Types of grammatical categories. The concept of grammatical category

2.1. Morphological GCs

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic Civil Codes

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

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General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is constructed either based on form or based on grammatical meaning (GZ).

1. Grammatical category(Greek katē goria‘judgment, definition’) – a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values ​​[LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, s. 227; Alefirenko, s. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of civil codes are civil laws. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific concept.

Members (components) of the Civil Code, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1st, 2nd, 3rd person) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

Materialseverity grammatical meaning (GS). Wed. GZ definition: Grammatical meaning- this is the abstract content of a linguistic unit, which has in the language regular and standard expression. If in a given language some GC is not expressed formally (by grammatical means), there is no reason to talk about GC.

The second necessary sign of GC, closely related to the first, is the presence of at least twoopposing forms, united by some value:

among the Russians there are nouns GC kind, but the English ones do not;

Russian nouns have case category, but the French do not; in English nouns is doubtful (possessive forms are either considered case or not), despite the fact that English personal pronouns have a case category: I – me, he – him (direct and indirect case are contrasted);

in African language wai No GK time, because there are no contrasting grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single civil code that would be characteristic of all languages ​​of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the civil concept and the way of expressing it [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let's compare examples in which the same GP is expressed in different ways:

In language uss(one of the languages ​​of Colombia) the plural is formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) are plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'People';

consumption of some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'hands';

wai‘oar’ – lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'Brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal inflection:

gwu la ‘cloak’ – gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. – 1993). Quote from: Reformatsky, p. 263].

write -on -write,

decideA -th – decide-And -th,

personalAnd army - gather,

cutá th – opené shut up,

speak -say .

Types of grammatical categories

There are several classifications of HA.

1. Depending on number of opposing members the same Civil Code in different languages can be organized in different ways.

Binomial GK:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. sort of in Romance (masculine ↔ feminine) and Iranian languages ​​(according to animate / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in the Slovenian, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the singular and dv forms are contrasted. and many more. For example, Khant.:

hot'house', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  T ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'tree', yuh-ng  n 'two trees', yuh- T ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

in Papuan languages ​​there is also triple number;

2. Civil codes are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of GC was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories is less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological GCs characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words – significant parts speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories there are

inflectional- those whose members are represented forms of the same word within its paradigms(cf. Russian forms case nouns; sort of,numbers And case adjectives; forms faces at the verb);

classification- those whose members represented by different words, because these are categories that are internal to a word and do not depend on its use in a sentence (cf. Russian categories sort of nouns, animate / inanimate nouns, kind verb) [LES, p. 115].

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal type civil code: GK gender, case, animate-inanimate;

Verb type GC: Civil code of tense, type, voice, mood.

GK language are in close cooperation and show a tendency towards interpenetration:

cat. time closely related to cat. moods, and also kind: temporary forms are usually contrasted within indicative mood representing real events; if a language has a lot of “tenses”, then this types temporary forms: perfect= finished / imperfect= unfinished action in the past, aorist= point action in the vulgar, present continuous etc.

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects noun and verb.

The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (particular) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.

A grammatical category unites grammatical forms with a homogeneous grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms of a particular language is called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of case in modern Russian consists of six forms with grammatical meanings: nominative, genitive, etc. cases; The grammatical category of case in English includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.

Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a number of words or syntactic structures and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.

In a word grammatical meanings is a mandatory addition to the lexical. The differences between them are as follows:

a) lexical meaning is inherent specific word, grammatical - a series of words.

b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, signs, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) on the relationship of the content of the statement to reality (mood, tense, person); 3) on the speaker’s attitude to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments - confidence / uncertainty, categoricalness / conjecture).

c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with a emptied lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives of the age of approximately 15-25 years, and as an address it is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. IN in this case the word girl does not indicate age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.

The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, the gender of inanimate nouns is stream – river – lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.r.); neuter animate nouns – Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, kuche ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).

Grammatical form is the external (formal) side of a linguistic sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. Grammatical form is a representative of a grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the form genitive case, verb in the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and the material means of its expression.

Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways: synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method there are various means expressions of grammatical meanings.

Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix species pair): mother (ip.) – mothers (r.p.); run (infinitive) – ran (past tense); did (non-sov. kind) – did (owl. look).

2. Emphasis – hands (ip., plural) – hands (p., singular).

3. Alternation at the root (internal inflection): collect (non-sov. view) - collect (owl. view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.

4. Reduplication – doubling of the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical device (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic device). In Malay, orang ‘person’ – oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication – Tagalog. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.

5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another base: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form in ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation in the root – τρέφ / τροφ.

Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. The actual analytical tools are special grammatical means for the formation of analytical forms: teach - I will read (future time); fast (positive degree) – faster (comparative degree) – fastest (superlative degree).

2. Remedy syntactic connections– the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For unbending words Russian language is the only means of expressing their grammatical gender. Indeclinable animate nouns usually belong to the masculine gender: funny kangaroo, green cockatoo, cheerful chimpanzee. The gender of inanimate indeclinable nouns is usually determined by the generic word: harmful tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).

3. Function words– grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (ip.) – stand by the highway (r.p.) – approach the highway (d.p.) – drive onto the highway (v.p.) ) – turn around on the highway (pp.); found out (indicative mood) – would know ( subjunctive mood).

