Why they don't like Poles. Why Poles hate Russia

This is due to the fact that ethyl enters the blood and negatively affects the functioning of the central nervous system, kidneys and liver. When drinking alcohol, intoxication occurs in the body, which is accompanied by unpleasant symptoms.

It is not difficult to identify a drunk person; coordination is impaired and speech becomes incoherent. Some people say “I drink and never get drunk,” experts attribute this to the individual characteristics of the body.

The effect of alcohol on the body

Everyone knows that ethanol is dangerous to health, as it changes the psychological and physical state. Usually a person gets drunk from alcohol and this is due to the fact that the kidneys and liver cannot process toxic substances in large quantities within a short time.

Soft tissues are protected from external irritants by red blood cells, but when harmful elements accumulate, they rupture and alcohol penetrates into vascular system. Already through the capillaries, toxins spread throughout the body, which leads to disruptions in the functioning of all systems.

The first sign of intoxication is a flushed face.

It is important that under the influence of alcohol a person loses control over his actions and often becomes dangerous to others.

For some, drinking a glass of beer is enough to quickly lose control of themselves, but there is a category of people who can drink 0.5 liters of vodka and remain sane.

This is explained by the fact that strong drink affects everyone differently; height, gender, weight and individual characteristics body structure.

The reasons why people stop getting drunk from alcohol?

Sometimes it is possible to hear that I do not get drunk from any type of alcohol. This phenomenon can be caused various factors. For example, a slow metabolism does not allow you to quickly get drunk, since when metabolism in the body occurs actively, alcohol is instantly absorbed into the walls.

If the drinker is completely healthy and does not suffer from chronic or infectious diseases, then the liver and kidneys cannot cope with processing, and for this reason the person does not have time to get drunk.

Alcoholics do not experience intoxication due to the death of brain cells. When products containing ethyl are drunk long time, then significant changes occur in internal systems. Toxic substances accumulate and destroy the structure of neurons, which provokes a decrease in the number of healthy cells.

The drunkard begins to degrade, thought processes, at the last stage of the disease it becomes impossible to understand simple things. The patient cannot cope with alcoholism on his own; this pathology requires long-term therapy and rehabilitation.

Treatment of the disorder occurs with the help of medications prescribed by a narcologist, and consultations with a psychologist will also be required to return to your previous life.

Factors that change the rate of intoxication

The degree of intoxication depends on the production of the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.

If in the body this element contained in increased quantity, then the rate of influence of ethyl decreases and the drinker remains sober for quite a long time. An important factor is individual characteristics - weight, gender, age.

For example, after 40 years of age, alcohol quickly affects internal systems, as they happen structural changes, and the influence of ethyl increases. Body weight plays important role, because people who are light weight get drunk faster. This is due to the fact that alcohol is actively absorbed into soft tissues.

Unlike men, women get drunk because they are more susceptible to strong drinks.

How not to get too drunk at feasts

Large amounts of alcohol are bad for your health. For this reason, if there is a special event coming up where you plan to drink alcohol, you need to prepare in advance. Precautionary measures will allow you not only not to get drunk, but also to avoid a hangover.

The next day after drinking alcohol, people experience pain and dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. These signs are defensive reaction body on chemical elements who got inside while drunk. Those who regularly drink alcohol know about its consequences, but cannot give up the pleasure.

For example, 4-5 hours before the party you need to drink a glass of vodka. Then the body begins to produce special enzymes that contribute to the active processing of toxins. This prepares the liver.

The only disadvantage of this method- this is the appearance of fumes, which can cause some discomfort. During the feast, you must definitely have a snack; your stomach should not be empty, otherwise the alcohol will immediately begin to take effect. But you should not eat sweet fruits and confectionery, as glucose will only enhance the effects of alcohol.

Activated carbon is an excellent remedy that fights poisoning, but it can also prevent the manifestation of signs of intoxication. You need to take 4 tablets in a couple of hours, and when drinking alcohol, two more pills every 40-60 minutes.

Alcohol will not be consumed if you drink a spoonful of sunflower or olive oil before drinking; it is also good to eat a sandwich with red caviar.

