other reverend fathers, participated in the exorcism of the demon from Nikita the recluse (later the Novgorod saint), who was seduced into Jewish wisdom.

The monk deeply valued true knowledge, combined with humility and repentance. “There is great benefit from the teachings of books,” he said, “books punish and teach us the path to repentance, for from book words we gain wisdom and abstinence. These are rivers that water the universe, from which wisdom comes. Books have innumerable depth, we console ourselves with them in sorrows are the bridle of self-control. If you diligently seek wisdom in the books, you will gain great benefit for your soul. For he who reads books converses with God or holy men.”

In the monastery, the Monk Nestor bore the obedience of a chronicler. In the 80s, he wrote “Reading about the life and destruction of the blessed passion-bearers Boris and Gleb” in connection with the transfer of their holy relics to Vyshgorod in 1072 (May 2). In the 80s, the Monk Nestor compiled the life of the Monk Theodosius of Pechersk, and in 1091, on the eve of the patronal feast of the Pechersk monastery, Abbot John instructed him to dig up the holy relics of the Monk Theodosius from the ground for transfer to the temple (the discovery was commemorated on August 14).

The main feat of the life of the Monk Nestor was the compilation of the “Tale of Bygone Years” by 1112-1113.

“This is the story of bygone years, where the Russian land came from, who began the reign in Kyiv, and where the Russian land came from” - this is how the Monk Nestor defined the purpose of his work from the first lines. An unusually wide range of sources (previous Russian chronicles and legends, monastic records, Byzantine chronicles of John Malala and George Amartol, various historical collections, stories of the elder boyar Jan Vyshatich, traders, warriors, travelers), interpreted from a single, strictly ecclesiastical point of view, allowed the Monk Nestor to write the history of Rus' as component world history, the history of the salvation of the human race.

The patriotic monk sets out the history of the Russian Church in the main moments of its historical formation. He talks about the first mention of the Russian people in church sources - in 866, under the holy Patriarch Photius of Constantinople; tells about the creation of the Slavic charter by Saints Cyril and Methodius, Equal-to-the-Apostles, and the Baptism of Saint Olga, Equal-to-the-Apostles in Constantinople.

The chronicle of St. Nestor has preserved for us the story of the first Orthodox church in Kyiv (under 945), the confessional feat of the holy Varangian martyrs (under 983), the “test of faith” by Saint Vladimir, Equal-to-the-Apostles (986), and the Baptism of Rus' (988). We owe information about the first metropolitans of the Russian Church, about the emergence of the Pechersk monastery, about its founders and devotees to the first Russian church historian. The time of St. Nestor was not easy for the Russian land and the Russian Church. Rus' was tormented by princely civil strife, the steppe nomadic Cumans ravaged cities and villages with predatory raids, drove Russian people into slavery, burned temples and monasteries.

The Monk Nestor died around 1114, bequeathing to the Pechersk monks-chroniclers the continuation of his great work. His successors in chronicling were Abbot Sylvester, who gave a modern look to the “Tale of Bygone Years”, Abbot Moisei Vydubitsky, who extended it until 1200, and finally, Abbot Lavrenty, who in 1377 wrote the oldest copy that has come down to us, preserving the “Tale” of St. Nestor ( "Laurentian Chronicle").

The Monk Nestor was buried in the Near Caves of the Monk Anthony of Pechersk. The Church also honors his memory together with the Council of Fathers, who rest in the Near Caves, on September 28 and on the 2nd Week of Great Lent, when the Council of all Kiev-Pechersk Fathers is celebrated.

The origins of historical science.

History as a science began to emerge in Russia, as well as in Europe, in the 18th century. But in Russia it found its feet in more difficult conditions: for a very long time, in comparison with Europe, the country did not have secular higher educational institutions that would train scientific personnel. In Europe, the first secular university appeared in the 12th century, and in Russia the Academy of Sciences opened only in 1725, the first university (Moscow) in 1755. The first Russian researchers had to face the virtual absence of a source base, which is the foundation of historical science . When Peter 1 issued a decree on the need to write the history of Russia and ordered the Synod to collect manuscripts from dioceses, only 40 of them were submitted, and only 8 of them were of a historical nature.

The first attempt to write a systematic review did not belong to academics, or even to a historian by training. Its author was V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750), who was a civil servant and a widely educated person. This was the first systematic work on Russian history. In addition, Tatishchev created instructions for collecting geographical and archaeological information about Russia, adopted by the Academy of Sciences. At the same time, assessing Tatishchev’s contribution to the formation of historical science, we note that he failed to comprehend the collected material and connect it with a conceptual idea. His history of Russia was a collection of chronicle data. The lack of literary treatment and heavy language made Tatishchev’s work difficult to perceive even by his contemporaries.

Tatishchev V.N.

Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686-1750) was not a professional historian. He did not receive a historical education, because such a thing did not yet exist in Russia. As V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote, “he became a professor of history for himself.” Tatishchev was born into the family of a Pskov landowner. Among his relatives was Tsarina Praskovya, the wife of Ivan V. He graduated from the Engineering and Artillery School in Moscow. “The chick of Petrov’s nest,” he was a participant in the Great Northern War and carried out a variety of assignments for the emperor. He visited Germany and Sweden on his assignments, twice (1720-1722 and 1734-1737) managed state-owned factories in the Urals, founded Yekaterinburg there, actively participated in the palace struggle during the accession of Anna Ioannovna in 1730, was the Astrakhan governor (1741 -1745 ).

Tatishchev in 1719 received the task of Peter I to compile a geographical description of Russia. Since then, he began collecting materials on Russian history. He compiled the first encyclopedic dictionary - "Russian Lexicon", brought to the letter "k". Tatishchev also wrote the first scientific generalizing work on the history of our country - “Russian History from the Most Ancient Times.” He began writing it in the 20s of the 18th century. The presentation was brought up to 1577. Tatishchev took the position of a rationalistic explanation of history. He made the first attempt to identify, from a scientific point of view, the patterns of Russian historical process. “The main thing in science is for a person to know himself,” wrote Tatishchev. He believed that knowledge and enlightenment determine the course of history.

Tatishchev was the first to propose a periodization of Russian history from the point of view of the development of the state: 1) “perfect autocracy” (862-1132); 2) “aristocracy, but disorderly” (1132-1462); 3) “restoration of autocracy” (from 1462).

Tatishchev's ideal was an absolute monarchy. He tried to explain the causes of events through activities outstanding people. Tatishchev’s work in many ways still resembles a chronicle; the material in it is arranged in accordance with the reigns of the princes. Tatishchev’s attempts to be critical of sources still retain value, many of which, subsequently lost, were preserved only in the historian’s presentation. The debate about their authenticity continues today.

Norman theory and its criticism by M.V. Lomonosov

Norman theory (Normanism) is a direction in historiography that develops the concept that the people-tribe of Rus' comes from Scandinavia during the period of expansion of the Vikings, who were called Normans in Western Europe.

Supporters of Normanism attribute the Normans (Varangians of Scandinavian origin) to the founders of the first states of the Eastern Slavs: Novgorod, and then Kievan Rus. In fact, this is a follow-up to the historiographical concept of the Tale of Bygone Years (early 12th century), supplemented by the identification of the chronicle Varangians as Scandinavian-Normans. The main controversy flared up around the ethnicity of the Varangians, at times reinforced by political ideologization.

Widely known in Russia Norman theory received in the 1st half of the 18th century thanks to the activities of German historians in Russian Academy scientists Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694-1738), later Gerard Friedrich Miller, Strube de Pyrmont and August Ludwig Schlözer.

M.V. Lomonosov actively opposed the Norman theory, seeing in it a thesis about the backwardness of the Slavs and their unpreparedness to form a state, proposing a different, non-Scandinavian identification of the Varangians. Lomonosov, in particular, argued that Rurik was from the Polabian Slavs, who had dynastic ties with the princes of the Ilmen Slovenes (this was the reason for his invitation to reign). One of the first Russian historians mid-18th century century, V.N. Tatishchev, having studied the “Varangian question,” did not come to a definite conclusion regarding the ethnicity of the Varangians called to Rus', but made an attempt to unite opposing views. In his opinion, based on the “Joachim Chronicle,” the Varangian Rurik was descended from a Norman prince ruling in Finland and the daughter of the Slavic elder Gostomysl.

The flourishing of history in the 19th century N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) is rightfully recognized as the largest Russian noble historian. The son of a landowner in the Simbirsk province, Karamzin studied at home, then at a private boarding school in Moscow, and attended lectures at Moscow University. After traveling around Europe, he published the Moscow Journal (1791-1792), and the Bulletin of Europe (1802-1809), where he acted as a sentimentalist writer.

In 1801, he received one official order from Alexander - to write the history of Russia and the position of historiographer. The remarkable writer “took his hair as a historian” for the rest of his life. Once in public service, Karamzin gained access to state archives, repositories of chronicles and other sources on Russian history. Based on the works of his predecessors (V.N. Tatishchev, M.V. Lomonosov, M.M. Shcherbatov, etc.), N.M. Karamzin created the 12-volume “History of the Russian State.” The presentation in it was brought up to 1612.

“The appearance of the “History of the Russian State”...,” wrote A.S. Pushkin, “caused a lot of noise and made a strong impression... Secular people rushed to read the history of their fatherland. Ancient Russia, it seemed, was found by Karamzin, like America by Columbus They didn't talk about anything else for a while."

"The History of the Russian State" was written for a wide range of readers. Karamzin assessed the actions and deeds of real historical figures from the standpoint of common sense, explaining them by the psychology and character of each character.

As a rule, the material in Karamzin’s work is arranged according to reigns and reigns. The periodization of Russian history was new. According to Karamzin, it was divided into the Most Ancient (from Rurik to Ivan III), the characteristic feature of which was the system of appanages. The Middle (from Ivan 111 to Peter I) with autocracy and the New (from Peter I to Alexander I), when civil customs changed dramatically.

This periodization is largely explained by the concept of the historian. The main idea that permeates the work is the need for Russia to have a wise autocracy. “Russia was founded by victories and unity of command, perished from discord, but was saved by a wise autocracy,” Karamzin wrote in another of his works, “Note on Ancient and New Russia.” It should be noted that Karamzin did not consider every autocracy to be a good thing for Russia. The people, in his opinion, had the right to rebel against princes and kings who violated the principles of wise autocratic power. Karamzin condemned the tyranny of Ivan the Terrible, the activities of Anna Ioannovna, and Paul I.

"The History of the Russian State" became a reference book on Russian history for many years. Karamzin's work was written at the world level historical knowledge that era.

S.M. Soloviev

Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov (1820-1879) is rightfully recognized as the most outstanding Russian historian of the 19th century. He developed as a researcher in the era when the issue of abolition of serfdom was being decided. At the same time, a polemic began between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of development of Russia.

According to his convictions and views, S.M. Soloviev belonged to the Westerners. He was born in Moscow into the family of a priest. His whole life was connected with Moscow University, where he went from student to rector. Academician S.M. Soloviev was also the director of the Armory Chamber, chaired the Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University, and was a history teacher of the future Emperor Alexander III.

According to his convictions, S.M. Soloviev was a moderate liberal. As a scientist, he developed under the influence of Hegelian dialectics and the idea of ​​the “organic,” i.e. the objective and natural nature of the development of the historical process. He believed that the historian must “understand... the gradual course of history, the continuity of phenomena, the natural, legitimate emergence of some phenomena from others, subsequent from previous ones.”

The main work of S.M. Solovyov’s entire life is “History of Russia since ancient times” in 29 volumes.

Based on the ideas of Hegelian dialectics, S.M. Solovyov saw the reasons for the movement of Russian history in the interaction of three objectively existing factors. As such, he put forward “the nature of the country,” “the nature of the tribe,” and “the course external events"Adhering to the comparative historical method, S.M. Solovyov saw the uniqueness of the history of Russia and Western Europe, but not their opposite. In his opinion, nature was a mother for the West, and a stepmother for Russia. In the east of Europe there are no natural boundaries in the form of mountain ridges and sea ​​shores, there is a small population here, there is a constant threat of nomadic invasions, the climate is sharply continental. On the territory of Eastern Europe, a centuries-old struggle between “forest” and “steppe” took place; there was a process of development (colonization) of new territories, a transition from tribal to state principles.