4. Word order – grammatical meanings are determined by the position of a word in a sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases, the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second - as its passive role (object): A horse sees a mouse (horse - sp., subject; mouse - v.p., object ) – The mouse sees a horse (mouse – i.p., subject horse – v.p., addition).

5. Intonation – expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓The money went to the phone: 1) from logical stress on the word money and a pause after it; the verb went is used in the indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase “The money was spent on purchasing a telephone”; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in the imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase “You need to put money on the phone.”

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What is grammar?

2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?

3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?

4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?

More on the topic § 2. Grammatical category. Grammatical meaning. Grammatical form:

1. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical category (GC), grammatical meaning (GZ), grammatical form (GF).

Literary language is a system in which the sound, lexical and grammatical structure are closely interconnected.

The sound structure of a language is formed by sounds and their generalized types, which serve to distinguish sound types word forms (phonemes), as well as accent devices (stress) and intonation.

The lexical structure of a language is formed by words and stable idiomatic expressions (phraseologisms), grouped based on their lexical meanings into multi-stage interconnected sets and subsets.

The grammatical structure of a language is formed by abstract units (forms, constructions), grouped into interconnected classes and subclasses and reflecting the laws and rules of the formation and modification of words, combining words into phrases and constructing sentences.

The sound side of language is its matter; without it there are no words, no phrases, no sentences. However, the sound of a language (either individual, pronounced by the speaker, or presented as a generalization, i.e., as a phoneme) in itself is devoid of meaning: it is a one-sided unit that has material expression, but is devoid of content. All other units of language - words (and their components - morphemes), phrases, sentences - have both material expression and internal meaning - meaning.

The grammatical side of a language is presented in its grammatical categories, grammatical forms, grammatical meanings (see § 3, § 4). All these data appear in separate grammatical units, which are appropriately designed.

The grammatical structure of the language includes:

1. laws and rules for the formation of words;
2. laws and rules for changing words;
3. laws and rules for combining words, forming elementary syntactic units - phrases - on the basis of these connections;
4. laws and rules for constructing sentences;
5. laws and rules for combining sentences into more complex grammatical organizations.

Accordingly, separate areas are distinguished in grammar: word formation, morphology and syntax. TO word formation include all phenomena of the internal structure of a word, its division into significant parts - word-forming morphemes, all the rules for forming words. TO morphologies include, firstly, all the phenomena of inflection (the paradigm of words) and, secondly, the entire sphere of abstract meanings of words, i.e. meanings that stand above their lexical and word-formation meanings and are derived from them formal organization. TO syntax include all phenomena of word compatibility, construction of sentences and statements, their combination into complex sentences and elementary non-union designs. At all these levels, the units belonging to them represent certain organizations, characterized in terms of their external and internal (semantic) structure, their changes and the possibilities of their functioning and use in speech.

Thus, the grammar of a language is its formal structure, opposed to the sound (phonetic) and verbal (lexical) structure, which is represented by such basic units of language as the word and sentence, appearing in their abstract formalized meanings.

Word is one of the basic grammatical units. It combines its sound matter, lexical meaning and formal grammatical characteristics. The grammatical properties of a word include its meaning as a part of speech (i.e., as a unit belonging to a certain lexical-grammatical class of words), word-formation structure, the ability for formal changes and all its abstract meanings, subordinate to the general meaning of the class (part of speech); for a name these are, for example, meanings such as gender, number, case, for a verb - aspect, voice, tense, mood, person. In addition to the named properties, a word has its own active potential, manifested, on the one hand, in the possibilities of its syntactic and lexical-semantic compatibility, its participation in the construction of sentences and statements, on the other hand, in its active relationship to different types of contextual environments. Thus, the word is a unit that, in its different aspects, simultaneously belongs to all levels of the grammatical system - word formation, morphology, and syntax.

Offer as a subject of grammar is a reporting unit constructed according to a certain syntactic pattern, existing in the language in its various forms and modifications, functionally (with one or another communicative purpose) loaded and intonationally designed. A sentence as a grammatical unit belongs to predicativity (the most abstracted grammatical meaning inherent in any sentence), categories of semantic structure and components of actual division - theme and rheme (see). A sentence, like a word, enters into syntactic relationships with other grammatical units - sentences and their analogues; this is how they are formed different types complex sentences and non-union compounds of sentences.

grammatical unit- is any grammatically formed individual language education: morpheme, word, phrase, simple or complex sentence - presented either in the entirety of its forms, or in one of its forms. So, for example, the noun table is a grammatical unit that exists as a set of all its case forms singular and plural; the verb to go is a grammatical unit that exists as a set of all its conjugated forms, as well as the infinitive, participle and gerund. At the same time, a separate form of the noun ( table, table, tables etc.) or verb ( I'm going, going, walking etc.) is also a separate grammatical unit. In both cases, grammatical formation takes place, but in the first case the word appears as a system of forms, and in the second - as a separate word form (see § 10).

Grammatical units are grouped into classes. In accordance with the dual nature of grammatical units, the nature of their classes is also dual: they are either parts of speech, i.e. classes that unite words as collections of forms, or classes of forms that unite certain word forms (for example, the infinitive class, the genitive class, the comparative degree class, etc.). The nature of a sentence as a grammatical unit is also dual: it is either a sentence in the entire system of its changes (in this case it represents a certain class, type of sentences, for example, verbal subject-predicate sentences, one-component sentences), or a separate sentence ( in this case, it is included in a certain class of sentence forms, for example, a sentence in the form of the syntactic present tense, in the form of the imperative mood).