If you feel unwell during a feast, you should immediately stop drinking.

It is required to carefully select products. You should not buy cheap drinks, as low-quality goods can harm your health. It is necessary to adhere to the rule of not mixing alcohol. For example, you should not drink wine or beer after cognac.

Intoxication instantly occurs from champagne, since carbon dioxide promotes the absorption of ethyl into blood vessels. But vodka has the opposite effect and is much easier to drink than a sparkling drink.

During the feast, preference is given to high-quality and expensive products; you should not drink a lot of alcohol, since no precautions will help and you will have a hangover the next morning.

Conclusion

A person does not get drunk from drinking alcohol if he does not exceed the permissible dosage. If dizziness begins after drinking, this means that the body needs sleep and the systems need to recover.

Doctors prohibit drinking strong drinks during pregnancy, as alcohol provokes various pathologies in the development of the fetus.

Of course, in all cases of drinking, regardless of the establishment and circumstances, a person needs to maintain control over his mind and body. If a person does not have certain training, then the task sometimes becomes impossible. Next, we will describe some ways that will help you drink alcohol in serious quantities, but you will get much less drunk than usual.

The first step is to understand the reasons for the intoxicated state. When drinking alcohol, the human brain will be affected by fusel oils, which will disrupt the functioning of the cerebral cortex. The consequences can manifest themselves on a purely individual basis: the functioning of the occipital part and vestibular apparatus may be disrupted (loss of balance and the gift of speech), and the “moral center” responsible for controlling behavior may turn off. Sometimes memory disappears completely.

What to do BEFORE drinking alcoholic beverages to drink and not get drunk?

1 The process of “acceleration of the liver”. A few hours before drinking alcohol significant quantities you need to drink 100 g of vodka or any other strong drink. In this case, the body will produce alcohol dehydrogenases - these are special enzymes that process alcohol. After this strong intoxication, there is no need to be afraid.

2 A few days before a large feast, you need to eat foods high in iodine (squid, mussels, shrimp, feijoa, seaweed). Then the thyroid gland is stimulated, and hormones that accelerate the oxidation of alcohol will begin to concentrate in the body. It will take just 2-3 days to produce these hormones. When drinking alcohol, it is also necessary to snack on iodine-containing foods.

3 In the morning you need to drink some of the following: either the drug Liv-52 (half a spoon of syrup or 1 tablet per 15 kg of weight), or bile collection No. 2 (a spoon of herbs per 200 ml of boiling water), or 2 spoons of rose hip syrup. In this case, bile flow will improve, which will speed up the processing of fats in the liver, which will allow you to drink and not get drunk.

4 The day before drinking alcohol, it is recommended to take 0.3-0.5 g of aspirin or any alternative drug. This medicine will enhance microsomal enzymes that speed up the processing of alcohol. During a feast, you should refrain from taking aspirin.

5 30-40 minutes before the feast you need to drink 2-3 spoons vegetable oil(butter is not suitable). The oil will coat the walls of the stomach, preventing alcohol from quickly penetrating into the blood. Therefore, intoxication will occur a little later or will not occur at all. In addition, porridge (semolina, buckwheat, oatmeal) has a similar effect.

6 Vitamin B6. 12 and 4 hours before the feast, you must take Vitamin B6 in any form “B-complex”, “Pitsian”, “Neuromultivit”, “Neurogamma”. Should take 80-100 mg active substance. The vitamin will help the liver function.

7 Enzymes. 1-1.5 before the feast you need to choose from: Wobenzym, Mezim-Forte, Creon, Unienzym, Abomin. Dosage - 2 times more than the recommended dose indicated in the instructions. Festal is not suitable here because it contains bovine bile, which reduces the synthesis of bile acids.

8 Before drinking alcohol, you need to eat a hearty meal - this will allow you to drink and not get drunk. High-calorie foods (for example, potatoes and meat) are recommended.

9 Succinic acid. 1-1.5 hours before the feast, you must take the drug in the dose indicated in the instructions (can be found in any pharmacy). Succinic acid is an important participant in the Krebs cycle, therefore it allows you to speed up metabolism.