According to S.M. Solovsva, in the history of Russia the state, “the highest embodiment of the people,” played a huge role. Objectively operating geographical and ethnic factors led to the emergence of a major power in Eastern Europe. “The huge plain predetermined the formation of this state,” Soloviev wrote. The course of external events was thus dictated by real objective tasks.

S.M. Solovs considered Peter’s reforms to be the most important milestone in the history of Russia. It was with Peter I that he began a new Russian history. The scientist showed an organic connection, vital necessity, regularity and continuity of Peter's transformations with the previous course of development of the country.

S.M. Soloviev, from the perspective of his time, created an expressive, integral and most complete picture of the history of Russia. To this day, “History of Russia from Ancient Times” retains its significance as a generally recognized encyclopedia of Russian history.

V.O.Klyuchevsky

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) came from the family of a priest in the Penza province.

His whole life, like the life of S.M. Solovyov, was connected with Moscow University, from which he graduated in 1865. Klyuchevsky became Solovyov’s successor at the department of Russian history. His brilliant lectures, full of wit and vivid in form and imagery, gained him enormous popularity.

By his convictions, Klyuchevsky was a moderate liberal. He did not accept revolutionary views and put science in first place, “which endures forever and never falls.”

Along with his lectures, V.O. Klyuchevsky’s fame and glory were brought to him by his historical works, including the result of his research and lecture activities - “The Course of Russian History,” which was extremely popular during the author’s lifetime and has not lost its significance today. The presentation in it is brought to the peasant and zemstvo reforms 1860s

According to their own philosophical views V.O. Klyuchsvsky stood on the position of positivism. Positivism (from the Latin positivus - “positive”) sought to identify the entire set of specific knowledge, facts, internal and external factors, the combination of which determines the course of the historical process.

Klyuchevsky believed that world history develops within the framework of " general laws structure of human society." At the same time, each country, each "local history" is characterized by features determined by a combination of geographical, ethnic, economic, social, political factors. Moreover, for each period of history, the combination of factors gives rise to a certain amount ideas. The change of these ideas and worldviews is the driving force of history. The starting point of the history of each country is the natural-geographical factor. V.O. Klyuchsvsky believed that the development (colonization) of the territory played a decisive role in the history of Russia.

V. O. Klyuchevsky created a new general concept of Russian history, dividing it into periods, each of which represented a certain stage in the life of the country. VIII - XIII centuries. V.O. Klyuchevsky characterized Rus' as Dnieper, city, trade. XIII - first half of the XV centuries. - as Upper Volga Rus', appanage-princely, free-agricultural. Second half of XV - beginning of XVII centuries - this is Great Rus', Moscow, Tsarist-boyar, military-agricultural Russia. V.O. Klyuchsvsky called the time after the Time of Troubles and before the great reforms “a new period of Russian history,” an all-Russian, imperial-noble period of serfdom, agriculture and manufacturing.

V.O. Klyuchevsky and his colleagues gave a bright and multifaceted picture of Russian history. Subsequently, they will be reproached for not understanding the patterns of Russian development. And the last stage of development of pre-revolutionary historiography (late 19th - early 20th centuries) will be called the era of crisis of bourgeois science, which failed to see in the history of the country the patterns of its socialist transformation.

Soviet historical science and its outstanding names.

Soviet historiography

Soviet historical science, in the difficult conditions for the development of historiography in post-revolutionary Russia, generally successfully fulfilled its social functions. New historical materials were identified and collected, attempts were made to read the past anew, and discussions were held. New archives, museums, and research centers were created. Social and economic issues and movements of the masses were especially successfully studied.

However, the dominance of only one concept in the theoretical sphere significantly constrained the creativity of scientists. It was easier for those who dealt with the more ancient stages of the country's development. As for Soviet history, the assessments decreed from above could not help but triumph. Historical materialism became the only philosophy of history.

The materialist understanding of history is based on the doctrine of socio-economic formations. Driving force history recognized the class struggle.

Society in its development goes through a consistent, natural change of certain stages and phases that develop on the basis of a certain level of economic development. K. Marx and F. Engls called these stages socio-economic formations. A socio-economic formation is a historically defined type of society, representing a special stage in its development (primitive communal system, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist). The economic basis of each formation is determined by the dominant mode of production material goods. However, there are no absolutely pure formations. In each of them, along with the dominant mode of production relations, remnants of old ones are preserved and the beginnings of new production relations arise. They are usually called structures. For example, under the dominance of feudal production relations, primitive communal and slave-owning relations (structures) are preserved and at a certain stage the capitalist structure of the economy emerges. Socio-economic formations make it possible to trace the progressive development of humanity from stage to stage as a whole.

Periodization of Russian history.

1. Old Russian state (IX-XIII centuries)

2. Appanage Rus' (XII-XVI centuries)

Novgorod Republic (1136—1478)

Principality of Vladimir (1157—1389)

Principality of Lithuania and Russia (1236-1795)

Principality of Moscow (1263—1547)

3. Russian kingdom (1547-1721)

4. Russian Empire (1721-1917)

5. Russian Republic (1917)

6. RSFSR (1917-1922)

7. USSR (1922-1991)

8. Russian Federation (since 1991)

Control test tasks

1. Match the names of Russian historians with their main works:

1. V.N. Tatishchev A. Russian History

2. M.V. Lomonosov B. Ancient Russian history

3. N.M. Karamzin V. History of the Russian State

4. S.M. Soloviev G. History of Russia since ancient times

1. Leadership in collection and critical analysis historical sources in Russia belongs to historians:

1. V.N. Tatishchev.
2. G.F. Miller.
3. M.V. Lomonosov.
4. N.M. Karamzin.

3. Match the historians with the era in which they lived:

1. V.N. Tatishchev A. The era of revolutionary upheavals

2. S.M. Soloviev B. The Age of Peter the Great

3. M.V. Lomonosov V. The era of “palace coups”

4. M.N. Pokrovsky G. The era of bourgeois reforms

Control analytical task

Comment on the main idea of ​​the text belonging to G. V. Plekhanov:

“When people begin to reflect on their own social system, you can say with confidence that this system has outlived its time and is preparing to give way to a new order, the true nature of which will again become clear to people only after it has played its historical role. Minerva’s owl will fly out again only at night.”

The main idea of ​​the text is that all the advantages and disadvantages social order society will learn only when it is replaced by another system and that there is no point in looking for ideal legislation or a social system that will be applicable at all times and for all peoples. Everything has an expiration date. Everything changes and is good in its place at its time.

Literature

1. Vernadsky V.I. Works on the history of science in Russia. M.: Nauka, 1988. 464 p.

2. Vladimirova O.V. History: a complete reference book / O.V. Vladimirova.- M.:AST:Astrel;Vladimir:VKT,2012.-318

3. Ziborov V.K. Russian chronicles of the 11th-18th centuries. - St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology St. Petersburg State University, 2002.

4. Kireeva R.A. Studying Domestic historiography in pre-revolutionary Russia from the middle. XIX century until 1917. M., 1983

5. Merkulov V.I. Where do the Varangian guests come from? - M., 2005. - P. 33-40. — 119 p.

6. Tikhomirov M. N. Russian chronicles. - M.: Nauka, 1979.

7. Yukht A.I. State activities of V.N. Tatishchev in the 20s and early 30s of the 18th century / Responsible. ed. doc. ist. Sciences A. A. Preobrazhensky.. - M.: Nauka, 1985. - 368 p.

A country of remarkable and dramatic history - this is what historians say about it. And indeed, during the 12th centuries of its existence, it went through a lot - the search for religion, invasion, war, unrest, palace coups, perestroika... Each of these stages left a scar, first of all, on the life of the people...

Below are conventional names periods:

1. Ancient Rus', IX-XIII centuries. It is often called the period of Kievan Rus.
2. Tatar-Mongol yoke, XIII-XV centuries.
3. Moscow kingdom, XVI-XVI centuries.
4. Russian Empire, XVIII - early XX centuries.
5. USSR, beginning - end of XX centuries.
6. Since 1991, the period of the Russian Federation began, in which we now live.

And now about everything in more detail. Let us examine in detail, but briefly, the main periods of Russian history.

It all started like this...

No, this is not the first period of Russian history, but only the prerequisites for it. So...

In the 6th and 7th centuries, from the vast plains of Eastern Europe, Slavic tribes moved to the Northern Black Sea region. In the valleys of the Don and Dnieper. These were pagan farmers who worshiped the sun, lightning, and wind.

Gradually, cities began to form: Kyiv, Chernigov, Novgorod, Yaroslavl. Tribal leaders and princes were engaged in the usual activities of that period: they fought with their neighbors - the nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs and Khazars, fought with each other and mercilessly oppressed and robbed their subjects. Gradually, the level of discord and civil strife became more and more noticeable, and the Novgorod elders turned to the Varangians - as the Slavs then called the Scandinavian Vikings - with the words: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us."

Three Varangian princes undertook to restore order: Sineus, Truvor and Rurik. The new princes founded, in essence, the state of Rus'. And the Varangian-Slavic people who inhabited these lands began to be called Russian.

This is where the first period of Russian history begins.

Rurik's reign

Rurik became the founder of the Rurik dynasty, which ruled Russia for several centuries. He himself headed the newly created state from 862 to 879.

After Rurik's death, power passed to his son's guardian, Oleg, for some time. During his short reign (from 879 to 912) he managed to capture Kyiv and make it the capital of Rus'. After which the Russian state began to be called Kievan Rus. This state became so strong that Oleg’s squad captured the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, or, as the Russians called it, Constantinople.

After Oleg's death, Rurik's son, Igor, ruled for a short time (from 912 to 945). He was killed by the Drevlyans, a neighboring vassal tribe, who rebelled from unimaginable extortions. Olga, Igor's wife, brutally took revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband. But in general, she was a very enlightened ruler. Olga sat on the throne from 945 to 957 and even converted to Christianity, for which she was later canonized as the most revered saint.

New religion

Paganism no longer suited Kievan Rus - quite strong and modern state. It was necessary to choose a monotheistic religion. And Prince Vladimir of Kyiv (980-1015), Olga’s grandson, was given a choice of 3 religions:

• Christianity in the Roman and Orthodox traditions.
• Islam.
• Judaism, which was professed by the rulers of the then powerful Khazar kingdom.

Prince Vladimir accepted historic decision. He chose Orthodoxy - the religion of Byzantium. And this choice became fateful for Russia throughout its subsequent history.

The Baptism of Rus' is one of the most significant events in the first period of Russian history: which began in 988, it was not easy. The most stubborn guardians of the pagan faith were mercilessly destroyed. Many had to be baptized, as they say, “with fire and sword.” However, most of the population calmly accepted the new faith.

The reign of Vladimir in Russian history is considered a bright and joyful page - the best time of Kievan Rus.

New laws

After the death of Vladimir, the throne was occupied for some time by his son Yaroslav (1019-1054), nicknamed, and not without reason, the Wise. He created the first set of laws “Russian Truth”. He patronized scientists, architects and icon painters. He pursued a well-thought-out economic policy.

After Yaroslav, one after another, his sons and grandsons became rulers, at odds with each other. The country split into many principalities.

Historians believe that Kievan Rus ceased to exist in the 12th century - from that moment the 2nd period of Russian history begins.

Life under the yoke

At this time, a powerful military power was formed in the territory of Mongolia, Siberia and Northern China, led by the outstanding commander Genghis Khan. From the nomadic tribes of the Mongols and Tatars, he created an army with a rigid organization, iron discipline and armed with unprecedented siege technology. This army swept across the expanses of Asia like a deadly wave and moved towards Europe. Despite the desperate resistance of some Russian princes, the Mongol-Tatar hordes captured the entire space of Ancient Rus', spreading death, smoke from conflagrations, and violence everywhere. However, the Tatar-Mongol conquerors retained the power of princes loyal to themselves and did not persecute the Orthodox Church, which remained the guardian of culture and the main unifying factor for the Russian people.