Grammatical form- This language sign, which combines the material side and abstract meaning and is a generalization of materially and semantically similar units. The internal, semantic side of such a sign is its grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning is inseparable from its material expression: these two sides of a linguistic sign do not exist without each other. The relationship between them is complex: behind the external side of a sign there can be several meanings and, on the other hand, the same meaning can have different material expressions. So, for example, in the form of a noun father contains the meanings of objectivity, masculine, singular, nominative case, animation, common noun and concreteness (the last two meanings are lexical and grammatical); in the form walked contains the meanings of the process (action), imperfect form, active voice, indicative, past tense, singular, masculine; in the form of a proposal The train is coming contains the meanings of the relationship: between the subject and its predicative attribute (action), predicativeness (i.e., relation to time and, in this case, to the reality of the communicated), present tense, non-actualization of the communicated (cf. with actualization: There's a train coming! ). Thus, in all these cases, several grammatical meanings are contained in one form. At the same time, the same grammatical meaning can belong to several different forms. So, for example, the meaning of multiplicity, non-singularity of objects is contained in the forms teachers, leaves, on the one hand, and teaching, foliage, on the other (in the latter case- with a word-formatively expressed meaning of an undivided set); The meaning of diminutive and endearing is contained in words with different morphemes: son, son, son; daughter, daughter, daughter, daughter; the meaning of the syntactic present tense is contained in the sentences: Night And It's worth the night, It's dawning And Dawn is coming.

From the above it is clear that the term “grammatical form” has both broad and narrow content. IN in a broad sense form is any linguistic sign that expresses grammatical meaning. IN in the narrow sense form is understood as one of the regular modifications of a grammatical unit as a representative of a certain class. These are, for example, the forms of words of a particular part of speech, constituting their paradigms, or the forms of a simple sentence, constituting the paradigm of a sentence.

In relation to forms in the narrow sense of the word, we can talk about their variability. By variants of the same form we mean such materially different types of it, which either differ in shades of meaning - for example, the form genus. p.un. including words like tea: tea And tea(see § 174) or forms of the syntactic optional mood like If there was no war! And If only there was no war! (see § 537) - or semantically duplicate each other, i.e. can be freely interchanged, for example: in the workshop And in the workshop, tractors And tractors, cottage cheese And cottage cheese; If he came I would be glad - If he came, I would be glad - If he came, I would be glad.

Grammatical meaning is heterogeneous in nature: contained in the same material shell, it can be more abstract or less abstract. Yes, in shape walked (sang, read, walked and so on.) the most abstract is the meaning of the process: it is inherent in all verbs and all its forms; it is followed by the meaning of the past tense: it is inherent in all verbs in the past tense form; the meaning of the masculine gender is even narrower and more specific in the verb: it is inherent only in the form combined with He and opposing the forms of feminine and neuter gender. Each grammatical unit has a grammatical form with its own grammatical meaning. The class of grammatical units groups together forms with common grammatical meanings. In our example, the classes are distinguished accordingly: verbs; verbs in the past tense form; verbs in the masculine past tense form.

Classes of grammatical forms with their grammatical meanings form grammatical categories.

Grammatical category- is a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. Grammatical categories in their difficult relationships each other form the core of the grammatical structure of the language.

Morphological grammatical categories appear as categories belonging to the most general grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals, pronouns. Syntactic grammatical categories are, for example, the category of predicativity, the category of sentence members (main and spreading), categories of the semantic structure of the sentence (see § 425 “Basic concepts of syntax”).

Each grammatical category - complex organization, consisting of rows of forms opposed to each other. So, for example, within the category of gender of nouns, masculine, feminine and neuter forms are distinguished; within the category of predicativity - forms of syntactic moods, and within the real syntactic mood - forms of syntactic tenses; within the category of semantic subject - the category of subject of action and subject of state.

The contrast of series of forms within grammatical categories is carried out on the basis of the presence or absence of one of the formally expressed values. Thus, the masculine and feminine genders of nouns are together opposed to the neuter gender on the basis of the latter’s inability to designate male or female individuals and the presence of such ability in the first two; the subject is opposed to the predicate-verb on the basis of the absence of a temporal meaning in the first and the presence of this meaning in the second member of the opposition.

Grammatical categories are in close interaction with each other and tend to interpenetrate. For example, the verbal category of aspect is closely related to the category of tense; the category of number of a noun is closely related to the category of number of other parts of speech; the category of person connects verbs and pronouns; the category of case connects names with verbs through the so-called attributive form of the verb - the participle. Thus, the interaction of grammatical categories is observed both in the sphere of one part of speech and between different parts of speech.