10 Glutarin. A couple of hours before drinking alcohol, you need to take 2.5 tablets of 750 mg (the drug is cheap, sold everywhere, can be called “AlcoClean”. It allows you to speed up the elimination of alcohol breakdown products.

What to do DURING

1 It is recommended to consume only high-quality alcohol purchased in a specialized or large store. The more impurities there are in the drink, the worse the alcohol will be digested in the body, causing rapid intoxication and a severe hangover. Therefore, it is better to prefer a glass of high-quality vodka or skate than a bucket of moonshine.

2 In addition, you should completely give up tobacco. This applies to those people who smoke occasionally. Even 2 smoked cigarettes will simply knock them off their feet.

3 Mixing drinks is strictly not recommended. When mixing different alcoholic drinks, the body will react unpredictably. For example, when combining champagne with other drinks, even very big people. In addition, one cannot fail to note a fairly common rule, which, according to many experts, is true: you cannot reduce the degree of alcohol you drink. That is, you can drink vodka after beer, but beer after vodka - no.

4 Recent studies have clearly shown that our body will experience a much greater load when drinking whiskey, cognac and other opaque alcohol than when drinking regular vodka.

5 Intoxication helps overcome brain activity very well. In other words, talk more during the feast, pay attention to details, carry out calculations - all this will help you stay sober.

6 It is also recommended to move more - this will allow you to drink and not get drunk. For example, to monitor your condition, it is recommended to systematically get up from the table, going out into the fresh air, if possible. However temperature regime There is no need to change suddenly. For example, after entering winter time on the balcony or street, you will get drunk even faster.

7 You also need to eat properly. But right doesn't mean much. When consumed large quantity After eating, the effect of alcohol on the body will be slowed down, but in the future the entire volume of alcoholic drinks will be destroyed in one fell swoop.

8 When drinking alcohol, it is recommended to drink other liquids. But only in the same quantities, otherwise in the morning we may wake up with swelling or a headache. At the same time, it is necessary to exclude any soda, which will irritate the mucous membrane and slow down the processing of alcohol. It is recommended to drink it with lemon juice, which is rich in vitamin C, which speeds up metabolism. In addition, apple and grape juice are suitable. If possible, kumys would be an excellent option.

9 Should be replaced if possible alcoholic drinks non-alcoholic. You should not drink a whole glass or glass at once. Try to replace alcohol with another drink of a similar color. For example, wine is very similar to cherry juice, and water is very similar to mineral water. Also, dilute the alcohol with still water or juice in your glass.

10 You should not drink more than you usually drink. At the same time, you need to understand that our body can withstand no more than 170 g of ethanol per 70 kg of weight per day. If this dose is exceeded, poisoning will occur quite quickly.

11 You should snack on aspic, fish soup, marmalade, jellied fish and any products with a high glycine content, which neutralizes the toxic breakdown products of alcohol. So you, too, can drink and not get drunk.

12 Radical methods include inducing vomiting. The method, of course, is unaesthetic, but effective. If you begin to feel that you are about to get drunk, then inducing vomiting will become a justified remedy, otherwise it will get worse. The procedure can be repeated hourly.

13 Before and after the feast, you should eat a raw egg. This helps in slowing down intoxication, because eggs, together with alcohol, will form a colloidal mass that binds alcohols and prevents them from being absorbed into the walls of the intestines and stomach.

14 You have to drink it in one gulp. Alcohol will be absorbed much faster through the mucous membrane of the mouth than through the walls of the intestines and stomach. In most cases, elite drinks, which are usually savored in the mouth, make you drunk much faster.

15 Activated carbon should be taken in large quantities and at a convenient opportunity - great way how to drink and not get drunk. This is an excellent sorbent that absorbs harmful substances before they are absorbed into the blood. Then, if you go to the toilet a few hours later, all these products can be eliminated from your body.

16 Lignin sorbents also help. Lignosorb, Polyphepan, Liferan should be taken 3 spoons per 300 ml of water 2 times every 2 hours. The drugs will perform the same functions as activated carbon, only much more effective. After 2 hours it is best to repeat the procedure.