Gradually, the Tatar-Mongol conquerors and the Russian principalities established some kind of balance of power and interests. The second period in the development of Russian history lasted about two centuries.

Liberation victories

Prince of Novgorod Alexander Nevsky (1252-1264), being in vassal dependence on the conquerors and continuing to pay them tribute, managed to defeat the troops of the knightly Catholic order twice - on the banks of the Neva and on the ice of Lake Peipus.

Prince Alexander Nevsky (Prince of Novgorod, Grand Duke of Kiev, Grand Duke of Vladimir, commander, saint of the Russian Orthodox Church) was then canonized and became, as it were, a symbol of the victory of the Orthodox Russian army over the Catholic knightly orders. Considered one of the patron saints of Russia.

The new capital of Kievan Rus

And so, the initially inconspicuous small Principality of Moscow (originally the inheritance of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir), under the control of smart and prudent rulers, gradually becomes the center of attraction for the rest of the Russian lands. In general, from the day of its foundation, the Moscow state constantly expanded for many centuries, annexing more and more new lands. And do you know what period of Russian history this time belongs to? To the Moscow kingdom of the 16th - 16th centuries, which over the years became so strong that the grandson of the first Moscow prince Ivan Kalita - Prince Dmitry (1359-1389) - managed to gather an army of thousands and move it towards a detachment of Tatars led by commander Mamai.

The battle on the banks of the Don - on the Kulikovo Field - turned into a terrible bloody massacre. And it ended with the victory of the Russian army. And although for many years after this Rus' paid tribute to the Tatar conqueror and was in vassal dependence on them, the victory on the Kulikovo field had the deepest historical significance. It showed the increased power of Russia and the ability to defeat the enemy in open battle.

But in general, over 2 centuries of the yoke - as the Tatar-Mongol occupation was later called - Russia largely lost various connections with the West. It’s as if frozen on the historical path.

So in Russian history, “East - West” swung towards the East.

Freedom!

In the 15th century, Ivan III (1462-1505), nicknamed the Great by his contemporaries, became the Prince of Moscow. Under him, Rus' stopped paying tribute to the Tatar conquerors. The reign of Ivan the Great was a happy time for Rus'.

He married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus and received a double-headed eagle as state emblem Russia. Under him, connections with Europe were established. Foreign architects and builders came to Russia. In particular, the Italian masters who, together with Russian architects, rebuilt the Russian Kremlin.

Under him, the idea of ​​a Russian state finally appeared. It was confirmed by historical reality, and also reflected in the minds of the country's citizens, who began to understand that their country is Russia. And this is not only the country of the Russians, but also, after the fall in 1453, the center of world Orthodoxy.

Bloody time of Ivan the Terrible

The years of the reign of Ivan IV (1533-1584), who ascended the throne in 1547, became one of the most controversial and bloody pages in the history of Russia. The king carried out the necessary reforms:

• Issued a new set of laws (Code of 1550).
• Streamlined the tax system.
• Created a well-trained rifle army.

As a result of successful wars, he annexed the Kazan, Astrakhan, and then the Siberian kingdoms to Russia. But I entered world history like Ivan the Terrible - a bloody tyrant, distinguished by extreme cruelty. The atmosphere of palace intrigue, murder and treachery, combined with mental abnormalities (this is the point of view of historians), made the king, as is often the case with tyrants, obsessed with persecution mania. Enemies and traitors seemed to him everywhere, and he executed these subjects, and mostly- imaginary enemies, in the most sophisticated ways.

Ivan the Terrible created a personal army - the so-called guardsmen. These were young people dressed all in black and boundlessly devoted to the king. During the day they chopped off the heads of the Tsar's enemies, terrifying the people, and at night they feasted in close company with Ivan the Terrible. The first victims of the guardsmen were boyar families- descendants of many ancient families. The cruelty of the formidable king knew no bounds. The whole country, drenched in blood, lived in constant fear. In a fit of furious anger, the king killed his eldest son with a blow from his staff.

After the death of Ivan IV, his weak-willed and indecisive son Fyodor ascended the throne (reigned 1584-1598). In fact, the country was ruled by Boris Godunov, a boyar and close adviser to the last Russian tsars from the Rurik dynasty, which ended with the death of Fedor.

Since 1598, who ascended the throne in late XVI century, Boris Godunov became the official Tsar of Rus'. He ruled fairly until 1605 and tried to reform life in Russia and strengthen statehood. This was a historic chance for Russia to make a decisive breakthrough in its development. But reformers were never loved in Rus'...

Invasion of the Liars

There were various rumors among the people, sometimes the most incredible. Some of them concerned the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry, who died in infancy from an accident. The Poles, who had long dreamed of seizing part of the Russian lands and expanding their influence in the east, decided to take advantage of this. A man appeared in Poland posing as the miraculously surviving Tsarevich Dmitry. On his way from Poland to Moscow, False Dmitry received jubilation and support from the people dissatisfied with Godunov's rule. The so-called Time of Troubles. A time of anarchy and lawlessness, which was almost worse than the time of despotism of Ivan the Terrible.

Moscow was flooded with Poles, who eventually outraged the people. Without sitting on the throne for even a year, False Dmitry was overthrown and executed.

A representative of the famous boyar family Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610) was declared tsar - and immediately the country was swept by a peasant uprising.

The weak power of the new king gave rise to many pretenders to the throne, supported by various forces. Cossack detachments came to Moscow, called upon to guard the country's borders, and joined the struggle for power.

Poles, Kazakhs, Swedes - whoever tried to establish their control over Muscovy. The patience of the Russian people finally ran out. He was able to unite in the face of external and internal threats. The headman of Nizhny Novgorod Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky convened a people's militia. We moved from Novgorod to Moscow. All interventionists were expelled. This time marked the end of the period in Russian history known as the “Moscow State.”

Romanovs, off to the start!

A new Russian Tsar, Mikhail, was elected from the family of Romanov boyars (1613-1645). Thus a new dynasty of Russian monarchs was born, and the new period in the history of Russia. However, we have not yet reached the empire... After all, this was under Peter I. In the meantime...

During the reign of Mikhail Romanov and his son, Tsar Alexei (1645-1676), the Russian people received a peaceful respite. In the last third of the 17th century, Russia achieved political stability, a certain economic prosperity, and even expanded its borders.

To survive and take its place in the world, Russia in the 17th century needed urgent modernization. As if obeying the call of history, a man appeared who can safely be called a genius - it was Tsar Peter I (1682-1725). He set the goal of his life to promote Russia among the leading European powers.

But let's go back a few years. After the death of her father, Tsar Alexei, her sister Sophia sat on the throne, whose main support was the detachments of archers. A kind of guard that defended traditional foundations.

Peter dealt with them very harshly and even cut off the heads of the archers himself on Red Square near the Moscow Kremlin. In the fight against the conservative boyar opposition, clinging to old traditions, he did not even spare his own son Alexei, sending him to execution. However, Peter was cruel only to those who were an obstacle to the fulfillment of his super-ideas - to put Russia among the leading European countries.

He completely changed life in the country:

• He went to Europe with a large retinue, whom he forced to study crafts, engineering, economics, and morals.
• He sent the sons of nobles to study in Europe.
• He ordered the boyars to shave their beards, dress the ladies in low-cut dresses and hold balls according to the European model. The elite of society - the ruling class - has completely changed, even externally. The social history of Russia during the imperial period was incredibly rich.
• He himself, however, under a false name, worked for some time as a carpenter in order to master shipbuilding.
• With the help of young merchants he created new industry, providing the army with weapons.
• He waged wars with the Swedes, the Turks, and again with the Swedes, in order to annex new territories, and most importantly, to provide the country with access to the sea. After all, until now the Russian state did not have its ports either on the Black or Baltic seas.

Moreover, on the shores of the Baltic, in wild places where there were only forests and swamps, he built the new capital of the Russian Empire - the city of St. Petersburg, which became a “window to Europe” for Russia.

Peter occupies a special place in Russian history. He left behind absolutely new country. History itself is now divided into 2 periods: pre-Petrine Russia and post-Petrine Russia.

Palace coups

After the death of Peter in 1725, the so-called era of palace coups begins in the history of Russia. The periods of reign of emperors are limited to the time convenient to the guard.

First, Catherine I Alekseevna, Peter’s wife, became empress for 2 years (1725-1727). Then power for 3 years (1727-1730) passed to Peter's grandson - Peter II Alekseevich. And then for 10 years (1730-1740) the guards placed Peter’s niece, Anna Ioanovna, on the throne. In fact, during this period the country was ruled by its favorite, the cruel Ernst Biron.

After Anna's death, for a short time (1740-1741), the infant Ivan VI Antonovich was declared emperor, whose regency was carried out by his mother Anna Leopoldovna, Anna Ioanovna's niece. She was successfully overthrown by the Guard and installed on the throne by Peter's daughter, Elizabeth (1741-1761), who had no children. After her death, the throne passed to her nephew, Peter III Fedorovich (1761-1702). He married the German princess Sophia August Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbt, who received the name Catherine in Russia. In the end, the guards overthrew Peter III and placed Catherine on the throne.

As a result, in 75 years after Peter there were 7 rulers in Russia.

Golden Age of the Russian Empire

The years of Catherine II's reign are called the Golden Age. Under her, Russia continued the path outlined by Peter - the country fought both in the West and in the South. A series of Russian-Turkish wars eventually annexed Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region to Russia, opening access to the warm waters of the Mediterranean Sea.

After several divisions of Poland, Russia included: Lithuania, Belarus, and the western regions of Ukraine.

Following Moscow University, opened under Elizabeth, thanks to Catherine the Great, several educational institutions appeared in the capital St. Petersburg.

Catherine II was liberal-minded. She called her subjects not slaves, but free people. True, the peasant uprising (1773-1775) led by Stepan Pugachev frightened the empress so much that she curtailed her liberal projects. In particular, a new set of laws.

Catherine, considering her son Paul (1796-1801) not a very smart young man, during her reign did not even let him come close to the throne. Therefore, having seized power, he began to eradicate all “freethinking.” He introduced strict censorship, prohibited Russian citizens from studying abroad, and foreigners from freely entering Russia. He broke off diplomatic relations with England and sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks to conquer India. However, they had neither maps nor an action plan. As a result of a conspiracy in which Paul's son Alexander participated, he was overthrown and killed.

Alexander I (1801-1825) became the new emperor. He began his reign by repealing his father's decrees. He brought back innocent victims from exile. And in general I was determined to carry out various liberal reforms. Under him, for the first time, imperial Russia began to wage a defensive war against France.

Not far from Moscow, near the village of Borodino (1812), a famous battle, as a result of which neither side managed to win a decisive victory.

Emperor Nicholas I Pavlovich (1825-1855) struggled intensely with the ideas of change that had penetrated the country. During the 30 years of his reign, he created an ideal, absolute monarchy. Authoritarian thinking also affected foreign policy. Having started the next Russian-Turkish war, Nicholas faced opposition from the European powers. Bound by allied obligations with Turkey and the Ottoman Empire, England and France moved their troops into the Black Sea, as a result of which they inflicted a humiliating defeat on Russia. This dragged Russia into another crisis.

Nicholas I is succeeded on the throne by his son Alexander II (1855-1881). His reign was associated with the abolition of serfdom in the country (1861). This event became one of the most important in the social history of Russia during the imperial period. That is why Alexander II went down in history as the “tsar-liberator.”

The new monarch actively implemented reforms:

• Judicial.
• Military.
• Zemskaya.

However, some found them too serious, while others found them insufficient. The Tsar found himself in the crossfire of conservatives and liberals. In 1881, as a result of an assassination attempt on the banks of the Catherine Canal, he was killed.

Threats of terrorism forced Alexander III (1881-1894) to settle away from St. Petersburg, in the well-guarded Gatchina Palace. His reign can be described as a victory for conservatism - reforms ceased, the effect of some liberal laws was limited.