The grammatical units of a language have certain relationships with each other. These relationships are twofold: firstly, these are the relationships of neighboring units, which are arranged in a sequentially unfolding row, in a chain, i.e. linear relationships; secondly, these are the relations of units that are closely related to each other within the boundaries of a given grammatical class and represent systemic modifications (modifications) of a single unit, i.e. nonlinear relationships. Linear relationships are called syntagmatic, nonlinear - paradigmatic. In a word, its significant parts enter into syntagmatic relationships - the root and affixes, the stem and the ending ( come-on, w-my-sya). Syntagmatic are the relationships between words and word forms as part of a phrase ( new book, road to home, sing a song), in conjunctions of words ( father and mother reading and writing), between members of a sentence, between simple sentences as part of a complex non-union formations proposals. With a syntagmatic connection between combining units, various relationships arise, but these are relationships between different units: between different parts of a word, between different words or word forms, between different sentences (the exception is all cases of repetitions, where forms of the same word enter into syntagmatic relationships) . Several units can enter into syntagmatic relationships: two or more. On the basis of these relationships, all motivated (derived) words and all types of syntactic connections are built - from the minimum combination of words to complex sentence and expanded text sequences.

Paradigmatic relations are relations between different manifestations in the language of the same unit: between morpheme and morph (see § 16), between forms of the same word, between forms of the same sentence. In the paradigmatic relationships of word forms or syntactic constructions, different grammatical meanings of the same unit are revealed. So, for example, in the case paradigm of a noun, different meanings of its forms are revealed (abstract case meanings); in the conjugation of a verb in the present and future tenses, its different personal and numeric values, in the past tense - different generic and numerical meanings, and in the paradigm of mood forms - different modal values(indicativeness, subjunctiveness, incentive); in the paradigm of a sentence its different objective-modal meanings are revealed (see § 434).

Both syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations belong to the language system and organize it.

IN grammatical structure In a language, there are certain types (patterns) according to which certain grammatical units are constructed. This is especially clearly and directly revealed in the sphere of word formation: here word-formation types are distinguished (see § 30), according to which words are constructed different parts speech. Types vary according to productivity/unproductivity. This means that according to some types more and more new words are constructed, replenishing the lexical composition of the language, but according to other types such new words are not constructed: they are represented in the language only by already constructed, existing words (for example, the formation of verbal names of persons with suffixes - tel or - Nick productively, and with the suffix - ec- unproductive). In morphology, there is also productivity and unproductivity of grammatical patterns. For example, masculine declension like table, house productive, since it serves as a model for the declension of all newly appearing words of a similar structure; declination type path unproductive: new masculine words with a stem on the final soft consonant are not declined according to this pattern. In syntax, the so-called nominative sentences ( Night. Silence): This pattern is used to construct countless sentences of different semantic structures.

The concept of unproductiveness of a grammatical pattern is not equal to the concept of irregular use of the corresponding formations: grammatical units constructed according to unproductive patterns may have regular and fairly frequent use in the language, and, on the contrary, units constructed according to a productive pattern may, for one reason or another, be used rarely, irregularly and belong to some narrow, special linguistic sphere.

All grammatical units exist in a certain sound design: it is created by the sounds of the language (belonging to certain phonemes), accent devices (stress) and intonation.

Sound in itself is not a significant unit of language, but it participates in the formation of the material side of such units. In certain positions in a word and in combinations of words, a sound (or a combination of sounds) can react to the proximity of morphemes and words and, in turn, influence their material appearance. All relevant phenomena belong to the field of morphonology.

Accent is an important means in the formation of words and word forms: it belongs to the word and word form as one of its integral characteristics. In the system of word formation and inflection, there are accent patterns that determine the stress in words and word forms. Stress is involved in shape formation, in some cases acting as the only means of distinguishing different shapes one word: hands And hand, windows And windows; In many cases, different words are distinguished by stress: at home(adv.) and at home(nominal plural of the noun house).

Intonation is an accompanying means that formalizes every sentence and statement. There is a system of types of intonation patterns in a language, and each separate offer obeys intonation laws. Intonation is the most important means of expression communicative task: she is able to clearly contrast non-interrogative and interrogative sentences, express the meaning of motivation, desirability, various types of assessments. Intonation, together with emphatic (intensifying) stress (and in many cases also together with word order) serves to express the actual division of the sentence, to contrast theme and rheme in it (see § 441).

Thus, the grammatical structure of a language is inseparable from its sound structure, interacts with its various means and uses these means in constructing its units and in realizing their meanings.

The grammatical structure of a language is closely related to its lexical structure. Their interaction is carried out in different directions.

1. The word as a unit of language is both a lexical and a grammatical unit. A word belongs to the lexical system as a unit included in lexical sets and subsets, having its own lexical meaning (or several meanings), connected by various semantic relations with other lexical units and with the phraseological fund of the language. The word belongs to the grammatical system, firstly, as a unit of morphology, belonging to one or another grammatical class or subclass, possessing a grammatical form and grammatical meanings; secondly, as a unit of syntax that has its own constructive potential in the field of word compatibility and sentence structure.
2. The connection between grammar and vocabulary is carried out in the sphere of word formation, where grammatical laws for the combination of parts of a word and the distribution of morphemes operate, and as a result of the action of these laws, lexical units - words - are created. This dual nature of word formation makes it possible to attribute it to grammatical structure language and its lexical structure.
3. In motivated words, in many cases there are grammatical features of motivating words, for example, strong control is preserved (cf. read a book - reading a book, love ballet - ballet lover), there are traces species values(cf. read - reading And read - reading, consider - consideration And consider - looking at).
4. All words in morphology are distributed into parts of speech, and these classes are grammatical; however, these are also lexical classes, since the most general, abstract meanings of parts of speech, such as objectivity, processivity, and attribute, are abstracted from the lexical meanings of words.
5. Within the parts of a word, lexico-grammatical categories of words are distinguished, in which their lexical characteristics are generalized, abstracted and which have certain grammatical features of their own. Such, for example, in the system of nouns are real nouns, lexically united by the meaning of an indivisible substance, and grammatically - own characteristics in the sphere of meanings of singularity - plurality. In the verbal form system, special lexical and grammatical categories form modes of verbal action, which have their own word-formation, lexical and grammatical characteristics.