17 If you drink cocktails, then you should only drink those that contain citrus juices containing vitamin C. Traditional cocktails include: Bloody Mary (tomato juice), Tequila Sunrise, Whiskey Sour, Screwdriver, Mojito, etc.

What to do AFTER drinking alcoholic beverages to drink and not get drunk?

1 Immediately after the end of the feast, it is necessary to repeat the intake of enzymes. In addition, sorbents will not be superfluous. In addition, if you are at home, be sure to open a window or window so that fresh air helps your body cleanse itself of alcohol breakdown products. It is also necessary to ensure an influx fresh air in the morning to get rid of a hangover.

2 Before going to bed, be sure to go to the toilet so that as few toxins as possible are absorbed through the intestines.

3 You can also take some specialized medications. For example, Relanium or Elenium helps well. It is also recommended to place a phenazepam tablet under the tongue. You should not abuse pills. You can take 2 tablets of motherwort, which contains vitamin B6 and magnesium, which remove toxins from the body.

4 The best way sobering up is a dream. But if you have so-called “helicopters”, then you’ll hardly be able to fall asleep. Therefore, you can try to do this while sitting. If this works, then during sleep you can gradually move to bed. In this case, many also recommend “grounding yourself” by hanging both legs off the bed, so that your feet are touching the floor.

Following some of the above points will prevent you from getting drunk quickly, will relieve you of a hangover in the morning, and will also reduce the effect of alcohol on the body. During the preparatory part, it is recommended to facilitate the liver’s processing of alcohol and its breakdown products. Then, during the feast, it is necessary to ensure the normal removal of alcohol processing products in the liver. Finally, you should speed up your metabolism and oxidative processes in the body.

Poles don't trust Russians. One might even say they don’t like him. For the Poles, Russians became an expression of fate, the disfavor of fate. IN Polish history Providence assigned Russia the role of a black hole that swallowed up “ Big bang Rzeczpospolita".

Russian dark matter

At the beginning, everything went well for the Poles (in company with the Lithuanians). Yes, it's so good that XVI century V Eastern Europe they entered into an image close to modern image USA. From time to time, the “guardians of Christian values” organized “humanitarian” operations in barbaric Muscovy in order to “civilize” the oppressive European outskirts. They led strings of kings, even sat in the Kremlin during the Time of Troubles, but they never achieved justice.

Every time the noble gentry groped for a black hole in the form of the “Susanin” and “Isupov swamps”, until they opened the door to the world of chaos and awakened the “Russian dark matter”.

And then the spring relaxed. The passion of Peter I and Catherine II to “civilize” and “Europeanize” Russia hit the former “civilizers.” Fat cross (Andreevsky) on the dream of Greater Poland was raised in 1813, when the Russian army, catching up with the retreating French, occupied the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, invented by Napoleon, which in a couple of years would become part of the Empire under the derogatory article “Kingdom of Poland.”

"Kingdom of Poland"

Having joined following the results Patriotic War 1812 to Russia, the “Kingdom of Poland” (since 1887 – “Privislinsky region”) had a dual position. On the one hand, after the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, although it was a completely new geopolitical entity, it still retained connections in ethnocultural and religious plans with his predecessor.

On the other hand, it grew here national identity and the sprouts of statehood were breaking through, which could not but affect the relationship between the Poles and the central government.
After joining Russian Empire in the “Kingdom of Poland”, undoubtedly, changes were expected. There were changes, but they were not always perceived unambiguously. During Poland's entry into Russia, five emperors changed, and each had his own view of the westernmost Russian province.

If Alexander I was known as a “polonophile,” then Nicholas I built a much more sober and tough policy towards Poland. However, one cannot deny his desire, in the words of the emperor himself, “to be as good a Pole as a good Russian.”

Russian historiography generally has a positive assessment of the results of Poland’s century-long entry into the empire. Perhaps it was Russia’s balanced policy towards its western neighbor that helped create a unique situation in which Poland, not being independent territory, has maintained its state and national identity for a hundred years.

