Linguistics as a science is connected with other sciences. Connection of linguistics with other sciences applied linguistics

Subject, tasks and problems of the science of language. The relationship between private and general linguistics.

Linguistics (language) is a science that studies human language(s) in general and individual (living or dead languages). The subject of linguistics is language.

Properties common to all languages:

·Media of communication

· A means of expressing thoughts

· Reflects a person’s knowledge of reality

· In all selves there are structural units: owl, sounds, sentences.

· Functions both orally and in writing.

Stability/variability

· Standardization and stylistic division.

General language studies the structure of the functioning of the self, i.e. everything that is characteristic of all languages of the world.

Private language – a branch of linguistics that studies the structure, life and history of a specific language or several languages at the same time. Can study language in a synchronic aspect (studies linguistic phenomena in one time plane). Studying language in a diachronic aspect - studying a language that affects different time periods, studying the development of language.

General language in relation to the particular, it is a methodological science, i.e. it provides a theoretical basis for solving any specific issue of private linguistics. Private language in relation to the general gives him material on the basis of which a general theoretical conclusion is drawn.

Applied language - I am studying. in the practical aspect: speech culture, learning foreign languages, computational linguistics, writing, etc.

Objectives of linguistics:

· Determine the nature of language (answer the question “What is language?”)

· Develop a theory applicable to different languages in their scientific study

· Highlight the main aspects of the science of language and the discipline of their study

· Find the basis for the classification of all languages

· Systematize methods and techniques of linguistics, i.e. answer the question “How to learn a language?”

· Develop and organize special linguistic terminology (metalanguage of science)

A metalanguage of linguistics is a language of the 2nd order, that is, the language of a particular people, intended for a special purpose: in it linguists think, talk and write about the language.

Language problems:

· View of the nature of the self as a natural sign system

· The essence of the concept of “I”, speech, speech activity

· Structure of the self: basic units of the self, types of relationships between them.

· Functions of self and speech

· Correlation between self and thinking

· Historical development.

· The concept of linguistic kinship, genealogical classification.

· History of writing...

Connection of linguistics with other sciences. Basic methods of learning languages.

Linguistics belongs to the cycle of the humanities and is included in the circle of sciences about human society and human culture, such as sociology, history, and ethnography. Linguistics has close connections with logic and psychology, and through psychology also with the physiology of higher nervous activity.

IN last decades As a result of the interaction of linguistics with other sciences, new scientific disciplines arose:

· Psycholinguistics

· Mathematical linguistics

· Sociolinguistics, etc.

Basic methods of learning languages:

· Descriptive is a set of methods when one self is described. In the description I. includes compilation of a language dictionary and grammar. Highest form language is a literary language, which means the establishment of literary norms. The result of the description is dictionaries and grammar.

· Comparative-historical is a method whose object is the totality of the self. The comparative historical method establishes signs of kinship and genealogical classification of self.

· Comparative - this method includes the study and comparison of two languages, regardless of the degree of their relationship. They are studied in a synchronous aspect.

3. Language as the most important tool human communication. Paralinguistic means of communication. Constructed languages. "Languages" of animals.

Language is the most important means of human communication. Tool. (V.I. Lenin)

Paralinguistics (Greek para - “about”) is a section of language that studies non-verbal (non-linguistic) means that, together with verbal ones, convey semantic information in the composition voice message, as well as the totality of such funds.

Types of paralinguistic means:

· Kinetic- gestures, posture, facial expressions of the speaker.

· Phonation- tempo, timbre, volume of speech, pause fillers, melody of speech, dialectal, social or idiolectal features of the articulation of sounds.

· Graphic- features of handwriting, graphic additions to letters, letter substitutes.

Functions of paralinguistic means:

· Carrying additional information.

· Substitution of the verbal element.

· Combination with verbal means to express general meaning.

· Source of information about the speaker.

Artificial languages are written or spoken languages created for international or professional communication. Types:

· A priori – the grammar of the language is not related to natural language (Loglan, Lojban, Rho, Chengli...).

· Aposterior – based on real linguistic phenomena (occidental, interlingua).

· Mixed – a priori-partial (Ido, Sevorian, Volapuk, Esperanto)

Animal language is a set of ways of exchanging information between animals. The most important feature is his emotional character. Elements of this language are expressive exclamations like “Attention!”, “Danger!” etc. Another important feature of animal language is the dependence of the alphabet of signals on the situation. Animal languages: postures and body movements, smells, sounds, colors.

Language serves almost all spheres of human life, therefore the study of language, establishing its place and role in human life and society, in the knowledge of phenomena necessarily leads to broad connections between linguistics and other sciences - the humanities, natural and medical, physical, mathematical and technical.

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The connection between linguistics and the humanities. The closest and most ancient connections exist between linguistics and philology, its integral part is the science of language itself. In fact, linguistics as a science emerged from the depths of philology, which in ancient times was a single undivided science, including literary criticism, textual criticism, poetics, cultural theory and linguistics itself. The opposition between philology and linguistics (grammar) arose already in Ancient Rome. Philology was the study literary form(style) and content of the text, grammar - the study of spelling and text metrics. Much later, in the middle of the 19th century, the main object of philology was established, which in classic version combines literary studies and linguistics into philological sciences. The connection between these two sciences is especially noticeable in such disciplines as stylistics, history of literary language and philological analysis literary text. At the same time, there is a significant difference between the linguistic and literary approaches to language. For linguistics, language is the main and single object research. Linguistics studies primarily the structure and functioning of the language itself, taking into account its connections with other phenomena of reality (consciousness, thinking, culture, literature, etc.). For literary studies, language is only an indirect object of observation, a form of existence of a work of art.

The same ancient connections exist in linguistics with philosophy. IN Ancient Greece Linguistics originated in the depths of philosophy, which stemmed from the worldview of ancient thinkers who viewed space, nature and man as a single whole. The greatest ancient Greek philosophers - Aristotle, Plato, Socrates and others - developed theoretical issues of language, in particular, the problem of the relationship between name and subject. Questions of the philosophy of language receive their further development in linguistics of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the works of the English philosopher F. Bacon (1561-1626), the French thinker R. Descartes (1596-1650), and the German scientist W. Leibniz (1646-1716). In the 19th century, the German linguist W. von Humboldt (1767-1835), developing the philosophy of language in his works, laid the foundation for a new linguistic discipline - general linguistics.