In order to state that in a certain language there is a certain grammatical category, it is necessary that there be a number of forms united by some common meaning, that within this association there is opposition, and that those opposed have meaning formal expression. Thus, the grammatical category is the category of number, because it unites linguistic units based on the common meaning of "number." Within this union, singularity and plurality are contrasted, and the grammatical meanings of singular and plural are formally expressed by means of special endings. Por: forest - forests, spring - springs, lake - lakes, where the grammatical meaning of the singular is expressed by the zero ending and the endings -a and o, and the grammatical meaning of the plural - by the endings -i and -nnya -i ta -a.

The formal expression is very important sign grammatical category, since it is its presence or absence that is the main criterion for identifying a grammatical category. The fact is that a certain meaning in one language may not exist as grammatical, and in another language as lexical. From here, grammatical and conceptual categories are distinguished. For example, there is the conceptual category of gender and the grammatical category of gender. The conceptual category stat is universal, that is, all people, regardless of the language they use, distinguish between male and female gender. However, the category of gender is not inherent in all languages. Let's say it's not in English, China. Gaya, Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, because there are no special formal means of expressing it. In the Ukrainian language, as in other Slavic, as well as Romance and German languages, there is such a category, because there is formal means its expressions: endings (teacher, wall, window), articles (German der Vater "father", die Mutter "mother", dae Kind "child", fr le rege "father", la x and Romance languages ​​are characterized by a grammatical category of definiteness / indefinite, formally expressed by designated and indefinite articles. Thus, in particular, der Tag "day", die Blume "flower", das Fenst er "window" mean specific concepts, objects, already known to the speaker and the listener, while the same nouns With indefinite article- ein Tag, eine Blume, ein Fenster - mean some day, some flower, some window. Likewise in English, French, Italian: certainty is expressed by articles - English the, French le, 1a, Italian il, 1a, and uncertainty - by articles - English French un, une, Italian l un, una. IN Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no grammatical category of definiteness / indefinite, because there is no formal expression of it, but a conceptual category of definiteness /. There is no certainty and it is expressed lexically (this book, some book) and this category of meaning/insignificance is also expressed lexically (this book, this book).

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Thus, in the Ibero-Caucasian languages ​​there is a category of the grammatical class of “person” and “thing”, in Japanese and Korean- category of politeness and. Languages ​​also differ in the number of opposing members within categories. For example, in English there are two cases, in German - four, in Russian - six, in Ukrainian - seven, in Finnish - about thirteen, in Tabasarai - forty-six.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. The morphological categories include the category of gender, number, case, aspect, tense, method, person, to the syntactic - the category of activity / passivity, to the communicative orientation (narrative, literal, spontaneity), verbatim / arguable, syntactic time and syntactic method.

Classification (word-formation, derivation) categories are those whose members act as headings for the classification of words. So, in particular, the classification category is the category of the gender of nouns and the category of the type of verb, therefore nouns are not declined, but are classified by gender (each noun belongs to one specific gender), and verbs are distributed between three species groups - perfect or imperfect verbs. bispecies.

Inflectional (relative) categories are grammatical categories that a word can acquire depending on another word with which it is combined in a sentence. In the inflectional category, the category of gender of adjectives belongs, therefore adjectives are not classified, but are declined by gender and the generic form of the adjective depends on the noun combined with it (great success, great deal, great impression). Purely relational is also cat. Egoria case: each nominal part speech changes according to case.

In the languages ​​of the world, the most common grammatical categories are gender, case, number, definite/indefinite, degree of quality, tense, aspect, state, mode and person.

It is found in most modern Indo-European languages. It is not found in English, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Japanese and other languages. In the Ukrainian language, every noun has a gender category (masculine, feminine or neuter). In adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessives, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, participles and verbs in the past tense, this category is dependent on the noun with whom the classes of words are named are combined. In Italian, French, Spanish and Danish nouns have two genders - masculine and feminine. The category of gender has a formal expression. In Slavic languages ​​- tse endings, in Romance and German - articles (German der, ein for masculine, die, eine for feminine, das, ein for neuter, fr le, un for masculine, la, une for feminine, Italian il , un for the ancestral gender, la, una for the feminine gender.

The number of cases in different languages ​​is not the same. There are languages ​​in which there are no cases at all: Bulgarian, Italian, French, Tajik, Abkhazian, etc.

In the languages ​​of the world, the category of number does not coincide. From a language in which, in addition to the singular and plural, there are duals and trinities. There was a duality in the ancient Ukrainian language (two tables, see the remains of these forms in dialects: two hands, two is an element, etc.). The trinity appears in some Papuan languages ​​on the island. New. Guinea. In the ancient Indo-European languages ​​- Sanskrit, ancient Greek, ancient Germanic there were three numbers: singular, dual and plural.

The category of certainty / indefinite (determination) is a grammatical category indicating whether the name of an object is thought of as the only one in the situation being described (determination) or as belonging to a class of similar phenomena (uncertainty.