Hopes and disappointments

One of the first measures introduced by the Russian government was the abolition of the “Napoleonic Code” and its replacement with the Polish Code, which, among other measures, allocated land to peasants and intended to improve the financial situation of the poor. The Polish Sejm passed the new bill, but refused to ban civil marriage, which provides freedom.

This clearly showed the Poles' orientation toward Western values. There was someone to take as an example. So in the Grand Duchy of Finland, by the time the Kingdom of Poland entered Russia, it was abolished serfdom. Enlightened and liberal Europe was closer to Poland than “peasant” Russia.

"Nikolaev reaction"

After the “Alexander freedoms” the time came for the “Nikolaev reaction”. In the Polish province, almost all office work is translated into Russian, or into French for those who did not speak Russian. Confiscated estates are distributed to persons of Russian origin, and all senior positions are filled by Russians.

Nicholas I, who visited Warsaw in 1835, senses a brewing protest in Polish society, and therefore forbids the deputation to express loyal feelings, “in order to protect them from lies.”
The tone of the emperor’s speech is striking in its uncompromisingness: “I need deeds, not words. If you persist in your dreams of national isolation, the independence of Poland and similar fantasies, you will bring upon yourself the greatest misfortune... I tell you that at the slightest disturbance I will order the city to be shot, I will turn Warsaw into ruins and, of course, I will not I’ll rebuild it.”

Polish revolt

The idea of ​​national isolation, right up to the restoration of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth within its former boundaries, embraced ever wider sections of the masses. The driving force behind the protest was the student body, which was supported by workers, soldiers, and various sections of Polish society. Later to liberation movement Some of the landowners and nobles joined.

The main points of the demands made by the rebels are agrarian reforms, democratization of society and ultimately the independence of Poland.
But for Russian state it was a dangerous challenge. On Polish uprisings 1830-1831 and 1863-1864 Russian government answers sharply and harshly. The suppression of the riots turned out to be bloody, but the excessive harshness that was written about Soviet historians, there wasn't. They preferred to send the rebels to remote Russian provinces.

The uprisings forced the government to take a number of countermeasures. In 1832, the Polish Sejm was liquidated and the Polish army was disbanded. In 1864, restrictions were introduced on the use of the Polish language and movement male population. To a lesser extent, the results of the uprisings affected the local bureaucracy, although among the revolutionaries were the children of high-ranking officials. The period after 1864 was marked by an increase in “Russophobia” in Polish society. It should be noted that in general the Polish province had more privileges than other regions of the empire. So, in 1907, at a meeting State Duma of the 3rd convocation it was announced that in various Russian provinces taxation reaches 1.26%, and in the largest industrial centers Poland - Warsaw and Lodz it does not exceed 1.04%.

IN late XIX century, Russia embarked on the path of industrialization, supported by solid Western investments. Polish officials also received dividends from this, participating in railway transportation between Russia and Germany. As a consequence, the appearance huge amount banks in major Polish cities.

Tragic for Russia, 1917 ended the history of “Russian Poland”, giving the Poles the opportunity to establish their own statehood. What Nicholas II promised came true. Poland gained freedom, but the union with Russia so desired by the emperor did not work out.

Poles don't trust Russians. One might even say they don’t like him. For the Poles, Russians became an expression of fate, the disfavor of fate. In Polish history, Providence assigned Russia the role of a black hole that absorbed the “Big Bang of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.” Russian dark matter At the beginning, everything went well for the Poles (in company with the Lithuanians). It’s so good that by the 16th century in Eastern Europe they entered an image close to the modern image of the United States. From time to time, the “guardians of Christian values” organized “humanitarian” operations in barbaric Muscovy in order to “civilize” the oppressive European outskirts. They led strings of kings, even sat in the Kremlin during the Time of Troubles, but they never achieved justice. Every time the noble gentry groped for a black hole in the form of the “Susanin” and “Isupov swamps”, until they opened the door to the world of chaos and awakened the “Russian dark matter”. And then the spring relaxed. The passion of Peter I and Catherine II to “civilize” and “Europeanize” Russia hit the former “civilizers.” The heavy cross (Andreevsky) on the dream of Greater Poland was put in 1813, when the Russian army, catching up with the retreating French, occupied the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, invented by Napoleon, which in a couple of years would become part of the Empire under the derogatory article “Kingdom of Poland”. "Kingdom of Poland"