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Philosophy as the science of the most general laws the development of nature, society, man and consciousness gives linguistics general methodological principles approach to language as a phenomenon. The dominant philosophical ideas and trends of a particular era have always influenced the theoretical concepts of language. Philosophical understanding of the essence of language is important and useful for linguistics. In turn, for philosophy the most important question remains of language as a tool of thinking and cognition, as a means of forming concepts and concepts standing between the thinker and reality.

Almost from the earliest stages of the existence of linguistics, its connection with logic. Already Aristotle (384-322 BC) formulated the features of the logical approach to language, which later took shape in a logical direction in linguistics, which remains relevant in modern linguistics. This direction explores the relationship logical forms thinking with linguistic forms of their expression. The logic of human thinking is considered universal, independent of his language, while linguistic phenomena go far beyond the limits of logic.

Already on early stages its origins, linguistics was closely connected with history, in particular, with the history of the creation of written texts and the historical events described in them. Since the 19th century, the historical approach to language has long remained the leading one in linguistics. Chronicles and other written monuments give us an idea of historical events and features of life different nations. Studying the language of written monuments allows us to judge the relationship of different languages and, therefore, the common destinies various peoples, territories of their settlement, migration in time and space. Taking into account external historical factors clarifies the formation of certain languages, the fate individual words and expressions. Thus, massive borrowings of words are observed, as a rule, during the period of active contacts between peoples, reflecting the influence of the people whose language serves as a source of borrowings. For example, in the Peter the Great era, characterized by broad economic, trade, and cultural ties with Western Europe, the Russian language experienced significant influence from Western European

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languages. The intersection of history and linguistics gave birth to one of the most developed and deeply developed disciplines - historical linguistics and its branches - comparative historical linguistics, etymology, and the history of literary languages.

Linguistics closely interacts with other sciences of the historical cycle - archaeology, ethnography, anthropology. Monuments discovered by archaeologists during excavations material culture(dwellings, utensils, clothing, jewelry, settlements, etc.) make it possible to identify its carriers. Ethnographers classify and interpret data archaeological excavations by types of material culture, which is important for linguists to identify areas of distribution of certain languages. Thanks to archaeological excavations, many written monuments were discovered: tablets with the texts of Assyrian laws, stone slabs with hieroglyphic and cuneiform signs, birch bark letters ancient Novgorod etc. Anthropological data are used in linguistics to study the origin of speech among primitive people. The junction of linguistics With These disciplines of the historical cycle gave rise to such areas of linguistics as paleography (Greek palaios - ancient and graphō - write), which studies the creation of written signs and their development, and ethnolinguistics, which studies language in its relation to the culture of the people.

At the intersection of linguistics and sociology Another linguistic discipline arose - sociolinguistics, dedicated to the development of issues of the relationship between language and society. Social differentiation of language, language policy, relationship between language and nation, public functions languages, bilingualism and multilingualism, as well as many other problems and phenomena are studied by sociolinguistics.

In the 19th century a union of linguistics and psychology-psychological direction in linguistics, later called psycholinguistics. The founders of this direction include the German scientist G. Steinthal (1823-1899), the famous Ukrainian linguist A.A. Potebnya (1835-1891) and others. Psycholinguistics is trying to establish linguistics as a science

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psychological, considering all the most essential phenomena of language as mental. The inner spiritual and mental world of a person is most clearly manifested, perhaps, with the help of language. The reflection of spiritual, mental, emotional and mental activity by linguistic forms, the diverse features of the processes of generation, perception and understanding of speech are in the field of view of psycholinguistics.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Another borderline area of linguistics is emerging - lingo-semiotics, the emergence of which is associated with the largest linguist of the 20th century, the Swiss F. de Saussure (1857-1913). Semiotics(gr. sēmeiōtikē - the study of signs) as science studies any sign systems, their general properties: telegraph code, flag signaling, road signs, military insignia differences, sign languages etc. Since natural language is the main and most complex classical sign system, semiotics studies language along with other sign systems.

The connection between linguistics and medical and natural sciences. The oldest connections between linguistics and physiology, since the ancient Indians already described sounds on a physiological basis. Physiology and neurophysiology study the structure of the speech apparatus, education speech sounds in it, the perception of the speech flow by the hearing organs, the reflex physiological basis of the language.

Close connection exists in linguistics since neurology-the science of human higher nervous activity. The junction of these two sciences formed a new linguistic discipline - neurolinguistics, which arose around the second half of the 19th century. One of its founders is considered to be the outstanding Russian-Polish linguist I.A. Baudouin de Courtin (1845-1929). Neurolinguistics studies human language behavior not only in normal conditions, but also in pathologies. The study of all kinds of speech disorders - aphasia - gives linguists a lot not only to understand normal speech, but also to study the structure of language and its functioning.

Around the middle of the 19th century. under the influence evolutionary theory Charles Darwin formed a union of linguistics and biology, a view of language as natural arises, natural phenomenon -

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naturalistic direction in linguistics. Its founder is considered to be the German linguist A. Schleicher (1821-1868). In the 20th century as a result of the discovery of structural similarities genetic code and natural language, neurolinguistics is expanding its boundaries, forming a close alliance with biology.

Linguistics has fairly strong connections with geography. Often geographical factors serve as a prerequisite for linguistic facts: the features of the mountain landscape in the Caucasus or the Pamirs predetermine the existence of small numbers of native speakers; wide open areas As a rule, they contribute to the separation of dialects, and limited dialects - to their rapprochement; seas and oceans served in ancient times as an obstacle to wide language contacts etc. As a result of contacts between linguistics and geography in late XIX V. A hybrid discipline arose - linguistic geography, which studies the territorial distribution of languages and dialects, as well as individual linguistic phenomena.

Toponymy is also of a linguogeographical nature - a section of lexicology that studies various geographical names (mountains, seas, oceans, lakes, rivers, settlements, localities, etc.). The study of such names often provides reliable historical information about the settlement of tribes, the migration of peoples, and the peculiarities of the way of life of people in different eras.

Connection of linguistics with physical, mathematical and technical sciences. The connection between linguistics and physics, one of its branches - acoustics, found already among the ancient Greeks, who studied speech sounds on an acoustic basis. The connection with acoustics remains relevant for modern linguistics, which led to the formation of a new linguistic discipline - experimental phonetics, which widely uses instruments in the study of speech sounds.