As already noted, this category is characteristic of Germanic, Romance, Bulgarian, Macedonian and other languages ​​and is expressed using articles of definitions is English article the, German der die, das, French le, la, les (last for set), and indefinite correspondence a; ein, eine, ein; un, un. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Scandinavian languages ​​there are postpositive art kli, that is, articles that appear after a word, joining it as a postfix. Por: bolg stol "some kind of chair" - stolgt "certain chair", mass "some kind of table" -. Masato"certain table"; village "some village" - village "certain village"; village "like a village" - village "pevne village".

In languages ​​without articles, the meaning of definite/indefinite is expressed lexically and contextually. For example, in the Ukrainian language they use demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these, then oh, and, then, those, shares only, yet (only the teacher didn’t know. Another cup!),. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, adjectives sure, whole, unknown, unfamiliar, numeral one, word order (before the predicate - certainty, after - uncertainty:. The boy went out into the street;. On a boy went out into the street), phrasal stress (Here is a notebook; Here is a notebook). The strongest means of expressing meaning or uncertainty is context. As we see, in the Ukrainian language the category of definiteness/indefiniteness is not grammatical, but conceptual, since there are no morphological means of expressing it.

There are normal, high and high degrees. Some languages ​​have only two degrees of comparison - ordinary and elative, which combines the meaning of the higher and superlative degrees. Highest degree indicates the presence of some quality in an object more than in another, high - more than in all others. Positive degree means quality regardless of degree.

Adjectives and adverbs have degrees of comparison (heavy, heavier, heavier; dark, darker, darker). In some languages, nouns and verbs also have degrees of comparison. For example, in the Komi language kuzho o “can do”, kuzhodzhik “can do more more than vmie”.

Degrees of comparison are expressed by affixes (interesting - interesting - interesting; English large "large" - larger "more" - largest "greatest", German interessant "interesting" - interesanter "more interesting" - inte eresantest "interesting") and analytically (known - more famous - the most famous, English difficult "heavy" - more difficult "heavy" (the) most difficult "heavy"). In Slavic, Germanic and Romance languages there are several adjectives and adverbs comparable in meaning that create degrees of comparison from other bases: ukr good - best - best; rus good - better - the best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am bestenр. good - better - the best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am besten).

The category of time is the grammatical category of the verb, which is a specific linguistic reflection of objective time and serves for the temporal localization of the event or state referred to in the sentence

This category indicates the one-hour, preceding or continuity of the event relative to the moment of speech. Most languages ​​have three tenses: present, past and future. This absolute times. In addition to them, some languages ​​have sp. SPECIAL "relative" tenses, denoting events relative to some reference point, which, in turn, is determined relative to the moment of speech (before the present time, before the future, the time of the upcoming time in the past, then the last time).

In Slavic languages, perfective and imperfective forms are grammatically opposed. The perfect form indicates reaching the limit, i.e. shows a limited action or its result (made noise, wrote). The imperfect form does not indicate the extreme nature of the action (noise, wrote). In Germanic and Romance languages, according to most linguists, there is no grammatical category of aspect, because there are no formal morphological means (special suffixes, prefixes) for expressing it.

State category - grammatical category of a verb expressing subject-object relations

In linguistics there is no generally accepted classification of states yet, but all classifications mention active, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the subject (Students perform a song), and passive, when the carrier verbal signs corresponds to the object (The song is performed by the students.

This is the speaker’s assessment of the action as desirable, possible, expected (assumption), etc.

Different languages ​​have a different set of mode forms 6 all languages ​​have a valid (represents the action as real fact), conditional (represents the action as possible, desired, expected, conditioned) and imperative (serves to convey an order, incentive or request) methods. Western European languages, in addition, created special forms conditional to denote conditioned actions and to express assumption, possibility, desirability and non-categorical statement (German Ich w. Igawa, and translates it from the mouths of others. In this way they convey a shade of distrust, doubt, doubt.

In agglutinative languages ​​(for example, Turkic) there are from four to twelve ways that express obligation, confirmation, intention, consent, etc.

The performer of the action can be the speaker. His interlocutor or a person who does not take part in the conversation. Accordingly, they distinguish between the first, second and third person (I am writing, you are writing, you are writing)

The category of person belongs to the coordinating, inflectional category. It is expressed by personal endings (I say, he works; English / work, he works). In some languages ​​(Samoyedic, Paleo-Asian), the category of person is characteristic not only of verbs, but also of names in the predicate position. So, in. In the Koryak language gyolyaygym “man-I”, gyolyaygyt “man-ti”, gyolya “man-he”; nytuygym "y-ti", nytuykyn "young-on" However, there are also languages ​​in which the category of person as a whole is not expressed. These include Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian and some others... Before them lie Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian and other languages.

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories)

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) are grammatically important groups of words within a certain part of speech that have the following properties:

1) are combined according to a common semantic feature. For example, lexical-grammatical categories are made up of collective nouns, material nouns, nouns - names of creatures, nouns - names of inanimate, proper names, by main names, reflexive verbs, because each such group has a common semantic feature - collectability, materiality, etc.