On the eve of the USSR

Change of 19th and 20th centuries - transition time between the main periods in Russian history. The Empire will be replaced by the Union... Soon...

Perhaps the most unfortunate Russian Tsar was the son of Alexander III - Nicholas II (1894-1917). He was burdened by the fact that he was born an heir. He was frightened by the prospect of becoming an emperor.

Society longed for change, and after the lost war with Japan, the first workers' revolt occurred in the Far East, which turned into a revolution. The uprising was suppressed. The frightened king went to extremes.

The country, uneducated, poor and hungry for the most part, entered the war in 1914 on the side of England and France with Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The soldiers - yesterday's peasants - did not understand what they were fighting for. Plus, the poor equipment of the army, discontent, and hunger did their job - they gave rise to an uprising in St. Petersburg.

As a result, the last Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty abdicates the throne. We can say that from this moment the Soviet period in the history of Russia begins.

A provisional government formed from representatives of different parties came to power. The war-weary population accepted revolutionary views. Representatives of extremist and terrorist organizations who were previously underground have returned from abroad.

One of these was the “Marxist group of communist-bolsheviks”, led by Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin). They boldly seized power in St. Petersburg. They took it almost without firing a single shot. Winter Palace, where the provisional government was located, and its members were arrested.

Civil war

From 1917 to 1920 there was a Civil War in the country. As a result, the Bolsheviks won. Since 1920, they begin to build a “society of happiness” - communism - in a country lying in ruins. This ideology will become the main one for Soviet period history of Russia.

Lenin takes a decisive step and introduces a new economic policy (NEP), which allowed the state to transform in a couple of years - food, clothing and even luxury goods appeared. This irritated the cardinal Bolsheviks.

After Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Dzhugashvili, better known under the pseudonym Stalin (1924-1953), increasingly seized power. He took control of the Cheka secret police. He started a series of high-profile trials against almost all the Bolshevik leaders who led the revolution. Since 1929, it has completely controlled the country. Destroys kulaks, seizes land and creates collective farms.

The Second Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) fell during the Stalin era. This is one of the darkest pages of this period in Russian history.

As a result of a short struggle for power, after the liquidation of the Minister of State Security Lavrentiy Beria, the pragmatist Nikita Khrushchev came to power in 1953. He was a controversial leader - he proposed to sow fields with corn, at a meeting of the UN Security Council he knocked on the podium with his shoe; however, he launched the first satellite, and also made the world's first flight in outer space cosmonaut Gagarin. The first Soviet leader to visit America. Under him, the “Khrushchev Thaw” occurred, which allowed liberal views in art. He promised to destroy and bury America, and he, in moments of enlightenment, decided to get rid of the dominance of the party nomenklatura. For which he was removed from power by this very nomenklatura in 1964.

A group of conspirators led by Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982) took the reins of government of the country into their own hands. The years of his reign are usually called the era of stagnation. The confrontation with the West continued. Cold War it either gained momentum or subsided. The economy was focused on the sale of raw materials, which led it to a crisis. Brezhnev died in 1982.

The government nominated to replace him the former head of the security service, the influential Yuri Andropov (1982-1984), and then, after his death, another elderly leader, Konstantin Chernenko (1984-1985), who also died soon after.

A younger ruler came to power - Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991), who energetically took up the matter. He quickly changed the leadership of the party and state and began to carry out reforms. The so-called course for the restructuring of social and state life countries.

Gorbachev's liberal reforms caused discontent among conservative circles. In 1991, they planned to carry out a coup. However, the putsch was defeated, because the conspirators did not have any action plan to change the life of the country for the better. Nevertheless, the coup actually left the country without a government, which was taken advantage of by the emboldened heads of the national republics - who separated and gained independence from Russia.

The paradox is that Gorbachev, who returned in triumph to Moscow, remained the president of the collapsed Union, and Boris Yeltsin (1991-1999) became the new president of Russia.

Our time - New time

Everything that has happened in our country since 1991 is attributed to the period modern history Russia.

Now let’s return to Yeltsin... The advantages of his policy are attributed to the lack of confrontation with the collapsed republics and conservative political oppositions. As well as a democratic style of government, freedom of speech. However, conservatives opposed it. This led to an armed rebellion in 1993. Nevertheless, the first president managed to cope with the situation without reprisals.

When it seemed that all the bad things were behind us, a financial crisis erupted in the country, ending in default - bankruptcy, loss of deposits in banks, shutdown of enterprises... All this could lead to a new revolution. But history has its own plans.

Yeltsin appoints as his successor former Security Committee officer Vladimir Putin (2000-2008, 2012 - today). At first, Putin continued Yeltsin's policies, but over time he began to show increasing independence. It was he who resolved the conflict in Chechnya.

In 2008, according to the constitution, Putin transferred powers to the newly elected president Dmitry Medvedev, and he himself took the post of prime minister. However, in 2012 everything changed again... Today, the post of President of the Russian Federation is occupied by V.V. Putin.

These are, to be brief, calm and exciting historical periods in the history of Russia.

Periodization of Russian history

Periodization of Russian history

Periodization of Russian history

Ancient Rus'

Ancient Rus'

Ancient Rus'

Ancient Rus'

Political fragmentation of Rus' XII-XIII centuries.

10. Consequences of fragmentation

11. The yoke system in Rus'

12. Historical assessments of the yoke

13. Formation of the Moscow State XIV - early XVI

14. Folding of the Moscow State

15. Ivan IV (Grozny)

16. Reforms of Ivan the Terrible

17. Ivan the Terrible

18. Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible

19. Time of Troubles (1598-1612)

20. Time of Troubles

21. Time of Troubles

22. Time of Troubles

23. Time of Troubles

24. Time of Troubles

25. Cathedral Code of 1649

26. Reforms of Peter I

27. Economic reforms

28. Economic reforms

29. Class politics

30. Provincial reform

31. Church reform

32. The significance of Peter's reforms

33. Palace coups

34. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

35. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

36. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

37. Socio-economic policy of Catherine

38. Class politics

39. Foreign policy of Catherine II

40. Foreign policy of Catherine II

41. Foreign policy of Catherine II

42. Policy of Alexander I

43. Policy of Alexander I

44. Policy of Alexander I

45. Patriotic War of 1812

46. ​​Patriotic War 1812

47. Foreign campaign of the Russian army 1813-1814

48.

49. Politics of Nicholas I

50. Theory of official nationality

51. Industrial revolution in Russia

52. Features of the industrial revolution in Russia

Eastern Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries.

Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries).

Russian lands in the second half of the XII-XIII centuries.

1.1. Main periods

VI-VIII centuries - the first mentions of the Eastern Slavs, tribal unions, the collapse of clan relations, the transition to a neighboring community, the emergence of tribal princes

IX - first half of the XII century. - Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv

XII-XIII centuries - fragmentation of Russian lands, the fight against external invasions, the establishment of dependence on the Golden Horde

1.2. Key dates and events

862 - calling of the Varangians ( Rurik and his associates), their rule in Northwestern Rus'

879-912 – reign Oleg the Prophet in Kyiv

882 - unification of the East Slavic lands (Novgorod and Kyiv) under the rule of Prince Oleg

907 - Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople, the first treaty with Byzantium

912-945 – reign Igor in Kyiv

941, 944 - Prince Igor’s campaigns against Constantinople,

945 - signing of a treaty with Byzantium

945 - uprising of the Drevlyans, murder of Igor

945-964 – reign Olga in Kyiv

957 - Princess Olga's trip to Constantinople, Olga's baptism

964-972 - reign of the prince Svyatoslav in Kyiv: campaigns against the Vyatichi, Khazars (964-966), in Danube Bulgaria, defeat of the Pechenegs, war with Byzantium (968-971)

980-1015 - reign of the prince Vladimir in Kyiv: campaigns against the Vyatichi, Radimichi, etc., conclusion of a military alliance with Byzantium

988 - baptism of Rus'

1019-1054 - reign of the prince Yaroslav the Wise in Kyiv: compilation of the Russian Pravda (Pravda Yaroslav), defeat of the Pechenegs, creation of the Kyiv Metropolis

l-th half XI century - construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral and the Golden Gate in Kyiv, the Church of St. Sophia in Novgorod

1097 - congress of Russian princes in Lyubech (the division of Rus' into princely “fatherlands” was consolidated)

1113-1125 - board Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv

1125-1132 – reign Mstislav the Great in Kyiv

1125-1157 – reign Yuri Dolgoruky on Suzdal land and in Kyiv

1147 - the first chronicle mention of Moscow

1157-1174 – reign Andrey Bogolyubsky

1176-1212 – reign Vsevoluda Big Nest in the Vladimir-Suzdal land

1223 - Battle of Kalka

1237-1238 - invasion of Batu Khan's troops into North-Eastern Rus'

1238 – Battle of the City River

1239 - campaign of Mongol-Tatar troops in the southern Russian principalities

1240 - Battle of the Neva (Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky)

Siege and capture of Kyiv by Batu's army

1242 - Battle of the Ice

1252-1263 – reign Alexander Nevsky in Vladimir, Grand Duke of Vladimir

1.3. Basic Concepts

Tribe Paganism. Christianity, Orthodoxy, baptism, metropolitan. Mosaic, fresco. Slavic writing, Glagolitic, Cyrillic (Cyril and Methodius). Chronicle. Norman theory

Veche. Varangians. Prince. Squad. Patrimony. Smerd, ryadovich, purchaser, serf, servant, outcast. Rent, polyudye. Tithe. Vira. The path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” Political fragmentation ( feudal fragmentation). Golden Horde. Baskak. Label for the Great Reign

1.4. Historical sources

Russian Truth (Yaroslav's Truth, Yaroslavich's Truth 1030s - 1070s), "The Tale of Bygone Years" (Nestor, 1113-1118), "The Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", "The Tale of Igor's Host" (late 12th century):

Rus, Russia in the XIV - early X VII V. Formation and strengthening of the Russian centralized state. Troubles

1.1. Main periods

The end of the 13th - 1st half of the 14th century. ~ strengthening of the Moscow Principality, beginning of expansion land holdings Moscow princes, rivalry between Moscow and Tver for supremacy in North-Eastern Rus'

2nd half of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century. - assertion of the primacy of Moscow as the center of Russian lands, organization of the struggle for independence from the Golden Horde

2nd quarter of the 15th century. - struggle for power in the Grand Duchy of Moscow (feudal war)

2nd half of the 15th - 1st third of the 16th century. - completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the formation of the Russian state, Ivan III - “Sovereign of All Rus'”

XVI century - expansion of territory and strengthening of the Russian state, the formation of the Russian autocracy

Beginning of the 17th century - Time of Troubles

1.2. Key dates and events

The end of the XIII-XIV centuries.