At the end of the 20th century. a close union of linguistics with theoretical physics, with those sections that deal with the creation unified theories of the universe. It turned out that obtaining a unified physical consistent theory about the structure of the world is possible only with the help of natural language and only with a clear understanding of the structure of consciousness. This put before

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the need to study structural< связей между языком, мозгом, сознанием, человеком, объектами микромира и макромира. Этими вопросами занимается современнная нейролингвистика.

In the 50s XX century at the junction mathematicians and linguistics, mathematical linguistics emerges, developing a formal apparatus for describing natural languages. Mathematical linguistics uses in language learning various branches of mathematics - statistics, probability theory, set theory, algebra, mathematical logic. Application mathematical methods makes it possible to carry out quantitative research various linguistic phenomena, their classification, create frequency dictionaries, study formal compatibility linguistic units, model the processes of generation and perception of speech, apply mathematical ideas in understanding language as a system, reveal some features of a written text (authorship, year of writing, etc.), etc.

Among the mathematical disciplines in contact with linguistics is information theory, or computer science, which studies language as one of the means of storing, processing and transmitting information. Computer science in alliance with linguistics ensures the creation and operation of information retrieval systems and automated systems management.

Modern linguistics is closely related to cybernetics- the science of management and the place of information in management processes. Cybernetics tries to understand language as a natural and powerful information self-regulating system that participates in control processes in almost all areas of human life. Contacts between linguistics and cybernetics led to the formation of engineering linguistics, which studies language in its relation to computers, the possibilities of machine text processing, the possibility of creating analyzers and synthesizers of the human voice, as well as other problems.

Finally, one cannot help but note the most ancient and close connection between linguistics and religion. The first linguistic metaphysical ideas go back to religious teachings, and it was they that became the impetus for the development of linguistics among many ancient peoples.

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Dov. Thus, the idea of the divinity of the Word and its omnipotence (and hence the fear of any linguistic variations Sacred texts) led to the development of linguistics in Ancient India and in the Ancient East. Questions of language have always been of vital importance in the history of religions. Suffice it to recall the disputes about the interpretation of the Word as a factor in church strife in Christianity in the 4th-5th centuries, the hermeneutic (from the Greek hermeneutike - interpretative art; tradition and methods of interpreting polysemantic ancient texts) search for eternal meanings in the theology of the Middle Ages, disputes about the possibility of translating the Bible into national languages during the Renaissance, unsolved problem name-glorification in modern Christianity.

Thus, modern linguistics appears before us as an extensive, multifaceted linguistics that has broad connections with almost all areas of modern knowledge.

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Linguistics as a science and its connection with other sciences

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Girutsky A. A
G51 Introduction to linguistics: Proc. allowance /A.A. Girutsky. - 2nd ed., erased. -Mn.: “TetraSystems”, 2003. - 288 p. ISBN 985-470-090-9. The benefit is fully compliant

Linguistics as a science
Linguistics (linguistics, linguistics) is the science of language, its nature and functions, its internal structure, and patterns of development. Nowadays, science knows about 5,000 different

Origin of language
The question of the origin of language still remains in linguistics an area of general assumptions and hypotheses. If any language, living or dead, but attested in written monuments, can

Logosic theory of the origin of language
In the early stages of the development of civilization, a logos theory arose (from the Greek logos - concept; mind, thought) of the origin of language, which exists in several different ways.

Onomatopoeia theory
The theory of onomatopoeia comes from one of the widespread and influential directions of ancient Greek philosophy - Stoicism. It received support and development in the 19th century. The essence of this

Interjection theory of the origin of language
This theory originates from the Epicureans, opponents of the Stoics, and more complex options it finds echoes in the science of language to this day. Its essence is that the word arose

Theory of the origin of language from gestures
The founder of this theory is considered to be the German philosopher and psychologist II half of the 19th century V. W. Wundt (1832-1920). At its core, this theory is very close to the interjection theory

Social contract theory
In the 18th century a theory appeared social contract, which was based on antiquity (for example, the opinions of Diodorus Siculus (90-21 BC)), and largely corresponded to the rationalism of the XV

Labor Cry Theory and Labor Theory
In the 19th century in the works of vulgar materialists - the French philosopher L. Noiret (1829-1889) and the German scientist K. Bucher (1847-1930) - a theory of the origin of language from labor was put forward

Nature, essence and functions of language
It is believed that understanding the nature and essence of language is associated with the answer to at least two questions: 1) is language ideal or material? 2) what kind of phenomenon language is - biological, mental,

Ideal and material in language
The structure of the ideal in language is quite multi-layered. It includes the energy of consciousness - spirit, the energy of thinking - thought, which form the ideal elements of language, called

Biological, social and individual in language
In the middle of the 19th century. a view arose of language as a living organism that develops according to the same laws of nature as other living organisms: it is born, matures, reaches its peak,

Language, speech, speech activity
Language is the property of society, but it always manifests itself in the speech of an individual. A.A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920) believed that real existence has the language of each individual, and the language

Language functions
The question of the nature and number of functions of language does not have an unambiguous solution in modern linguistics. Even in educational literature it is interpreted differently. Repeated discussion of questions

Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics (from the Greek phōnē - voice, noise, sound, speech) studies the sound structure of a language, that is, the inventory of sounds, their system, sound laws, as well as the rules for combining sounds in

Acoustics of speech sounds
The general theory of sound deals with the branch of physics - acoustics, which considers sound as the result of the oscillatory movements of any body in any medium. The physical body can

The structure of the speech apparatus and the functions of its parts
Each speech sound is not only a physical, but also a physiological phenomenon, since the central nervous system is involved in the formation and perception of speech sounds. nervous system person. With physiologists

Articulation of sound and its phases
Articulation (from the Latin articulatio - I pronounce articulately) is the work of the speech organs aimed at producing sounds. Each pronounced sound has three articulations

Phonetic division of the speech stream
Speech phonetically represents a continuous stream of sounds following each other in time. The sound stream, however, is not continuous: from a phonetic point of view, it can

Interaction of sounds in the speech stream
Speech sounds, when used as part of a word, beat and phrase, influence each other, undergoing changes. The modification of sounds in the speech chain is called a phonetic process