Having joined Russia following the Patriotic War of 1812, the “Kingdom of Poland” (since 1887 – “Vistula region”) had a dual position. On the one hand, after the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, although it was a completely new geopolitical entity, it still retained ethnocultural and religious connections with its predecessor. On the other hand, national self-awareness grew here and the sprouts of statehood emerged, which could not but affect the relationship between the Poles and the central government. After joining the Russian Empire, changes were undoubtedly expected in the “Kingdom of Poland”. There were changes, but they were not always perceived unambiguously. During Poland's entry into Russia, five emperors changed, and each had his own view of the westernmost Russian province.

If Alexander I was known as a “polonophile,” then Nicholas I built a much more sober and tough policy towards Poland. However, one cannot deny his desire, in the words of the emperor himself, “to be as good a Pole as a good Russian.” Russian historiography generally has a positive assessment of the results of Poland’s century-long entry into the empire. Perhaps it was Russia’s balanced policy towards its western neighbor that helped create a unique situation in which Poland, although not an independent territory, retained its state and national identity for a hundred years. Hopes and disappointments

One of the first measures introduced by the Russian government was the abolition of the “Napoleonic Code” and its replacement with the Polish Code, which, among other measures, allocated land to peasants and intended to improve the financial situation of the poor. The Polish Sejm passed the new bill, but refused to ban civil marriage, which provides freedom. This clearly showed the Poles' orientation toward Western values. There was someone to take as an example. Thus, in the Grand Duchy of Finland, by the time the Kingdom of Poland became part of Russia, serfdom had been abolished. Enlightened and liberal Europe was closer to Poland than “peasant” Russia. "Nikolaev reaction"

After the “Alexander freedoms” the time came for the “Nikolaev reaction”. In the Polish province, almost all office work is translated into Russian, or into French for those who did not speak Russian. Confiscated estates are distributed to persons of Russian origin, and all senior positions are filled by Russians. Further - more. In 1832, the Polish zloty went out of circulation - its place was taken by the Russian ruble, and the familiar for Poles metric system transferred to the imperial system of measures. Nicholas I, who visited Warsaw in 1835, senses a brewing protest in Polish society, and therefore forbids the deputation to express loyal feelings, “in order to protect them from lies.” The tone of the emperor’s speech is striking in its uncompromisingness: “I need deeds, not words. If you persist in your dreams of national isolation, the independence of Poland and similar fantasies, you will bring upon yourself the greatest misfortune... I tell you that at the slightest disturbance I will order the city to be shot, I will turn Warsaw into ruins and, of course, I will not I’ll rebuild it.” Polish revolt

The idea of ​​national isolation, right up to the restoration of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth within its former boundaries, embraced ever wider sections of the masses. The driving force behind the protest was the student body, which was supported by workers, soldiers, and various sections of Polish society. Later, some landowners and nobles joined the liberation movement. The main demands made by the rebels were agrarian reforms, democratization of society and ultimately the independence of Poland. But for the Russian state it was a dangerous challenge. The Russian government responded sharply and harshly to the Polish uprisings of 1830-1831 and 1863-1864. The suppression of the riots turned out to be bloody, but there was no excessive harshness, which Soviet historians wrote about. They preferred to send the rebels to remote Russian provinces. The uprisings forced the government to take a number of countermeasures. In 1832, the Polish Sejm was liquidated and the Polish army was disbanded. In 1864, restrictions were introduced on the use of the Polish language and the movement of the male population. To a lesser extent, the results of the uprisings affected the local bureaucracy, although among the revolutionaries were the children of high-ranking officials. The period after 1864 was marked by an increase in “Russophobia” in Polish society. Benefits

Poland, despite the restrictions and infringements of freedoms, received certain benefits from belonging to the empire. Thus, during the reign of Alexander II and Alexandra III Poles began to be appointed to leadership positions more often. In some counties their number reached 80%. The Poles had the opportunity to advance along public service no less than the Russians.