1276-1303 – reign Daniil Alexandrovich in Moscow, founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes (the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky)

1276 - formation of an independent Moscow principality

1303-1325 - reign in Moscow Yuri Danilovich(the first of the Moscow princes to receive a label for the great reign in the Horde)

1318-1340 - the struggle of the Tver and Moscow princes for the label for the great reign

1325-1340 - reign in Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita(from 1328 - Grand Duke)

1326 - transfer of the metropolitan throne from Vladimir to Moscow

1340-1353 – reign Simeon the Proud in Moscow

1353-1359 – reign Ivan the Red in Moscow

1359-1389 - reign in Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich DONSKOGO(from 1362 - Grand Duke)

1378 - battle on the Vozha River, the first major victory of Russian troops (led by Prince Dmitry Ivanovich) over the Horde army

1380 - Battle of Kulikovo

1382 - Khan Tokhtamysh’s campaign against Moscow

1389-1425 - Great Moscow reign Vasily Dmitrievich, - unification of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and the Principality of Moscow

1425-1453 - struggle for power in the Grand Duchy of Moscow

1425-1462 - reign intermittently Vasily Dark in Moscow

1462-1505 - reign of the Grand Duke Ivana III in Vladimir and Moscow

1463 - annexation of the Yaroslavl principality to Moscow

1471 - Ivan III’s campaign against Veliky Novgorod, battle on the Sheloni River

1474 - the annexation of the lands of the Rostov Principality, purchased by Ivan III, to Moscow

1478 - liquidation Novgorod Republic, annexation of its lands to Moscow

1480 - “standing” on the river. Eel

1485 - annexation Tver Principality to Moscow

1497 - introduction of a national code of laws of the Code of Laws of Ivan III, establishment of a single deadline for the transition of peasants (St. George's Day)

1st half of the 15th century - construction of the Assumption and Annunciation Cathedrals, the Chamber of Facets, walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin (Aristotle Fioravanti)

1505-1533 - board Vasily III in Vladimir and Moscow

1533-1584 - board Ivan IV(1547 - crowning of Ivan IV): boyar Duma, orders

1547-1560 - activities of the Elected Rada (A.F. Adashev, A.M. Kurbsky, Sylvester, etc.), reforms (military, monetary, judicial code, monetary, labial)

1549 - convening of the first Zemsky Sobor

1550 - adoption of the Code of Laws of Ivan IV

1551 - Cathedral of the Russian Orthodox Church (Stoglavy)

1552 - conquest of the Kazan Khanate

1556 - annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate

1557 - Bashkiria joins the Russian state

1558-1583 - Livonian War: large losses of land and people

1565-1572 – oprichnina: devastation of oprichnina lands, increased mortality

1569-1570 - march of the oprichnina army to Novgorod

1571, 1572 - raids of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey on Moscow

1580-1590s - conquest of Eastern Siberia (Ermak Timofeevich)

1581 - the first ban on peasants crossing on St. George’s Day (introduction of reserved years)

1584-1598 - reign Fedor Ivanovich

1589 - establishment of the patriarchate in Russia

1597 - decree on scheduled flights

End of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. Troubles

1598-1605 GG. - reign Boris Godunov

1604-1618 - Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention in Russia

1605-1606 - board False Dmitry I

1606-1610 - board Vasily Shuisky

1606-1607 GG. - uprising led by Ivan Bolotnikov

1608-1610 - the struggle of False Dmitry II for power

1610-1613 - board Boyar Duma(“seven boyars”)

1611-1612 - the first and second militias against the interventionists (P. Lyapunov, D. Pozharsky, K. Minin)

1613 - election by the Zemsky Sobor to the Russian throne Mikhail Romanov

1617 - Treaty of Stolbovo between Russia and Sweden

1618 - Deulin truce of Russia with Rech Poslolita

1.3. Basic Concepts

Votchina, estate. Corvee, quitrent, lovaz. Elderly, 1 St. George's Day, reserved summers, lesson summers. Serfdom. Posad, settlement, white settlement. Lawyer Tsar. The chosen one is glad. Order, clerk. Localism, feeding. Boyar Duma. Zemsky Sobor. Sagittarius. Oprichnina, zemshchina. "Uglich case." Cross-kissing record.

Non-possessors, Josephites. Heresy.

1.4. Historical sources

Epics. “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”.

“Walking across Three Seas” by A. Nikitin.

"Apostle", "Cheti-Minea". "Domostroy".

Russia in the 15th II -XV III BB.

1.1. Main periods

The history of Russia in these centuries is not divided into periods that would be characterized by different forms of power, trends in economic development, change of dynasty, etc. In this case, we are talking mainly about the change of reigns, each of which had its own characteristics. At the same time, in the series of reigns on the two-century segment of Russia’s historical path under consideration, several periods larger than a single reign can be distinguished. Among them:

The reign of the first Romanovs, which covered most of the 17th century: the period of revival economic life and strengthening political power

The era of Peter I - the end of the XVII- 1st quarter XVIII century: transformations in all spheres of state and public life, the formation of the Russian Empire

The period of palace coups - 1725-1762.

The era of Catherine 11 - 1762-1796: expansion and strengthening of the empire

1.2. Key dates and events

1613-1676 – Rebellious time

1613-1645 - reign Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov: estate-representative monarchy

1626-1633 - military reforms, creation of regiments of the “new system”

1632-1634 - Smolensk War

1645-1676 - reign Alexey Mikhailovich

1649 - Zemsky Sobor, adoption of the Council Code (increased the land salary of the archers; impoverished landowners were allocated land; indefinite search for fugitive peasants; serfdom is inherited; landowners dispose of the peasants; Passad people are prohibited from moving or leaving the city)

1650s - carrying out church reform by Patriarch Nikon (carried out according to Greek models; cross with 3 fingers; sing “Hallelujah” 3 times instead of 2 times; Choir of the Cross - move against the sun; bows are not to the ground, but from the waist (“do not break the forehead”); “Jesus”)

1654 - Pereyaslav Rada, annexation of Ukraine to Russia

1667 - adoption of the New Trade Charter

Social performances during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich:

1648 - Salt riot,

1662 - Copper riot,

1668-1676 - Solovetsky uprising,

1670-1671 – uprising (Peasant War) led by S.T. Razin

1676-1682 - reign Fedor Alekseevich(Results: direct tax was introduced; household tax distribution was carried out; a new structure for the organization of military forces was introduced; the power of the governor was strengthened; localism was abolished; a school was organized at the printing court and an attempt to create schools at almshouses; sought to weaken the boyar duma and the power of the patriarch)

1682-1689 - regency Sofia Alekseevna

1682-1696 - management Ivan V Alekseevich And Petra I Alekseevich

1682-1725 - reign Petra I

1686 - conclusion eternal peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland)

1687 - founding of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (the first higher educational institution in Russia)

1687, 1689 - campaigns of the Russian army under the command of V.V. Golitsyn to Crimea

1695-1696 - Azov campaigns of Peter I

1697-1698 - “Great Embassy” of Peter I to Europe

1698 - Streltsy riot in Moscow

1700 - transition to a new chronology (from the birth of Christ)

1700-1721 - Northern War (Reasons: need access to Black and Baltic Sea; improve trade connections with Europe and the East)

(Results: victory; acquired new lands, including Finland; strengthened in the Baltic; a regulative army and navy appeared; became one of the leading powers; became an empire)

1700 - defeat near Narva;

1703 - foundation of St. Petersburg;

1708 - battle near the village of Lesnaya;

1709 - Battle of Poltava(a turning point occurred in the Northern War; the allies perked up; the Anti-Swedish coalition was restored; Augustus II returned to

1714 - victory of the Russian fleet at Cape Gangut;

1720 - victory of the Russian fleet near the island of Grenham

1701 - opening of Navigation and Artillery schools in Moscow

1702 - the beginning of publication of the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti"

1702-1704 - beginning of construction of the Baltic fleet

1705 - introduction of annual conscription (the beginning of the creation of a regular army was laid)

Social performances:

1705-1706 - uprising in Astrakhan;

1705-1711 - uprising in Bashkiria;

1707-1708 - uprising led by KA. Bulavin

1708 - establishment of provinces

1710 - house-to-house tax census

1710-1713 - Russian-Turkish war

1711 - establishment of the Governing Senate

1714 - publication of the “Decree on Single Inheritance”

1718 - introduction of assemblies

1718-1721 - creation of boards (abolition of orders)

1718-1724 - capitation census

1721 - decision of the Senate to award Peter I the titles of “Father of the Fatherland”, “Great” and All-Russian Emperor; proclamation of Russia as an empire

1722 - publication by Peter I of the “Charter on the Succession to the Throne” - introduction of the “Table of Ranks”

1722-1723 - Russian-Persian war

1725 - Peter I signed a decree on the creation of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg (the Academy was opened in 1726)

1725-1727 - reign Catherine I

1726 - creation of the Supreme Privy Council

1727-1730 - reign Petra II

1730-1740 - reign Anna Ioannovna

1740-1741 - reign Ivana V I Antonovich(regency of E. Biron and then Anna Leopoldovna)

1741-1761 - reign Elizaveta Petrovna

1750 - opening of the first Russian theater by F. G. Volkov in Yaroslavl

1755 - foundation of Moscow University

1757-1762 - Russian participation in the Seven Years' War (England and Prussia - Austria, France, Russia, Sweden)

1756-1763 - battles of Gross-Jägersdorf, Kunersdorf, capture of Berlin by Russian troops

1761-1762 - reign Petra III

1762-1796 - reign Catherine II

1764 - publication of a decree on the secularization of church lands

1767-1768 - activities of the Statutory Commission

Russian-Turkish wars:

1768-1774 (1770 - Chesme fight, battles of Larga and Kagul; F. F. Ushakov; as a result of the war Russia

won access to the Black Sea),

1787-1791 (1788 - capture of Ochakov, 1789 - battles near Fokshani and on the Rymnik river, 1790 - capture of Izmail; A.V. Suvorov; as a result of the war, Crimea was recognized as possession of Russia)

1772, 1793, 1795 - Russian participation in the partitions of Poland

1773-1775 - Peasant war under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva (Reason: due to serfdom)

(Causes of defeat: lack of weapons; poor military training)

1775 - the beginning of the provincial reform.

1783 - publication of the decree of Catherine II on the annexation of Crimea to Russia

1783 - signing Treaty of Georgievsk about Russian protectorate over Eastern Georgia

1785 - publication of the Charter to the nobility and the Charter to the cities

1796-1801 - reign Pavel I

1798-1799 - Russian participation in anti-French coalitions, Italian and Swiss campaigns by A.V. Suvorov

1.3. Basic Concepts

Manufactory. All-Russian market, fair. Mercantilism, protectionism. Serfdom. Assigned peasants, possession peasants. Secularization of church and monastic lands.

Absolutism, autocracy. Senate, collegiums, Synod. Supreme Privy Council. Palace coup. Guard. Favoritism. Bironovism. Enlightened absolutism. Stacked commission. Province, provincial institutions.

"Rebellious Age" Schism, Old Believers (Old Believers). Khovanshchina. Peasant War.

Explorers, fort, colonization. Yasak.

Tent style. Moscow (Naryshkinskoe) baroque. Sentimentalism. Classicism. Parsuna. Kunstkamera. Assembly.

1.4. Historical sources

Cathedral Code of 1649, “Decree on Single Inheritance.” Table of ranks. "Conditions". “Mandate” of Catherine II, Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility. A charter granted to the nobility, a charter granted for rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire. "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum." "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow." “An honest mirror of youth.”

Russia in the 19th century

1.1. Main periods

When periodizing the domestic XIX history V. both the framework of individual reigns and larger periods associated with modernization processes and the great reforms of the 60-70s are taken into account. XIX century (pre-reform and post-reform Russia).

1.2. Key dates and events

1801-1825 - reign Alexandra I(creation of the “Unofficial Committee”; reforms: establishment of ministries; decree on free cultivators; creation of the State Council; creation of military settlements)

1801 - annexation Eastern Georgia to Russia

1802 - creation of ministries (instead of colleges)

1803 - publication of the decree “on free (free) cultivators.”