Stress and intonation
Everything in the speech stream phonetic units- sounds, syllables, words, measures, phrases - are represented by linear segments (segments) of one or another length, located in succession

Phoneme and phoneme system
Prerequisites for the emergence of phonology. Until now, the material side of language has been considered: the physical and physiological embodiment of the ideal essences of language in speech

Morphemics and word formation
A larger unit of language than the phoneme is the morpheme, which occupies an intermediate position between the phoneme and the word. Despite all the disagreements in the approach to morpheme, the only thing in common

Changing the morpheme structure of a word
Morphemic composition words can change over time when affixes, both externally and internally, are closely connected with the roots and with each other. As part of these fusions, the former boundaries of m

Word formation and its basic units
Vocabulary composition Any language is in a state of continuous development, one of the patterns of which is the replenishment of the vocabulary of the language with new words. Replenishment of vocabulary about

Lexicology and semasiology
The basic unit of language is the word. Language as a tool of thinking and communication is primarily a system of words; it is in the word that language acquires its integrity and completeness, being formed in the process

The word as the central unit of language
Word structure. The word, as the central unit of language, has a very complex structure, in which the language also receives its structural integrity and completeness (see diagram). Actually

Lexical meaning and its types
Lexical meaning is most often understood as a historically formed connection between the sound of a word and the reflection of an object or phenomenon in our minds, designated

Development of the lexical meaning of a word
Polysemy. Most words in a language have not one, but several meanings that appeared over a long period of time historical development. So, the noun gr

Lexico-semantic groupings of words
Back in the last century, Russian semasiologist M.M. Pokrovsky (1868-1942) drew attention to the fact that “words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other,” but are united in our soul not

Chronological stratification of the vocabulary of the language
Vocabulary fund. The vocabulary of any language can be described not only on the basis of semantic similarity and contrast of words, reflecting the systematic nature of the vocabulary

Stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of the language
In every literary language, the vocabulary is distributed stylistically. Generally accepted classification stylistic stratification there is no vocabulary, it varies from car to car

Onomastics
Onomastics (from the Greek onomastik - the art of giving names) is a branch of lexicology that studies any proper names. This term also refers to the totality of one’s own

Phraseology
Phraseology and phraseological units. Phraseology (from the Greek phrásis, gen. phráseos - expression and logos - word, doctrine) is a branch of lexicology that studies

Etymology
The vocabulary of a language represents that side of it that is more susceptible to historical changes. Words change their meanings and sound appearance, which is often done

Lexicography
Lexicography (from the Greek lexikon - dictionary, graphō - write) is the science of dictionaries and the practice of compiling them. She is very closely related to lexicology and semasiology

Grammar and its subject
Grammar (from ancient Greek grammatike techne - literally written art, from gramma - letter) is a branch of linguistics that studies grammatical structure language, that is, the laws of structure and

Grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form
Triadic structure language - language, speech, speech activity- is reflected in units of grammar, where grammatical category acts as a unit of language, grammatical sign

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
All variety grammatical forms V languages of the world comes down to a quantifiable and easily observable number of ways

Parts of speech and sentences
The word as an element of morphology and an element of syntax. In grammar, the same word has to be considered both as a morphological phenomenon and as a syntactic phenomenon.

Collocation
Collocation as a unit of syntax. The theory of collocation was developed mainly in Russian linguistics. Foreign linguistics with the concept of phrases benefit

Offer
Sentence as a unit of syntax. Sentence in modern linguistics considered as the basic unit of syntax, contrasting it with words and phrases in form, meaning

Background of the letter
The true history of writing begins with the advent of descriptive writing. But even before that, people communicated at a distance and over time in a variety of ways and means. As a pre

Main stages in the history of writing
Main types of descriptive writing. The development of descriptive writing has historically undergone several stages, characterized by different types of writing. Features

Alphabets, graphics and spelling
Alphabets. The alphabet (from the Greek alphábētos) is a set of letters of any phonemographic script, located in historical in the prescribed manner. The word a itself

Specialized writing systems
To the number specialized systems letters belong to transcription, transliteration and shorthand, serving professional needs. Transcription. Transcript

Languages of the world
As already noted, on globe there are approximately 5,000 languages. The difficulty in determining their exact quantity lies primarily in the fact that in many cases it remains unclear what it is -

Patterns of historical development of languages
About 40 thousand years ago, if not earlier, appears Homo Sapiens, that is, a reasonable person. He knows rock art and uses sound language, which acts as a full-fledged

Tribal languages and the formation of related languages
It is believed that linguistic fragmentation was the condition of humanity at the time of its emergence. This condition is found in many modern typically tribal societies of Africa, Australia,

External and internal laws of language development
In modern linguistics, the concept of laws of language development is not defined clearly enough, since many language changes do not form a constant upward line associated with development

Linguistics is related to:

a) with social sciences(humanities): philosophy, archaeology, ethnography, anthropology, history, psychology, logic, philology (combining literary studies, poetics, folkloristics). Philology studies the language, literature and culture of a given people in their relationships;

b) with the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, physiology, information theory, anatomy, medicine, geography, statistics, cybernetics.

c) in recent decades, new disciplines have emerged at the intersection of traditional fields of knowledge: sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics, etc.

The closest and most ancient connections exist between linguistics and philology; the science of language itself is an integral part of it. In fact, linguistics as a science emerged from the depths of philology, which in ancient times was a single undivided science, including literary criticism, textual criticism, poetics, cultural theory and linguistics itself.