2) may or may not have a formal morphological expression. If, say, some compound nouns have a formal expression - suffixes-stv (o), -) (- postfix-xia (wash, correspond, hug), then proper and common names, material names, names of creatures / inanimate do not have formal indicators (city. Eagle and eagle flying, oil and window, crow and crown));

3) interact with associated grammatical categories. Thus, the category of state depends on the reflexivity of verbs (reflexive verbs do not belong to active state), from being / inanimate - category of case (in the names of creatures the accusative case form coincides with the genitive form, in inanimate names the accusative case form coincides with the nominative form), from person / not particularly - gender category (names in ru usually have a category masculine or feminine, neosib names - all three genders), from proper and common names - the category of number (names have only the singular or only plural form (Kyiv, Sumy), common names have singular and plural forms (table - tables, book - books);

4) may or may not have rows of forms opposed within the category. If, for example, names are contrasted with general names, names of creatures with inanimate names, transitive verbs with intransitive ones. Diez words, then within material and collective nouns there is a similar opposition. NO.

Lecture 9

Statement of claim for collection of tax penalties.

After a decision has been made to hold an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur accountable for committing a tax offense or in other cases when extrajudicial collection of tax sanctions is not permitted, the relevant tax authority files a statement of claim in court to collect from this person a tax sanction, established by law about taxes and fees.

Before going to court, the tax authority is obliged to offer the person held accountable for committing a tax offense to voluntarily pay the appropriate amount of the tax penalty. If a person held accountable for committing a tax offense refuses to voluntarily pay the amount of a tax sanction or misses the payment deadline specified in the request, the tax authority files a claim in court for recovery from of this person tax sanction established tax code, for committing this tax offense.

A statement of claim for the collection of a tax sanction from an organization or individual entrepreneur is submitted to an arbitration court, and from an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur - to a court of general jurisdiction.

The statement of claim shall be accompanied by the decision of the tax authority and other case materials obtained during the tax audit.

IN necessary cases simultaneously with filing a statement of claim, the tax authority may send to the court a petition to secure the claim in the manner prescribed by the civil procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation) and the arbitration procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 8 of the Arbitration Procedure Code).

1. The concept of grammatical category. Principles of identifying grammatical categories in language.

2. Basic grammatical categories of the name.

3. Basic grammatical categories of the verb.

4. Morphological and syntactic grammatical categories.

1. Grammatical category is a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the defining feature is the categorizing feature, for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of meanings of individual times, persons, voices, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.

A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-way linguistic units.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, and case. The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the category of gender is represented in the Russian language by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of male and female. and Wed kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many more h.

In the structure of grammatical categories, the most significant seems to be principle of unification grammatical classes and units that make up this category. The basis for such a combination is a generalized meaning (for example, the meaning of time), which unites – as a generic concept – the meanings of the components of a given category. The systematic nature of a language is not simply external organization linguistic materials, but in the fact that all homogeneous elements of the structure of language are interconnected and receive their significance only as opposed parts of the whole.

Semantic opposition is precisely such a relationship, subordinate to the specified principle. For grammar this quality is especially important; Thus, we can talk about the category of gender or case only if there are at least two opposed genders or cases in given language; if there is no such opposition, but there is only one form (as for gender in English or in Turkic languages or for case in French), then this category does not exist in this language at all.

Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions (for example, the meaning of singularity opposed to the meaning of plurality). Grammatical oppositions (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories.

2. The Russian noun is characterized by inflectional categories of number and case and classifying categories of gender, animateness/inanimateness and personality.

Grammar number category is an inflectional form for nouns and is constructed as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. The special forms of the dual number inherent in the Old Russian language have not been preserved in the modern Russian language; there are only residual phenomena (plural forms of the names of paired objects: banks, sides, ears, shoulders, knees; noun forms hour, row, step in combinations like two hours).

For the names of countable objects and phenomena, the singular form denotes singularity, the plural - a quantity of more than one: table– plural tables, day– plural days, tree– pl. h. trees, storm– plural thunderstorms. Nouns with abstract, collective, real meanings belong to singularia tantum: thickness, pampering, beast, milk, or to pluralia tantum: chores, finances, perfume, canned food.

In cases where the words singularia tantum can form plural forms, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: Wed "species multiple" type wine– plural guilt, beauty– beauty, "emphatic plural" when denoting large quantity type water– plural water, snow– snow, etc.

The number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by a numeral: new book– pl. h. new books, The student is reading/reading– pl. h. Students are reading/reading. For indeclinable nouns and pluralia tantum nouns denoting countable objects, the syntactic way of expressing number is unique: new coat, one coat– pl. h. new coats, three coats; just scissors– pl. h. two scissors, one day– pl. h. four/several/many days.

Case in Russian expresses the relationship of nouns to other words in phrases and sentences. The inflectional morphological category of case is constructed as a contrast between six main series of forms and five additional ones, differing in inflections, and the inflections of nouns simultaneously express the case meaning and the meaning of number. For indeclinable nouns, case meanings are expressed only by the forms of agreed or coordinated words (in a sentence being a modifier or a nominal predicate).

Six main cases:

nominative

· genitive,

· dative,

accusative

· creative,

· prepositional.

In the system of six cases, the nominative case is opposed as a direct case to the other five - indirect cases. He is original form paradigms, speaking in the most independent syntactic positions; indirect cases, as a rule, express the dependence of the noun on the word that controls it. Being controlled forms, indirect cases appear in combination with prepositions (prepositional case forms) and without them (non-prepositional forms): see the house And head towards home; drive the car And sit in the car. Of the six cases, one (nominative) is always prepositional; one is used only with prepositions, and therefore is called prepositional; the remaining four cases (middle in the paradigm) appear both with and without prepositions. For indirect cases it is also important which part of speech they syntactically obey; the verb and adjective use of case forms differ.