1804-1813 - Russian-Persian war

1805-1807 - Russian participation in the III, IV anti-Napoleonic coalitions

1806-1812 - war between Russia and Turkey (annexation of Bisarabia)

1807 - signing of the Peace of Tilsit between Russia and France

1808-1809 - Russian-Swedish war, inclusion of Finland into the Russian Empire

1810 – Military settlements

1810 - establishment of the State Council

1811 - opening of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum

early August - Battle of Smolensk;

September-October - Tarutinsky march-maneuver;

November - Battle of the Berezina River

1813-1814 - foreign campaign of the Russian army (October 1813 - battle of Leipzig)

1814-1815 - Congress of Vienna

1815 - formation of the Holy Alliance

1816-1818 – Union of Salvation (A. Muravyov)

1818-1821 – Union of Prosperity (A. Muravyov)

1821-1822 – Northern society (S. Trubetskoy, “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov) and Southern society (P. Pestel, “Russian Truth” by P. Pestel)

1816-1821 - establishment of military settlements

1816-1825 - activities of Decembrist organizations

1817-1864 - Caucasian War

1821 - uprising of the Semenovsky regiment

December 14, 1825 - speech of the Decembrists in St. Petersburg (Prerequisites: dissemination of Radishchev’s ideas (a rebel worse than Pugachev); influence of the Fatherland War and foreign campaigns; influence of bourgeois revolutionary influence of French enlighteners)

1825-1855 - reign Nicholas I

1826-1828 - transformations in the system central authorities management (creation of branches of the imperial chancellery), tightening of censorship

1826-1828 - Russian-Persian war

1828-1829 - Russian-Turkish war

1830-1833 - compilation of the “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire”

1830-1831 - uprising in Poland, its suppression by tsarist troops

1837 - opening of the first railway in Russia St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo

1837-1841 - reform of state peasant management (carried out under the leadership of P.D. Kiselev)

1839-1843 - monetary reform E.F. Kankrina

1842 - publication of a decree on “obligated peasants”

1848-1849 - participation of Russian troops in the suppression of revolutionary protests in a number of European countries

1851 - opening of the St. Petersburg – Moscow railway

1853-1856 - Crimean War(Russia - Turkey, England, France, Sardinia; V.A. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin; P.S. Nakhimov; Russia sought to expand influence in the Balkans and put pressure on Turkey; Russia lost islands in the Danube Delta, part of southern Bessarabia, prohibition of having a fleet on the Black Sea; Treaty of Paris)

1855-1881 - reign Alexandra II

1858, 1860 - Aigun and Beijing treaties between Russia and China (establishment of borders).

1861-1864 - activities of the first organization “Land and Freedom”

1862 - opening of the first conservatory in Russia (in St. Petersburg)

1864 - beginning of zemstvo, judicial, school, military reforms

1864-1885 - annexation of Central Asia to Russia

1874, 1876 - mass “going to the people” (Propaganda - P.L. Lavrov, Rebellious - M.A. Bakunin, Conspiratorial - P.N. Tkachev)

1875, 1878 - organization of the first workers' unions

1876-1879 - activities of the second organization “3land and freedom”

1879 - the organization split into “Black Repartition” and “People’s Will”

1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war (the struggle of the Balkan peoples for independence; San Stefano Peace Treaty, Berlin Congress)

1881-1894 - reign Alexandra III(Counter-reforms: provision on enhanced and emergency security; obligatory ransom of peasants; position of Sudema precinct commanders)

1881 - the beginning of the mandatory transfer of peasants to buy land

1883 - creation of the “Emancipation of Labor” group (G.V. Plekhanov and others)

1885 - strike at the S.T. Morozov in Orekhovo-3uevo (“Morozov strike”)

1891-1905 - construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway

1891-1893 - formation of the Franco-Russian alliance

1894-1917 - reign Nicholas II

1895 - creation of the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class”

1898 - founding congress of the Russian Social Democratic Party in Minsk

1.3. Basic Concepts

Russian Empire. Autocracy. Ministry: State Council. The theory of official nationality. Censorship. Corps of Gendarmes.

Estates (nobles, clergy, burghers, peasants, Cossacks). Serfdom. Serfs, appanages, state peasants. Corvee, rent, month. Recruitment duty. Military settlements. Otkhodnik, “capitalist” peasant. Sharecropping.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution). Factory. Great reforms of the 1860-1870s. Temporarily obliged peasants, redemption payments, segments, labor. Zemstvo, zemstvo movement. Counter-reforms of the 1880s.

Decembrists. Slavophiles, Westerners. Petrashevtsy. Populists. "Walking among the people." Anarchists. Social Democrats.

Islam. Imamat. Gazavat. Muridism. Anti-Napoleonic coalitions. Patriotic War.

Holy Alliance. Eastern question.

Sentimentalism, classicism, empire style, romanticism, Russian-Byzantine style. Realism. The Wanderers.

1.4. Historical sources

Constitution N.M., Muravyova, “Russian Truth” P.I. Pestel. “Philosophical Letters” by P.Ya. Chaadaeva. “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom” (02/19/1861). Manifesto of Alexander III “On the Inviolability of Autocracy”

Russia in 1900-1915

Main periods

Periodization of Russian history 1900-1945. determined by turning events that led to a change in statehood and social system. The most large-scale of them are the events of 1917. At the same time, one cannot help but study the dates, processes and most important events of world history, including the First and Second World Wars, in which our country was an active participant. We also have to take into account the difference of opinion that exists in modern historical science about the point of reference modern era in world history: in this capacity the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, 1914, 1917, 1918 are called. The named features of the periodizations of the modern history of Russia and the world are also reflected in school textbooks. Consideration of the positions of individual textbook authors is not part of our task. Let us present the most accepted version of periodization in textbooks, indicating in brackets the existing differences in the interpretation of periods

1900-1916 - Russia at the beginning (on the threshold) of modern times - relatively dynamic economic development, crisis of the political system, Russian participation in the First World War

1917 - early 1920s - Russian Revolution and Civil War (in some textbooks the authors limit the revolution to February - October 1917, in others they extend it to the entire specified period)

1920-1930s - formation and strengthening of the Soviet state

1939-1945. gg. - World War II and the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.

Russia in 1900-1916

1.1. Key dates and events

1900-1903 - economic crisis

1901 - creation of the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)

1902 – II Congress of the RSDLP - founding of the party, emergence of the Bolshevik and Menshevik movements

1904-1905 - Russo-Japanese War (Peace of Portsmouth)

1905-1907 - first Russian revolution

March - formation of the first trade unions;

May-June - strike in Ivanovo-Voznesensk, creation of the first Council;

June - uprising on the battleship "Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky";

August - adoption of the law establishing the legislative advisory State Duma (Bulyginskaya Duma);

October - All-Russian political strike;

December – armed uprising in Moscow;

1906 - activities of the First State Duma;

1907 - activities of the Second State Duma;

1906, 1910 - publication of a decree and law on the agrarian (Stolypin) reform

1907 - signing of an agreement between Russia and England on the delimitation of interests in Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet; This agreement completed the creation of the Triple Entente - the Entente

1907-1912 - activities of the III State Duma

1910 - the beginning of the Russian seasons in Paris, organized. SL. Diaghilev

April 1912 - execution of workers at the Lena mines

1912-1917 - activities of the IV State Duma

1914-1918 - First World War

August-September - operations in East Prussia, Galicia;

1915 – defeat of Russian troops in Galicia (Gorlitsky breakthrough);

1915 - formation of the “Progressive Bloc” in the Duma

1.2. Basic Concepts

Monopoly, cartel, concern, trust, syndicate. Imperialism. Stolypin reform, farm, cut. Bolshevism Menshevism. Socialist Revolutionaries (Socialist Revolutionaries). Cadets, Octobrists. Black Hundreds Zubatovshchina. Revolutionary situation. Adviсe. State Duma. June 3rd coup. Trudoviks. “Progressive bloc Modernism, symbolism, avant-garde Decadence. Maecenas. "World of Art" Russian seasons Entente Triple Alliance. Military-industrial committees

1.3. Historical sources

Manifesto “On the Improvement of State Order” (October 17, 1905). Decree of 1906 and Law of 1910 “On amendments and additions to certain regulations relating to peasant land ownership and land use.”

Russia in 1917-1920

1.1. Key dates and events

February 27, 1917 - uprising in Petrograd, formation of the Petrograd Soviet, creation of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma

March 2, 1917 - Nicholas II abdicated the throne; creation of a Provisional Government headed by G.E. Lvov

April, June, July 1917 - crises of the Provisional Government (April: the reason for the note of P.N. Milyukov, he and A.I. Guchkov were removed from the Provisional Rights)

July 1917 – head of the Provisional Government - A.F.Kerensky

August 1917 - adoption by the VI Congress of the RSDLP (b) of a course towards an armed uprising; holding a State Conference in Moscow in support of “strong power”; speech by General L.G. Kornilova

October 25-27 - II Congress of Soviets: proclamation of Soviet power, adoption of the “Decree on Peace” and “Decree on Land”, creation of the Council People's Commissars(SNK)

October 1917 - February 1918 - establishment of Soviet power in most of the territory of the former Russian Empire; first transformations of Soviet power

January 1918 - publication of a decree on the separation of church from state, school from church

March 1918 - signing of the Peace Treaty between Russia and Germany in Brest-Litovsk (Brest Peace Treaty)

July 1918 - armed uprisings of the left Socialist Revolutionaries in Moscow and other cities, adoption of the first Constitution RSFSR

1918-1920 - Civil War in Russia

March - August 1918 - invasion of intervention forces (North, Far East, Transcaucasia, uprising of the Czechoslovak corps) and speeches by internal opponents of the Bolshevik power (Volunteer Army, Komuch, Siberian government in Omsk, etc.) - Soviet Republic in the ring of fronts;.

autumn 1918 - March 1919 - counter-offensive of the Red Army on Eastern Front, on the Don, in the Baltic states; expansion of intervention (in the South of Russia) and actions of anti-Bolshevik forces (Directory in Ukraine, A.V. Kolchak in Siberia, Armed Forces of the South of Russia, troops of N.N. Yudenich in the North-West);

March 1919 - March 1920 - decisive battles on the Eastern and Southern fronts; defeat of N.N. troops by the Red Army Yudenich (near Petrograd), A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin;

April - November 1920 - the final stage of the war in the European part of Russia: the Soviet-Polish war, the defeat of the army of P.N. Wrangel in Crimea;

end of 1920 - 1922 - end of the Civil War throughout the entire territory of the RSFSR (Transcaucasia, Far East)

1919-1920 - publication of decrees of the Council of People's Commissars on the elimination of illiteracy, the opening of workers' faculties (workers' faculties)

1.2. Basic Concepts

Provisional government. Dual power. Kornilov rebellion. Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC). All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Council of People's Commissars. Decree. Constituent Assembly. Dictatorship of the proletariat. Red Guard attack on capital. Nationalization. Confiscation. "War communism". Committees of the Poor (Committees of the Poor). Surplus appropriation. Food detachment. Subbotnik. Sabotage. Civil war. Intervention. Reds. Whites, White movement. "Green". Terror. Emigration. Contribution. Reparations. Educational program, workers' faculty.

1.3. Historical sources

Order of the Petrograd Soviet, “April Theses” by V.I. Lenin, Decree on Peace, Decree on Land, “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” (November 1917), “Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People” (January 1918).

Russia, USSR in the 1920-1930s.

1.1. Key dates and events

Establishment of diplomatic relations of the RSFSR with neighboring states:

1920 - signing of peace treaties with Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland;

1921 - signing of the Riga Peace Treaty with Poland (March), peace treaties with Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Mongolia

March 1921 - X Congress of the RCP(b), transition from the policy of “War Communism” to the new economic policy; decree on replacing the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind

1922 - confiscation of church valuables, trials against church ministers

April - May 1922 - participation of the RSFSR delegation in the Genoa Conference, signing of the Soviet-German Treaty in Rapallo

August 1922 - expulsion of scientific and cultural figures from Russia (“philosophical ship”)

December 30, 1922 - I All-Union Congress of Soviets, approval of the Declaration and Treaty on education of the USSR

January 1924 - approval of the Constitution of the USSR

1924-1925 - streak of diplomatic recognition of the USSR: establishment of diplomatic relations with 13 states (Great Britain, Italy, France, etc.)

December 1925 - XIV Congress of the CPSU (b), adoption of a course for accelerated industrialization

December 1927 - 10th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), putting forward the tasks of collectivization

1928 - introduction of five-year plans:

1st Five-Year Plan 1928-1932,

2nd Five-Year Plan - 1933-1937

1929 - expulsion of L.D. Trotsky from the USSR

1931 - release of the first Soviet sound films

1932, 1934 - creation of creative unions: the Union of Composers of the USSR, the Union of Soviet Architects, the Union of Soviet Writers

1933 - establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and the USA

1933-1934 - polar expedition O.Yu. Schmidt on the ship "Chelyuskin"

1934 - XVII Congress of the CPSU (b) - “Congress of the Winners” September

1934 - admission of the USSR to the League of Nations

December 1934 - murder of S.M. Kirov

May 1935 - signing of mutual assistance agreements with France and Czechoslovakia

Launch of the first line of the Moscow Metro

August 1935 - the beginning of the Stakhanov movement

1936-1937 - a series of political trials of prominent party figures and military leaders

December 1936 - acceptance new Constitution USSR

1936-1939 - the Soviet Union providing assistance to the Spanish Republic

1937 - non-stop flights of Soviet pilots to the USA

1938 - armed conflict between Soviet and Japanese troops in the area of ​​Lake Khasan

1939 - battles between Soviet and Japanese troops in the area of ​​the river. Khalkhin Gol (Mongolia)

August 1939 - negotiations between the military delegations of the USSR, Great Britain and France in Moscow.