The same ancient connections exist between linguistics and philosophy. In Ancient Greece, linguistics originated in the depths of philosophy, which stemmed from the worldview of ancient thinkers who viewed space, nature and man as a single whole. The greatest ancient Greek philosophers - Aristotle, Plato, Socrates and others - developed theoretical issues of language, in particular, the problem of the relationship between name and subject. Questions of the philosophy of language receive their further development in linguistics of the 17th-18th centuries. in the works of the English philosopher F. Bacon (1561-1626), the French thinker R. Descartes (1596-1650), and the German scientist W. Leibniz (1646-1716). In the 19th century, the German linguist W. von Humboldt (1767-1835), developing the philosophy of language in his works, laid the foundation for a new linguistic discipline - general linguistics. Almost from the earliest stages of the existence of linguistics, its connection with logic has arisen. Already Aristotle (384-322 BC) formulated the features of the logical approach to language, which later took shape in a logical direction in linguistics, which remains relevant in modern linguistics. This direction explores the relationship between logical forms of thinking and linguistic forms of their expression. The logic of human thinking is considered universal, independent of his language, while linguistic phenomena go far beyond the limits of logic. Already in the early stages of its emergence, linguistics was closely connected with history, in particular, with the history of the creation of written texts and the historical events described in them. Since the 19th century, the historical approach to language has long remained the leading one in linguistics. Chronicles and other written monuments give us an idea of historical events and the peculiarities of life of different peoples. Studying the language of written monuments allows us to judge the kinship of different languages and, therefore, the common destinies of different peoples, the territory of their settlement, migration in time and space. Linguistics also closely interacts with other sciences of the historical cycle - archaeology, ethnography, anthropology. Monuments of material culture discovered by archaeologists during excavations (dwellings, utensils, clothing, jewelry, settlement structures, etc.) make it possible to identify its bearers.

At the intersection of linguistics and sociology, a linguistic discipline arose - sociolinguistics, dedicated to the development of issues of the relationship between language and society. Social differentiation of language, language policy, the relationship between language and nation, social functions of language, bilingualism and multilingualism, as well as many other problems and phenomena are studied by sociolinguistics. In the 19th century a union of linguistics and psychology is formed - a psychological direction in linguistics, which later received the name psycholinguistics. The founders of this direction include the German scientist G. Steinthal (1823-1899), the famous Ukrainian linguist A.A. Potebnya (1835-1891) and others. Psycholinguistics tries to establish linguistics as a psychological science, considering all the most significant phenomena of language as mental.

The most ancient connections are between linguistics and physiology, since the ancient Indians already described sounds on a physiological basis. Physiology and neurophysiology study the structure of the speech apparatus, the formation of speech sounds in it, the perception of speech flow by the hearing organs, and the reflex physiological basis of the language. Around the middle of the 19th century. under the influence of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, a union of linguistics and biology was formed, a view of language as a natural, natural phenomenon emerged - a naturalistic direction in linguistics. Its founder is considered to be the German linguist A. Schleicher (1821 -1868). In the 20th century As a result of the discovery of structural similarities between the genetic code and natural language, neurolinguistics expands its boundaries, forming a close alliance with biology. Linguistics and geography have fairly strong connections. Often, geographical factors serve as a prerequisite for linguistic facts: the features of the mountain landscape in the Caucasus or the Pamirs predetermine the existence of small numbers of native speakers.

At the end of the 20th century. a close union of linguistics with theoretical physics is formed, with those sections of it that are engaged in the creation of unified theories of the universe. It turned out that obtaining a unified physical consistent theory about the structure of the world is possible only with the help of natural language and only with a clear understanding of the structure of consciousness. This has raised the need to study the structural connections between language, brain, consciousness, man, objects of the microworld and macroworld. Modern neurolinguistics deals with these issues. In the 50s XX century At the intersection of mathematics and linguistics, mathematical linguistics emerges, developing a formal apparatus for describing natural languages. Mathematical linguistics uses various branches of mathematics in the study of language - statistics, probability theory, set theory, algebra, and mathematical logic.

Modern linguistics is also closely connected with cybernetics - the science of management and the place of information in management processes. Cybernetics tries to understand language as a natural and powerful information self-regulating system that participates in control processes in almost all areas of human life. Contacts between linguistics and cybernetics led to the formation of engineering linguistics, which studies language in its relation to computers, the possibilities of machine text processing, the possibility of creating analyzers and synthesizers of the human voice, as well as other problems.

Language directly takes part in all spheres of human life, therefore the study of language, establishing its place and role in human life and society, in the knowledge of phenomena necessarily leads to broad connections between linguistics and other sciences - the humanities, natural and medical, physical, mathematical and technical. .

Linguistics is most closely related to the humanities. The closest and strongest connections exist between linguistics and philology; the science of language itself is its integral part. In fact, linguistics as a science emerged from the foundations of philology, which in ancient times was a single, undivided science. It included such sciences as literary criticism, textual criticism, poetics, cultural theory and linguistics itself. For the first time, the opposition between philology and linguistics (grammar) occurred in Ancient Rome. Philology was the study of literary form (style) and content of the text, grammar was the study of spelling and metrics of the text. Much later, in the middle of the 19th century, scientists established the main object of philology, which in the classical version combines literary studies and linguistics into philological sciences. The connection between these two sciences can be especially noticeably traced in such disciplines as the history of literary language, stylistics and philological analysis of literary text. There is a significant difference between the linguistic and literary approaches to the study of language. For linguistics, language is the main and only object of study. First of all, linguistics studies the structure and functioning of the language itself, taking into account its connections with other phenomena of human life (culture, consciousness, literature, thinking, etc.). Literary studies studies language as an indirect object of observation, a form of existence of a work of art.

Already in the early stages of its emergence, linguistics was closely connected with history, in particular, with the history of the creation of written texts and the historical events described in them. Historical approach to the study of language, starting from the 19th century, he remained a leader in linguistics for a long time. Thanks to chronicles and other written monuments, we have an idea of historical events and the peculiarities of life of different peoples. Studying the language of written monuments makes it possible to judge the kinship of different languages and, consequently, the common destinies of different peoples, their territorial settlement, migration in space and time. Taking into account external historical factors clarifies the formation of certain languages and the fate of individual words and expressions. For example, numerous borrowings words took place, as a rule, during a period of active contacts between peoples, reflect the influence of the people whose language serves as a source of borrowings. For example, in the Peter the Great era, characterized by broad economic, trade, and cultural ties with Western Europe, the Russian language experienced significant influence Western European languages. At the intersection of history and linguistics, one of the most developed and deeply developed disciplines arose - historical linguistics and its branches - comparative historical linguistics, etymology, history of literary languages.