Genus category for nouns it is classifying, or not inflectional (each noun refers to a specific grammatical gender) and is constructed as a contrast between three genders – masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns are semantically defined as words capable of denoting a male being, feminine nouns as words capable of denoting a female being, and neuter nouns as words not capable of denoting gender. At the same time, animate nouns of masculine and feminine gender (names of people and partly names of animals) have a direct connection with the designation of gender (cf. father And mother, teacher And teacher, lion And lioness), and inanimate nouns(partially also in the names of animals) - indirect, manifesting itself as the possibility of stylistic rethinking in the image of a creature of the corresponding gender (cf. rowan And oak in the folk song “Thin Rowan”, as well as Father Frost, Frog Princess etc.). Gender distinctions of nouns are expressed only in the singular, therefore pluralia tantum nouns do not belong to any of the three genders. A special place are occupied by the so-called common nouns, capable of denoting a person of both male and female gender and, accordingly, possessing grammatical features masculine and feminine ( orphan, touchy, crybaby).

The gender of nouns is expressed both morphologically - by the system of inflections of the noun in the singular, and syntactically - by the generic form of the agreed or coordinated word (adjective or other word inflected like an adjective, predicate verb). Since the system of singular inflections does not unambiguously indicate a certain gender for all inflectional types of nouns (for example, nouns of the second declension can refer to both the feminine and masculine gender: m.r. servant, female servant), the syntactic expression of the gender of nouns is consistently unambiguous. For so-called indeclinable nouns, this way of expressing gender is the only one (cf. recent interview, m.r. long-tailed kangaroo etc.).

The ability to indicate gender is also possessed by the forms of agreed and coordinated words in combination with common nouns ( round(m.r.) orphan And round(female) orphan), as well as with masculine nouns - names of persons by profession, position ( doctor, engineer, director), which, when indicating the female gender of a person, can be combined (only in the form of the nominative case) with the feminine forms of coordinated and (less often) coordinated words: The doctor has arrived, we have a new doctor(colloquial).

3. The type of verb is a category that expresses differences in the course of an action. This category distinguishes imperfective verbs (answer the question “What to do?”: fly) and perfective verbs (answer the question “What to do?”: fly in).

The transitivity of a verb is characterized by its compatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, watch a movie; Intransitivity of the verb is characterized by incompatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: have measles.

A special group consists of reflexive verbs, which are indicated by the suffix -xia: hold on, laugh.

Voice of the verb is a category that expresses the relationship between the subject and object of an action. Active verbs are verbs in which the subject names the actor: dad eats an apple; verbs passive voice appear in a passive construction when the complement becomes the object of the action: the door opened with a key.

Indicative – expresses an action that existed, exists and will exist: went and looked. In this mood, verbs have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number.

The conditional, or subjunctive, mood expresses an action that does not really exist, it is only possible or desirable: I would read it. It is formed using a verb in the past tense and a conditional particle would.

Imperative– expresses a request, order or prohibition, is not real. Formed by adding the ending tense to the stem -And: bring it, give it; graduation -those: take it, say; by adding particles let him, let him: let him go, let him go.

Time– a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses: present, past and future. The tense of the verb is closely related to the category of the form: NSV - sell – sold – will sell; NE – sold - sell.

In a sentence, the verb can be a simple verbal predicate: Sasha got up early; complex verb predicate: She wanted to sleep; inconsistent definition: The thought of leaving didn't make me happy.

In the Russian language there are verbs that denote an action without a doer (person), therefore they are called impersonal. Sentences with such verbs are also called impersonal: My ears are ringing. It's getting warmer outside. It's getting dark.

4. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammar classes words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories may be different: for example, the grammatical category of gender is represented in the Russian language system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of male and female. and Wed gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two series of singular forms. and many more h. This characteristic is historically variable: cf., for example, three forms of number in Old Russian, including dual, and two in modern Russian.

Russian morphology distinguishes between inflectional grammatical categories, the members of which can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender of adjectives, degrees of comparison), and non-inflectional (classifying, classification ), members of which cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, gender and animate/inanimate nouns). Whether some grammatical categories (for example, aspect and voice) belong to an inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of debate.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identified (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms as part of a phrase or sentence (for example, gender), and non-syntactically identified (referential, nominative), expressing primarily different semantic abstractions abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extra-linguistic reality (for example, type, time); grammatical categories such as number or person combine features of both of these types.

Sometimes the term “grammatical category” is applied to broader or narrower groupings compared to the grammatical category in the specified interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

In morphology, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories - such subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; verbs are personal and impersonal; so-called ways of verb action, etc.

The concept of a grammatical category was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories has been less studied; the boundaries of the application of the concept of grammatical category to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to identify a grammatical category of the communicative orientation of an utterance, constructed as a contrast between narrative, motivating and interrogative sentences; grammatical category of activity/passivity of sentence construction; grammatical category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood, forming the paradigm of the sentence, etc. The question of whether the so-called word-formation categories belong to the grammatical category is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by grammatical category? What are the principles for identifying grammatical categories in a language?

2. Name the main grammatical categories of the name.

3. Name the main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. What morphological and syntactic grammatical categories do you know?