August 23, 1939 - signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact and the secret protocol on the division of spheres of interest in Eastern Europe

December 1939 - exclusion of the USSR from the League of Nations

1939-1940 - inclusion of territories into the USSR Western Ukraine and Western Belarus (1939),

Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina(1940)

1.2. Basic Concepts

New economic policy(NEP). Tax in kind. Cost accounting. Concession. Syndicate, trust. GOELRO plan. Industrialization. Collectivization, collective farm, twenty-five thousandth, “great turning point.” Five-year plan. Drummer. Stakhanov movement.

Trotskyism. Repressions, “Great Terror”, Gulag. Antonovschina. Autonomation. Federation.

Cultural revolution. Socialist realism. Comintern. League of Nations. Peaceful coexistence. Collective security policy.

1.3. Historical sources

“Letter to the Congress” by V.I. Lenin (1923). Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the pace of collectivization and measures of state assistance to collective farm construction” (1930). Article by I.V. Stalin's "Dizziness from Success" (1930).

Great Patriotic War 1941-1945

World War II 1939-1945

1.1. Main periods

1944 - May 9, 1945 - the final period of the Great Patriotic War and wars in Europe, the liberation of the USSR and European countries, the defeat of Nazi Germany

1.2. Key dates and events

December 1941 - Japanese troops attack Pearl Harbor, US entry into the war

April - May - unsuccessful offensive of the Red Army in Crimea

May - creation of the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement

January - breaking the siege of Leningrad

January - February - liberation of the Caucasus

August 5 - the first fireworks display in Moscow in honor of the victory of the Soviet troops (liberation of Orel and Belgorod)

August - December - Battle of the Dnieper

1944 Military operations of the Soviet troops and the most important events in the general course of the war

January - February - Leningrad-Novgorod operation, Korsun - Shevchenko operation

January - March - Dnieper-Carpathian operation

April - May - Crimean operation

June - August - Belarusian operation (“Bagration”)

July - August - Lviv-Sandomierz operation

July - September - Baltic operation

August - Iasi-Kishinev operation

September - October - East Carpathian operation

October - Petsamo-Kirkenes operation

January - February - Vistula-Oder operation

January - April - East Prussian and Pomeranian operation

February - Crimean (Yalta) Conference of Heads of Government of the USSR, Great Britain and the USA

February - Budapest operation

March - April - Vienna operation

April - June 1945 - United Nations conference in San Francisco, adoption of the UN Charter

July 11 - August 1 - Berlin (Potsdam) conference of heads of government of the USSR, Great Britain and the USA

August 8 - the USSR entered the war against Japan, during August - the defeat of the Kwantung Army

1.3. Basic Concepts

Patriotic War. Evacuation. Card system. Deportation. Blockade. "Blitzkrieg" (lightning war). Occupation, genocide. Partisan movement. Underground. "Rail War". A radical turning point in the course of the war. Anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-Lease. Second front. Reparations. Occupation zones.

1.4. Historical sources

Plan "Barbarossa", plan "Ost". Statement of the Soviet government on June 22, 1941. Order No. 227 (“Not a step back!”). UN Charter (1945)

USSR in 1945-1991.

1.1. Main periods

The main periods in the history of the Soviet state and society of the second half of the twentieth century. Several periods are distinguished, characterized by different processes and trends in the development of the country, changes in the policies of government leaders:

second half of the 1940s - early 1950s. - post-war reconstruction, “the apogee of Stalinism.”

second half of the 1950s - mid-1960s. - “thaw”, liberal trends and contradictions of the Khrushchev leadership

second half of the 1960s - mid-1980s. - conservation of political and economic fundamentals social system, Brezhnev’s “stagnation”

second half of the 1980s - “perestroika”, course M.S. Gorbachev for change in internal development and foreign policy

1.2. Key dates and events

1946-1950 - five-year plan for the restoration and further development of the national economy (4th five-year plan)

1947 - monetary reform, abolition of the card system

1949 - creation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA)

Test of the first Soviet atomic bomb

1946-1953 - a wave of ideological and political

campaigns and repressions (decrees on magazines, films, musical works, campaign against “cosmopolitanism”, “Leningrad case”, “doctors’ case”)

March 1953 - death of I.V. Stalin

September 1953 - election N.S. Khrushcheva First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee

Testing of the first hydrogen bomb in the USSR

1950-1955 - the beginning of the rehabilitation of victims of Stalinist repressions

1954 - the beginning of the development of virgin and fallow lands

Launch of the world's first nuclear power plant

1955 - creation of the Warsaw Pact Organization

October 1956 - XX Congress of the CPSU

Participation of Soviet troops in suppressing the uprising in Hungary

February 1957 - creation of economic councils instead of ministries

June 1957 - condemnation of the “anti-party group” V.M. Molotov, G.M. Malenkova, L.M. Kaganovich

summer 1957 - holding the VI World Festival of Youth and Students in Moscow

October 1957 - launch of the world's first artificial Earth satellite

1961 – XXII Congress of the CPSU, adoption of the program for building communism

June 1962 - suppression of workers' protest in Novocherkassk

October 1962 - Cuban Missile Crisis

1963 - signing in Moscow of an agreement between the USSR, Great Britain and the USA on the prohibition nuclear tests in the atmosphere, space, underwater

October 1964 - removal of research assistant Khrushchev from the leadership of the party and the country, election as First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee

L.I.Brezhneva

1965 - the beginning of economic reform (Kosygin reform), restoration of the sectoral method of economic management

mid-1960s - the beginning of the dissident movement

August 1968 - entry of troops of the USSR and other member states of the Warsaw Division into Czechoslovakia

1975 - participation of the USSR delegation in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki)

October 1977 - adoption of the new Constitution of the USSR (the Constitution of “developed socialism”)

December 1979 - entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, beginning of the Afghan war

summer 1980 - the XXII Olympic Games were held in Moscow

May 1982 - adoption of the Food Program

November 1982 - death of L.I. Brezhnev

November 1982 - February 1984 - holding leadership positions in the party and state Yu.V. Andropova

February 1984 - March 1985 - holding leadership positions in the party and state K.U. Chernenko

March 1985 - election M.S.Gorbachev General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee

1986 - accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant

1987 - signing of an agreement between the USSR and the USA on the elimination of intermediate- and shorter-range nuclear missiles

1988 - XIX Conference of the CPSU, the beginning of political reforms

May-June 1989 – First Congress of People's Deputies

1989 - completion of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan

1990-1991 - withdrawal of Soviet troops from Eastern European countries

March - May 1990 - decisions of the parliaments of Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia on the restoration of the independence of the republics

June 1991 - election B.N. Yeltsin President of the RSFSR

1991 - dissolution of the Department of Internal Affairs and CMEA

August 1991 - State Emergency Committee speech

December 1991 - Belovezhskaya agreements “On the dissolution of the USSR (B.N. Yeltsin, L.M. Kravchuk, S.S. Shushkevich)

and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CHS)",

Statement by M.S. Gorbachev on his resignation from the post of President of the USSR

1.3. Basic Concepts

Currency reform. Passport regime. "Cosmopolitanism". Formalism in art. "Lysenkoism." Personality cult.

De-Stalinization. Rehabilitation. Liberalization. Voluntarism. Decentralization of management. Sovnarkhoz. Scientific and technological revolution. Military-industrial complex. "Stagnation". Nomenclature. Commodity shortage. Shadow economy.

"Thaw". Sixties. Dissidents. Samizdat. Human rights activists. "Cold War", "Iron Curtain". Caribbean crisis. Peaceful coexistence. Relief of international tension. Helsinki process. Military-strategic parity. Bipolar system of international relations.

Perestroika. Multi-party system. Publicity. Market economy. Corporatization. Cooperation. Lease contract. CIS. Regional conflicts. New political thinking in international relations. Demilitarization

1.4. Historical sources

Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (b) on the magazines “Zvezda” and (“Leningrad” (1946). Report by N.S. Khrushchev “On the cult of personality and its consequences” (1956). Constitution of the USSR 1977 “Declaration of state sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic"(1990). Bialowieza Accords 1991

Russia in 1992-2004

1.2. Key dates and events

January 1992 - announcement of the Russian Federation as the legal successor of the USSR in international issues

March 1992 - signing of the Federal Agreement “On the delimitation of subjects, jurisdiction and powers between the federal government bodies of the Russian Federation and the authorities of the republics within the Russian Federation)

August 1992 - beginning of voucher privatization

January 1993 - signing of the Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START-2) by the leaders of the Russian Federation and the United States (B.N. Yeltsin, G. Bush)

March 1993 - the beginning of the confrontation between the highest legislative (Supreme Council) and executive (President) powers

October 3-4, 1993 - armed clashes between supporters of the President and Supreme Council; storming of the White House by government troops

December 12, 1993 - the first elections to the State Duma in post-Soviet history and a referendum on the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation

January 11, 1994 - the beginning of the work of the Russian parliament - the Federal Assembly (consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma)

March 1996 - Decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On the implementation of the constitutional rights of citizens to land”

July 1996 - election of B.N. Yeltsin as President of the Russian Federation for a second term

August 1998 - default, devaluation of the ruble

May 1999 - discussion in the State Duma of the issue of impeachment of President B.N. Yeltsin

September 1999 - the beginning of hostilities (“counter-terrorism operation”) of federal troops in Chechnya

March 2000 - election V.V.Putin for the post of President of the Russian Federation

March 2004 - election of V.V. Putin to the post of President of the Russian Federation for a second term

September. 2004 - terrorists seized a school in Beslan (North Ossetia)

1.3. Basic Concepts

Presidential republic. Federal Assembly. Federation Council. State Duma. Separation of powers.

Referendum. Impeachment. Privatization. Liberalization of prices. "Shock therapy". Promotion. Exchange. Voucher. Devaluation. Default. Conversion. CIS. Near abroad.

1.4. Historical sources

Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993).

Decree “On the implementation of the constitutional rights of citizens to land” (1996).

Law “On the privatization of state property and the basis for the privatization of municipal property in the Russian Federation” (1997)

« Who can live well in Rus'? "(N. Nekrasov, production: "Who can live well in Rus'?")

« Rus', where are you going? ? (N.V. Gogol, production “Dead Souls”)

- « Who's to blame? "(A.I. Herzen, production: “Who is to blame?”)

- « What to do? "(I. G. Chernyshevsky, production "What to do")

« Who to be? » (V.V. Mayakovsky, production “Who to be?”)

Periodization of Russian history

Traditionally, Russian history is counted from 862, when the Varangians from Scandinavia came to Rus' and became princes of the Russian lands. Russian civilization is relatively young.

The history of Russia can be divided into 5 cycles:

9th-13th centuries

The period of prosperity was reached under Yaroslav the Wise in the 12th century, when Kievan Rus became one of the leaders of medieval society. The cycle ended as a result of the feudal fragmentation of the state and the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

14th century – beginning of the 17th century.

The center of the country was moved to Moscow, and a Moscow State. The cycle reached its peak under Ivan III and ended in national catastrophe during the Time of Troubles.

Early 17th century - early 20th century

The third cycle began with the accession of the Romanov dynasty and reached its peak during the reign of Peter I and Catherine II. Russian Empire became one of the world powers. However, then conservative tendencies prevailed, and there was a delay in the transition to an industrial society (almost a century compared to Europe). The completion of this cycle is a series of national catastrophes: defeat in the war with Japan, in the First World War, the collapse of the Russian Empire and civil war.