Linguistics also closely interacts with other sciences of the historical cycle - anthropology, archeology, ethnography. Various monuments of material culture (dwellings, utensils, clothing, jewelry, settlements, etc.) discovered during excavations make it possible to identify its bearers. Ethnographers classify and interpret data from archaeological excavations according to types of material culture, which is important for linguists to determine the areas of distribution of a language. Thanks to archaeological excavations, many written monuments were discovered: tablets with the texts of Assyrian laws, stone slabs with hieroglyphic and cuneiform signs, birch bark letters of ancient Novgorod, etc. Anthropological data are used in linguistics to study the question of the appearance of speech among primitive people. The collaboration of linguistics with the disciplines of the historical cycle gave rise to such areas of linguistics as paleography (Greek palaios - ancient and graphf - write), which studies the creation of written signs and their development, and ethnolinguistics, which studies language in its relation to the culture of the people.

Let's consider what the connection between linguistics and the medical and natural sciences is based on. The most ancient connections are between linguistics and physiology. Even the ancient Indians described sounds on a physiological basis. Sciences such as neurophysiology and physiology study the structure of the speech apparatus, the formation of speech sounds in it, reflex physiological basis language, perception of speech flow by the hearing organs.

Linguistics has close connections with neurology, the science of higher nervous activity in humans. At the intersection of these two sciences, neurolinguistics was formed, a new linguistic discipline that arose around the second half of the 19th century. One of its founders is called the outstanding Russian-Polish linguist I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929). Neurolinguistics studies human language behavior not only in its normal state, but also in pathology. The study of all kinds of speech disorders (aphasia) gives linguists a lot not only for understanding normal speech, but also for studying the structure of language and its functioning.

The union of linguistics and biology was formed around the middle of the 19th century. under the influence of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, a new view of language as a natural thing appears, natural phenomenon- naturalistic direction in linguistics. Its founder is called A. Schleicher (1821-1868), a German linguist. In the 20th century As a result of the discovery of structural similarities between the genetic code and natural language, neurolinguistics expands its boundaries, forming a close alliance with biology.

Linguistics and geography have fairly strong connections. Often, geographical factors serve as a prerequisite for the emergence of linguistic facts: the features of the mountain landscape in the Caucasus or Pamirs predetermine the existence of small numbers of native speakers; wide open territories, as a rule, favor the separation of dialects, and limited ones - their rapprochement; seas and oceans in ancient times presented obstacles to broad linguistic contacts, etc. As a result of contacts between linguistics and geography at the end of the 19th century. A hybrid discipline has emerged - linguogeography, which studies the territorial distribution of languages and dialects, as well as individual linguistic phenomena.

Connection of linguistics with physical, mathematical and technical sciences. The connection between linguistics and physics, one of its branches - acoustics, is found already among the ancient Greeks, who studied speech sounds on an acoustic basis. At this stage of development of linguistics, the connection with acoustics remains relevant, which led to the emergence and development of a new linguistic discipline - experimental phonetics, which widely uses instruments in the study of speech sounds.

In the 50s XX century At the intersection of mathematics and linguistics, mathematical linguistics appears, which develops a formal apparatus for describing natural languages. For a comprehensive study of language, mathematical linguistics uses many mathematical sections- set theory, statistics, mathematical logic, algebra, probability theory. The use of mathematical methods makes it possible to conduct a quantitative study of various linguistic phenomena, compile their classification, and work on compiling frequency dictionaries, study the formal compatibility of linguistic units, model the processes of speech generation and perception, etc.

Among the mathematical disciplines that have close connections with linguistics is information theory, or computer science, which studies language as one of the means of storing, processing and transmitting information. Computer science in alliance with linguistics ensures the creation and operation of information retrieval systems and automated control systems. Modern linguistics is also closely related to cybernetics - the science of management and the role of information in management processes. Cybernetics tries to understand language as a natural and powerful information self-regulating system that takes part in control processes in almost all areas of human life. Contacts between linguistics and cybernetics led to the formation of engineering linguistics, which deals with the study of language in its relation to computers, the possibilities of machine text processing, the possibility of creating analyzers and synthesizers of the human voice, as well as other problems.

The oldest and closest connection between sciences is the connection between linguistics and religion. The first linguistic metaphysical ideas appeared in religious teachings. They became the impetus for the development of linguistics among many ancient peoples. Thus, the idea of the divinity of the Word and its omnipotence (and hence the fear of any linguistic variations in the Sacred Texts) led to the development of linguistics in Ancient India and the Ancient East. Questions of language have always been of vital importance in the history of religions. Suffice it to recall the debate about the interpretation of the Word as a factor in church strife in Christianity in the 4th-5th centuries, the hermeneutic search for eternal meanings in the theology of the Middle Ages, the debate about the possibility of translating the Bible into national languages in the Renaissance, the unresolved problem of name-glorification in modern Christianity.

Language is connected with the totality of a person’s sensory and mental behavior, with his organization as a living being (the natural conditions of his life), with his way of life, with the society in which a person lives, with his creativity - technical, mental, artistic, with history human society, therefore, the science of language, linguistics, is connected with many sciences: exact, natural and humanities.

1) Since language is primarily a communicative system of signs, language has the closest connections with the science of general theory signs, with semiotics. Semiotics how general discipline is not associated with specific means and capabilities of language, but it is designed to explore any sign systems as a means of designation and transmission of meaning. Semiotics studies any sign systems: both the simplest types of codes (telegraph code, sea and air signaling techniques, taxi regulation signs) and more complex ones (animal signaling various techniques writing and ciphers, iconic nature geographical maps, drawings, as well as the finger technique of the deaf and dumb) and, finally, the sign system of language.

For linguistics, the general provisions of semiotics about signs, about their distinctive features, about the grouping and classification of signs, about the possibilities of combinations of signs and the formation of “sign chains” and their division into links, about the recognition and recognition of signs, about the principles of deciphering encrypted texts or deciphering texts are important in unknown languages.

Development general provisions semiotics can greatly facilitate the work of linguists in establishing the sign patterns of language.

2) Since language is social phenomenon, then the science of language is associated with a number social sciences , and above all with sociology 2 gy. The doctrine of the structure of society, its functioning and its evolution and development can give linguistics a lot in connection with how a particular language is used by various social associations (classes, representatives of various social strata, professional groups), how division and unification are reflected in the language social communities, resettlement of tribes and peoples (migration), formation of territorial-social groups within the same language (dialects) or between different languages (linguistic unions). It is extremely important for linguistics to understand the relationship between language and basic social categories: bases, superstructures, classes, tools. Only after comparison with social categories one can understand the unique functioning and evolution of language.