Even more privileges were given to Polish aristocrats, who automatically received high ranks. Many of them oversaw the banking sector. Available to the Polish nobility profitable places in St. Petersburg and Moscow, they also had the opportunity to open their own business. It should be noted that in general the Polish province had more privileges than other regions of the empire. Thus, in 1907, at a meeting of the State Duma of the 3rd convocation, it was announced that in various Russian provinces taxation reaches 1.26%, and in the largest industrial centers of Poland - Warsaw and Lodz it does not exceed 1.04%. At the end of the 19th century, Russia embarked on the path of industrialization, supported by solid Western investments. Polish officials also received dividends from this, participating in railway transportation between Russia and Germany. As a result, a huge number of banks appeared in large Polish cities. Tragic for Russia, 1917 ended the history of “Russian Poland”, giving the Poles the opportunity to establish their own statehood. What Nicholas II promised came true. Poland gained freedom, but the union with Russia so desired by the emperor did not work out. ___________________________________________________________

Two hundred years ago, November 15 (27), 1815, most Grand Duchy of Warsaw, created by Napoleon and formerly his protectorate, was annexed “for eternity” to the Russian Empire under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, and the new kingdom, created “contrary to the ideas of almost all European states” and “the generosity of Emperor Alexander I,” received a Constitution that transformed only that the formed state into a hereditary monarchy, “forever united with the Russian Empire.”

Recently, the press secretary of the President of the Russian Federation Dmitry Peskov, commenting on the results of the elections in Poland, said that Russia regrets that relations with Poland are “not in in better shape».

Not in the best shape - that's putting it mildly. Unfortunately, historical heritage Polish-Russian relations are burdened with a mass of mutual grievances. But there is one important difference: If Russians associate the main “historical wounds” with the Time of Troubles (Poles’ support for False Dmitry I in 1605, the capture of Moscow in 1610, etc.), which is already four centuries distant from us, then the Poles practically complete their claims against Russia to this day.

In fact, Poland is an example of a nation that managed to create powerful empire, and then lose her, and not only her, but in late XVIII centuries and statehood in general. The second point: Poland has always strived to dominate Eastern Europe, but in the end it lost to Russia in this competition, and now the Poles have some kind of historical grievance against our country.

As a result, Poles and Russians are now separated by literally everything, and are united only by life in the neighborhood. Moreover, painful questions of the past not only do not close, but more and more new ones appear.

This gives rise to hostility of the majority of Poles towards Russia and Russians, and contributes to the rampant Russophobic sentiments in Polish society. Well, Russian historians constantly remember following words of Catherine II about the Poles:

“Due to the fickleness and frivolity of this people, due to their proven malice and hatred towards ours, and especially due to the inclination expressed in them towards the debauchery and frenzy of the French, we will never have a calm or safe neighbor in them, except by bringing them into existence powerlessness and infirmity."

POLES - NAPOLEON'S ALLIES

Poland lost its independence in 1795, when the third (final) division of its territories between Austria, Prussia and Russia followed. Poles who dreamed of independence placed high hopes against Napoleon, in whose troops they fought courageously, and in 1807, at the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit, the French Emperor created the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw, subordinate supreme power Saxon king.

Since then, the gratitude of the Poles to Napoleon was boundless, and he took advantage of their enthusiasm, supporting all this with new promises and an increase in the lands of the duchy. In particular, in 1809, most of Galicia, taken away from Austria, was annexed to the duchy.

But the hopes of the Poles were not destined to come true, and then Napoleon was defeated in 1812, Russian troops expelled him from Russia, in 1813 the war was transferred to Germany, and the Duchy of Warsaw was conquered, as they wrote then, “almost in passing.”

The Poles, to their credit, remained allies of France until the end of the 1814 campaign. But then Napoleon was finished, and the right of retaliation passed to Alexander I. And he could severely punish the Poles for their loyalty to the common enemy of all of Europe and for what they had done while on our territory.