20 20 century – 1991

The Russian Bolsheviks, with difficulty and using violent methods, reassembled most of the disintegrated empire under the rule of a single center. Local civilization is being revived again, but for the first time not under the flag of Orthodoxy, but of socialism. Soviet Union became a superpower. This cycle ended with economic and geopolitical weakening, internal national problems and then the collapse of the USSR.

Many people think that in the 20th century. The natural course of Russian history was interrupted by a catastrophe. Tens of millions of people died at the hands of their fellow citizens and with their consent. There was a sharp degradation of morals and culture. This situation is sometimes compared to the death of classical ancient culture.

Since 1991

Having abandoned socialist ideology and overcome the economic crisis of the 90s, Russian Federation looking for a way to a better future.

(According to the book by Kononenko, B.I.: Culture. Civilization. Russia.)

Features of Russian history

Several times in the thousand-year history of Russia, radical socio-political and economic transformations took place (the era of the reign of Peter I, socialism, reforms of the 90s of the 20th century).
Several times the country reached a dead end (Time of Troubles, socialism). The population often experienced disasters. Wars and famines recurred.

However, against the tragic background of Russian history, arose high culture, stages of upsurges in spirituality were observed, world successes were achieved in science.

East-West

Russian history alternates between eastern and western phases. Russians see their country as largely Asian, which needs to be civilized along the European path.
Western historians see in Russia more of a type of Eastern society (people rule, not the law; power is concentrated in the hands of one person; there is no understanding of the individual as an absolute value).
However, Russian civilization can generally be considered hybrid: it includes elements of Europeanism and Asianism.

Eastern Slavs and Kievan Rus

Eastern Slavs

In the 6th-8th centuries. during the final stage Great Migration various tribes of the Eastern Slavs (for example, Vyatichi, Drevlyans, Krivichi, etc.) settled over a vast area from the Middle Dnieper in the south to Lake Ladoga in the north, from the Western Bug in the west to the Volga in the east.
Although the conditions for the effective development of agriculture in these areas were unsuitable due to the harsh climate (the fertile southern steppe regions were occupied by nomadic tribes - Cumans, Pechenegs, Turks, Khazars, etc.), the Eastern Slavs were mainly engaged in agriculture, as well as hunting and fishing and cattle breeding. They traded honey, wax, and furs.
At the head of the East Slavic communities were the prince and his squads. Their residences were fortified settlements - cities.

The religion of the Eastern Slavs was paganism - they revered natural gods (Perun - the main god, the god of thunder and lightning, Radegast - the god of the sun).

Rus' and Kievan Rus

The north-south water trade route passed along the Dnieper and Volkhov rivers "from the Varangians to the Greeks". This route was chosen by the Varangians, a northern tribe of Scandinavians (Vikings) for trade with Byzantium. Large cities arose on it - Novgorod And Kyiv.

In 862, the Varangians created the earliest union of East Slavic lands in Novgorod - Rus, later called Kievan Rus.
The Varangians left traces in the Russian language - for example, the name Vladimir = Waldemar, Olga = Helga. The word “Rus” possibly comes from the Finnish “Ruotsi”, which, according to one hypothesis, was the name of the tribes of the Eastern Slavs.

The first ruler of Rus' was the Varangian prince (Hrörekr, Roderick) who came to Novgorod. The founder of the first dynasty of Russian rulers - the Rurikovichs. Under Rurik's heir, prince Oleg, Kyiv was annexed to his lands, which became the capital of the principality.

In 988 under the prince Vladimir Orthodox Christianity, borrowed from Byzantium, was adopted. A sculpture of the pagan god Perun in Kyiv was thrown into the Dnieper River.
After baptism, it penetrates into Rus' Slavic writing, created in the 9th century. Cyril and Methodius.

Kievan Rus developed intensive trade and cultural ties with Byzantium. Byzantine civilization left many traces in Russian society.

Kievan Rus reaches its peak in the half of the 11th century. at Yaroslav the Wise. At this time, it was part of the advanced European states, and its rich diplomatic and trade ties with Europe were strengthened. Yaroslav's sons married European princesses, his daughters married European kings.
Under Yaroslav, the first set of laws of Ancient Rus' was adopted - Russian Truth .
In 1125, with the end of the reign Vladimir Monomakh, Kievan Rus broke up into separate principalities.

The first written monument testifying to the early history of Russia is the chronicle The Tale of Bygone Years , created by monks in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra.

On initial stage development of Rus' played important role geographical location at the crossroads of Eurasian trade and migration routes. The history of that time is an almost continuous struggle between sedentary (mostly Slavic) and nomadic (mostly Asian) peoples. Kievan Rus blocked the way to the west for hordes of nomads. A myth arises about Russia as the “shield of Europe.”

Period of feudal fragmentation

After the collapse of Kievan Rus, a system of separate, in fact independent principalities. They developed around the large cities of Kievan Rus. The most significant: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Smolensk, Chernigov, Later Tverskoye.

Novgorod land

Novgorod was the most developed, largest shopping center. He had his own money, laws, army, government system (“boyar republic”). The most valuable architectural monuments arose here.
The famous prince was from Novgorod Alexander Nevsky, who twice defended the land from enemies - from the Swedes (battle on the Neva River, 1240) and the Teutonic knights (Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipsi, 1242).

Mongol-Tatar yoke

At the beginning of the 13th century. a large army of new nomads led by Genghis Khan approached the southeastern borders of Rus'.
In 1237, a union of Mongol tribes was founded in the lower reaches of the Volga River. Golden Horde. From here the Mongols invaded Russian lands, took Ryazan, Vladimir, Moscow, and ravaged Kyiv. From Rus', Mongol troops began a campaign in Central Europe.
For 240 years, Russian lands were practically a protectorate Mongol Empire and paid her an annual tribute.
In 1380, the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Tatars in Battle of Kulikovo Field and marked the beginning of liberation.

Consequences of the invasion

Many cities were destroyed, crafts were forgotten, and construction was stopped. The invasion caused a deep decline in culture and a long lag between Russia and Western Europe.

An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar. (Russian folk proverb)

Moscow State

The Moscow princes took advantage of Moscow's advantageous position in the center of the Russian principalities and, with the help of the Golden Horde, eliminated their rivals (princes of the cities of Vladimir, Ryazan and Tver). Moscow began to claim the role of a center in the process of “gathering Russian lands.”
In the middle of the 15th century. The Horde split into the Crimean, Astrakhan, Kazan and Siberian khanates.

Ivan III

In 1462, Ivan III, “Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus',” ascended the throne. The era of his reign is associated with the centralization of the country and calm on its eastern borders. Ivan III annexed the appanage principalities: he suppressed separatism in Novgorod, conquered Yaroslavl, Tver, Pskov, Ryazan. During the reign of the heirs of Ivan III, the borders of the Moscow state continued to expand.

Ideological platform of the Moscow state

• ancient origin of the power of rulers from the Rurik dynasty
• the power of the sovereign is from God himself, the ruler is a fighter for the true faith
• Moscow – “the third Rome” (Moscow is the spiritual center of world Christianity)

After overcoming the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, a huge rise of culture. Stone Kremlin cathedrals grew, and valuable monuments of painting (icons and frescoes by Andrei Rublev) and literature (chronicles, hagiographies) arose.

Under Ivan III the first central government bodies(“orders” and institutions, decisive issues government affairs - for example, the Ambassadorial Prikaz, the predecessor of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
Was written Code of Law , a new set of laws.
A merchant class was formed (for example, the famous old Stroganov family), crafts and construction developed. However, in economic field The life of people (the population numbered about 6.5 million) in the Moscow state developed unevenly - booms alternated with stagnation, there were frequent crop failures and plague epidemics.

Ivan IV the Terrible

In 1533, three-year-old Ivan IV (later nicknamed the Terrible) ascended the Moscow throne. Throughout his childhood and youth, when he could not actually rule, there was a struggle between boyar factions at court.
In 1547, 16-year-old Ivan, as the first Russian Grand Duke, was officially crowned king.

Personality of Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV grew up in an atmosphere of conspiracies and murders, without a mother, which greatly influenced his psyche. After his beloved wife died, he lost the last signs of humanity. The king, in a fit of anger, even killed his son.

Public Administration Reforms

The young tsar and his boyar assistants carried out a number of reforms.
Created the first Russian parliament - Zemsky Sobor. A system of orders from central bodies governing different areas of the state has developed.
The population paid cash and in-kind taxes.

Trade Development

In Ivan the Terrible's Russia, industry and trade relations with other countries, mainly Persia and England, developed. English and Dutch merchants and entrepreneurs often arrived in Russia at that time.

Foreign policy and wars

A semi-regular army emerges, and the Tsar fights the enemies of Russia with military means. He manages to conquer the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates (their lands turn into almost deserted spaces); later the Siberian Khanate was also defeated. Lands along the entire Volga River were annexed to Russia, and the occupied territories were colonized. Russia for the first time became multinational state(non-Slavic and non-Orthodox peoples lived in the newly annexed territories).

At the end of the 50s. 16th century started Livonian Wars(Livonia - today's Latvia and Estonia), which actually ended in the defeat of Russia.

Repression

The monarch's individual power gradually strengthened and his suspicion deepened; the policy of repression affected all segments of the population.
The king divided the state in two: into the so-called. "oprichnina", which included those whom he trusted (the territory of the “oprichnina” occupied a third of the country). Here the boyars, who became the executors of the policy of tsarist terror, ruled in their own way, not constraining themselves by any laws. It was forbidden to talk about the “oprichnina” in the presence of foreigners. The rest of Russia was called "Zemshchina".
Many thousands of people died during the terror. The most terrible evil was the defeat and depopulation of Novgorod.

Consequences of the reign of Ivan IV

Muscovite Rus', led by the first Tsar, expanded significantly, turned into a multinational state and began to be called Russia. A strictly centralized monarchy was created.

Time of Troubles

(vague = strange, unclear; turmoil - excitement, rebellion)
The Time of Troubles or Time of Troubles is the name of a stage in the history of Russia when dynasties changed in difficult and unclear conditions.
After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible in 1584, his mentally retarded son became the heir to the throne. Feodor I, who entrusted the conduct of state affairs to his brother-in-law, the guardsman Boris Godunov. Second son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry, died unexpectedly at the age of eight; Godunov was unofficially accused of his murder. After the death of Tsar Feodor, the Zemsky Sobor elected Godunov as tsar. The Rurik dynasty came to an end.

Reign of Boris Godunov

The reign of Boris Godunov was plagued by failures - terrible harvest failures and famines, epidemics, invasions, uprisings, in which the people saw signs of God's wrath.
At the end of the 16th century. measures were taken to establish serfdom in Russia.

Impostors

In an atmosphere of general discontent and chaos, impostors appear who act as the heirs of Ivan IV.
In Poland (at that time the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), one young man declared himself the miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry. Boris Godunov was killed as a result of a conspiracy, and after the capture of Moscow by the Poles in 1605, an impostor was elevated to the throne in Russia. He entered the history of Russia under the name False Dmitry I. The Russians learned that this was not the real Russian Tsar, as various legends say, for example, by the fact that he did not sleep after dinner, as was customary in Russia, and did not go to the bathhouse. The conspirators soon got rid of the new king.

Then the royal throne passed from hand to hand, and for some time it was again at the disposal of the Poles.
Only in 1613, with the help of the popular patriotic movement (led by Novgorodians Minin and Pozharsky), the Russian throne was liberated from the power of foreigners. The Zemsky Sobor elected to reign Mikhail Romanov. The reign of the Romanov royal dynasty begins.

Board of Mikhail Romanov

The first decades of Romanov power were associated with the tightening of serfdom. The culmination of the peasant resistance was uprising of the Don Cossack Stepan Razin (1667–1671).
Cossacks are former serfs who ran away from their owners, free people living on the outskirts of Russian territory.