3) Since language is inextricably linked with thinking, the science of language is connected with logic, the science of the laws of thinking and the forms of thought. The close connection with logic and the use of the logical apparatus of definitions and notations in linguistics does not mean, of course, that logical categories(concept, judgment, inference, etc.) must coincide with linguistic categories (morpheme, word, sentence), however, the correlation of these two plans is beyond doubt, although not everything that is in logic must be in language, and even more so, linguistic phenomena go far beyond the limits of logic. Nevertheless, such logical definitions as the definition of a concept, its content and scope, its obligatory features are necessary for the linguist to define a word, its meaning, types of polysemy of a word (see Chapter II - “Lexicology”, § 7–17), formula aRb in the logic of relations, considering the relationship (R – relatio) of any two members (a,b), is important for the linguist when determining the syntagma (“phrase”, see Chapter IV, § 59–61), not to mention the general the doctrine of models in language, in which a linguist can rely on the doctrine of logical modeling.

4) Since linguistics has as its subject not only language, but also speech, and speech is a psychophysical process, it is natural to raise the question of the relationship between linguistics, on the one hand, and psychology and physiology, on the other.

a) Human thinking as a process, as well as feelings and other manifestations of his behavior, is studied by psychology. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Many linguists, wanting to avoid the wrong point of view of language as a natural organism, tried to establish linguistics as a psychological science, considering all the most essential phenomena of language as mental. However, such a point of view could not be legitimate, since the phenomena of language (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences) are not the same as the ideas about them in the mind of the speaker, and thus language cannot be an object of psychology. Psychology can study speech acts as a process, the formation of a child’s speech, the development of a schoolchild’s speech, etc. Therefore, in any psychology textbook there is a section “Psychology of Speech”, which describes speech behavior person. A linguist, who mainly deals with language, obtains the data he needs from the speech he observes and is therefore obliged to take into account the data of psychology, although a linguist studies speech differently than a psychologist.

b) Due to the fact that a speech act is impossible without the material conditions for the production and perception of speech sounds, physiology is called upon to deal with this process both from the side of articulation, i.e., the formation of speech sounds in speech apparatus, and from the perception of the speech flow by the organ of hearing, the ear (see Chapter Ill - “Phonetics”, § 28–38). Thus, the physiology of speech is divided into articulatory physiology and service physiology. At the same time, one should never lose sight of the two-sidedness of the speech act (see above).

5) Since speech is connected with higher nervous activity, its normal physiology and pathology, i.e. speech disorders, aphasias, then speech is dealt with by representatives of medicine: psychiatrists, speech pathologists, speech therapists. In particular, the study of the speech of deaf-mute and deaf-blind people, as well as all kinds of aphasia (speech disorders), gives linguists a lot not only for understanding normal speech, but also for studying the structure of language and its functioning.

6) Sound phenomena are studied by the section of physics-acoustics. For correct understanding the fact that language selects from the sound continuum (a continuous set) to organize its sign system, the linguist needs information about acoustic characteristics associated with the height, strength, duration of sound, with the relationship between the phenomena of tone and noise, with an understanding of the sound spectrum and resonance phenomena (see Chapter Ill - “Phonetics”, § 27, 29-32).

7) When, in place of the old linguistics, which studied only written monuments, linguists of the second half of the 19th century. put forward the slogan of describing living dialects (see Chapter VII, § 89), with which the collection of folklore (folk art: songs, fairy tales, epics) and the study of the life of speakers of a particular language or dialect (dwelling, utensils, clothing, tools of production, as well as beliefs and superstitions, etc.), - a connection between linguistics and other ethnic sciences arose. All this combined the linguistic discipline - dialectology - with ethnography (ethnic studies). Ethnographers classify and interpret data from archaeological excavations according to the type of burial, the nature of the ornament on vessels and other monuments of material culture, which is important for linguists when studying archaeological data.

8) The study of extinct ancient languages and the determination of their speakers, their area, i.e. the area of their distribution, their migrations (relocations), etc. connects linguistics with archeology, a science that studies the historical past of human society based on what was discovered during excavations monuments of material culture (dwellings, burial places, settlements, tools, utensils, clothing, weapons, jewelry, as well as written monuments, for example tablets with the text of the laws of the Assyrian king Hammurabi, stone slabs with hieroglyphic and cuneiform signs, birch bark letters, found during excavations of ancient Novgorod, etc.). When undated written monuments are discovered, the dating of finds developed by archaeologists based on the layers of excavation depth can help determine the time of creation of a given written monument, and, conversely, dated written monuments clarify archaeological chronology.

9) When studying the question of the origin of speech among primitive people, as well as to decide how the characteristics of language and race are connected or not connected, important role plays anthropology, the science of the biological nature of man, the structure of his skull and bones, skin color, character hairline, about the differences between humans and anthropoid animals, etc. Archaeoanthropology, like archaeoethnography, uses archaeological data, but anthropological studies of modern people for various purposes, for example medical, are not connected with archeology. Through anthropology, linguistics can also be connected with biology, both general and specific, which describes the life, abilities, habits and various aspects of animal behavior.

10) In general, historical science and historical sciences closely interact with linguistics in cases where linguistic data shed light on certain events for the historian and when historical data help the linguist more accurately localize certain facts in history language; especially closely related to general history lexicology, since the history of words and expressions is often not revealed in a purely linguistic sense and requires material from a historian (cf., for example, an explanation of the origin of the adjective shabby or verbs sneak in And burn in Russian, see chap. II, § 19). Historical conditions explains a large number of Arabic words in Turkish, Persian, Tajik, Tatar languages, which is associated with Arab conquests and the spread of the Muslim religion, etc.

11) Geography is not directly related to language, but through history, geographical facts can also turn out to be linguistic factors; Thus, the features of the mountain landscape in Dagestan, the Pamirs, etc. serve as a prerequisite for the presence of very small numbers of native speakers; seas and oceans serve as an obstacle to language contacts (for example, languages of small islands Pacific Ocean); wide open territories contribute to the separation of dialects, and limited ones - to their rapprochement (see: F. Engels. Origin of the family, private property and states. Ch. VII. § 87). But geographers are also interested in collaboration with linguists, this is especially clear in the context of such applied work as cartography, where all the “inscriptions,” i.e., the names of physical and geographical objects (seas, rivers, islands, mountains, plains) and political objects (names of countries, provinces, localities) are primarily subject to the supervision of linguists who develop rules for the presentation and transmission of geographical names on the map (see Chapter V, § 73).

12) Particular attention should be paid to the relationship between linguistics and philology. These connections are very ancient, since linguistics as a separate science emerged from the depths of philology. Philology is literally “love of words,” i.e., the study of everything connected with the word and, initially, with the written word, i.e., the study of written monuments for various purposes. There is still a cycle in scientific nomenclature philological sciences, philological faculties, the degree of candidate and doctor of philological sciences, which nomenclature “covers” both a literary critic, and in general anyone who studies the biography and life data of some figure or writer from verbal sources, and... a linguist who studies the agglutinative principle of combining morphemes in a word or distinctive features consonants of some living unwritten language. This traditional incompatibility is becoming more and more obvious. Therefore, nowadays philology is often defined as the use of written monuments (historical, legal, literary) for non-linguistic purposes. Of course, the initial processing of any text should be in the hands of a linguist, but then the interests of the historian, lawyer, literary critic and linguist diverge.

For literary scholars, connection with linguistics is especially necessary, and not only in textual criticism or poetry, but because there can be no literature outside of language. Therefore, every literary critic must be to some extent a linguist, but a linguist does not have to be a literary critic.

13) The most difficult thing is to figure out the relationship between linguistics and mathematics. The opinion is often repeated that any science can only be called “science” to the extent that it contains mathematics. Indeed, accuracy (the main quality of science, as opposed to knowledge of anything in general) of mathematics is an ideal scientific knowledge. But accuracy is not limited to mathematics, as evidenced by the successes of the social sciences in the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries, the ability to predict in linguistics (for example, the use of the comparative method in romance, confirmed by written monuments of Vulgar Latin, de Saussure’s hypotheses, confirmed by the discovery of the Hittite language, see . Chapter VI, § 77) and much more, where mathematics was not used.

However, the scientific ideal of mathematics as a model of science remains undisputed.

In addition, in the 20th century. many mathematicians and integers math schools managed to apply themselves not only in the exact sciences, for example in physics (which has long justified itself) and in technology, but also in humanities, where economics (the application of mathematical methods in economics), mathematical logic, mathematical linguistics, etc. came from.

“Mathematical linguistics” deserves special mention. XX century a special discipline arose: mathematical logic, which widely used linguistic concepts syntax, sentences, words. Mathematical logic is a special branch of mathematics. The same must be said about mathematical linguistics, which is not a “special linguistics”, but only an application to linguistic phenomena mathematical methods. Mainly, this applies to speech, and not to language, for example, the application of probability theory and mathematical statistics (mathematical statistics itself is not a special branch of statistics, but also the application of mathematical methods to statistics).

The use of mathematical statistics methods makes it possible to objectively and economically determine the volume of a dictionary for a certain type of dictionary, for example, a Russian language dictionary for national schools; provide for communication technology indicators of the frequency of use of sounds in Russian or other speech by statistical analysis of the occurrence of sounds and sound combinations of certain texts; you can also get interesting results when analyzing the sound composition of poetic and prose text.

14) Among the mathematical disciplines that come into contact with language is the technical theory of information, which its founder, the American scientist K. Shannon, defined as follows: “Information theory studies the process of transmitting information through communication channels,” where the transmission of communication is thought of diagram:

source -> transmitter -> channel –> receiver -> recipient.

To understand this process, the following concepts are introduced:

a) code – arbitrary system pre-established conventional signs or symbols; the frequency of occurrence in a message is called probability;

b) alphabet 2 t – a set of code characters;

c) text – a sequence of characters of a given message;

d) channel 2 l – the medium through which code signs are transmitted, taking into account interference and “noise”;

e) the information itself is measured by a special unit called a bit (or binary unit from the English binary unit) and is calculated using the formula “Logarithm to base 2”, Log 2 from the number of conditioned signals;

e) excess 2 accuracy is the difference between the theoretically possible transmitting ability of any code and the average amount of transmitted information. Redundancy is expressed as a percentage of the total transmitting capacity of the code; for example, transmitting each signal twice creates a redundancy of 50%;

g) entropy 2nd – a measure of missing information and uncertainty; the degree of uncertainty depends on the number of possible code symbols and their probabilities.

In connection with the achievements of mathematical logic and information theory, the concept of algorithm 2 tma has acquired an important role. An algorithm is a set of precise rules for describing, encoding or recoding any information system. The algorithm plays a particularly important role in machine translation, where the input must be an automatic analysis algorithm, and the output must be an automatic synthesis algorithm 1 .

15) And finally - cybernetics 1, “the science of management”, a new scientific discipline, a true brainchild of the 20th century. Cybernetics cannot be thought of as a separate, closed science. This special effective aspiration of many sciences, the development of cybernetics inevitably involves and unites into one whole various industries knowledge. Of course, technological progress and, in particular, the success of electronic technology turned out to be a lever for the success of cybernetics. But the point is not in one technique, but in a broad understanding of the synthesis of 2 sciences and their mutual enrichment in the implementation of this synthesis. This is the source of such sciences as physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry; For this purpose, cybernetics and mathematics are used to study economics, biology, psychology, linguistics and the study of thinking itself.

The task of cybernetics is to adapt the data of all kinds of sciences so that it can be used by a machine, transferred to it various shapes human labor, including mental labor. From here arose various computers, which, in the context of the use of electronic technology, make it possible to speed up all kinds of human operations thousands of times. Moreover, machines do not make mistakes and are even capable of detecting human error, since “to err is human”, according to the Latin proverb “Errare humanum est”. A machine can be entrusted with monitoring the execution of certain processes and production management itself; machines can recognize information, process it in the right direction, in particular, translate from one language to another, which is what “machine translation” is based on; machines can not only help teach, but also teach themselves, which is what is used in modern pedagogy.

In order to delve deeper into the patterns of functioning and historical development of languages, it is necessary to familiarize yourself in more detail with separate elements structure of the language, and then move on to solving historical issues.

The order of the sections describing the structure of the language will be as follows: 1) “Lexicology”, 2) “Phonetics”, 3) “Grammar”, 4) “Writing”, and then the question of the languages of the world, methods of their classification and the origin of language will be considered, about the formation of languages and the patterns of their historical development.