But Alexander I, with his characteristic magnanimity, granted an amnesty Polish soldiers and officers who fought for Napoleon against Russia, and for the Duchy of Warsaw he appointed a provisional government, composed partly of Poles, partly of Russians.

“As a winner, I will restore Poland, because this is in accordance with my personal desires and with the benefits of my state. I know that I will encounter many difficulties, but I hope to succeed in my intention,” Alexander I said then. We agree that all this somehow does not resemble the notorious “painful question of the past.”

RESULTS OF THE VIENNA CONGRESS

At the Congress of Vienna, which decided the fate of post-Napoleonic Europe, it was initially planned to return Poland to the form it had before 1807, but Russian Emperor did not agree with this and demanded as a reward for Russia, which more than other powers contributed to the overthrow of Napoleon, the entire Duchy of Warsaw.

Initially he was inclined to restore the previous Polish state and as a constitutional monarch to become its head. But then the diplomatic intrigues of Metternich and Talleyrand changed his intentions, and he agreed to cede some parts of the duchy to Austria and Prussia. This is how the Kingdom of Poland was formed.

In the final act Congress of Vienna it was said:

“The Duchy of Warsaw, with the exception of some regions and districts, joins the Russian Empire. It will be irrevocably united with her for the eternal possession of His Imperial Majesty and his heirs and successors. His Imperial Majesty reserves the right to grant to this State, which enjoys a special administration, such boundaries and national regulations as it deems useful and proper.”

In this regard, I would like to note: the so-called divisions of Poland between Austria, Prussia and Russia were dictated by Russian side the return of the original Russian lands, previously seized by the Poles. And only now, after the victorious war of 1812-1814, in which the Poles actively supported Napoleon, the Polish territories themselves were transferred to Russia.

At the same time, as they wrote then, the Kingdom of Poland “was supposed to serve as a kind of observation camp, from which the Russian autocrats could observe all the actions and movements of the European cabinets.”

In short, in May 1815, treaties were signed between Russia, Prussia and Austria on the Duchy of Warsaw, and in June the General Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. Prussia received the Poznań and Bydgoszcz departments of the Duchy of Warsaw (from which the Grand Duchy of Poznań was formed), as well as the city of Gdansk. Austria received Wieliczka and salt mines. Krakow and its surroundings became a “free city” under the protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia.

The remaining territory was annexed to Russia and formed the Kingdom of Poland with a territory of about 127,700 square meters. km and a population of 3.2 million people. This was an undoubted success of Russian diplomacy, and it was explained, first of all, by Russia’s status as the winner in the war, which Europe was forced to reckon with.

• Borders of Poland according to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna 1815: green the Kingdom of Poland within Russia is indicated, blue is part of Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, which went to Prussia, red is Krakow (initially a free city, then transferred to Austria):

A NEW CONSTITUTION FOR RECENT ENEMIES

And then Alexander I, “prompted by no one and obligated by no one,” granted the Kingdom of Poland new Constitution built on liberal principles. This happened on November 15 (27), 1815.

The Constitution proclaimed that the Kingdom of Poland would forever join the Russian Empire and be associated with it by a personal union, the community of the reigning dynasty. The Russian emperor became Polish king and ascended the Polish throne in accordance with the order of succession to the throne that existed in the Russian Empire. However, in the Kingdom of Poland, the Emperor-King was constitutional, and his power was limited by the constitutional law he himself issued.

Polish was declared the language of administration, court, army, etc. " Polish people“, one of the articles read, “will forever have national representation in the Sejm, consisting of the king and two chambers (huts), of which the first will be the Senate, and the second will be ambassadors and deputies from the communities.” Note that Alexander was not at all obliged to do this in relation to a country that had recently fought against him, and this is also not very fair to classify as “painful issues of the past.”

The Sejm, which shared legislative power with the monarch, consisted of two chambers: the Senate and the so-called ambassadorial hut. The Senate included members royal family, bishops, governors and other senior officials in a number that would not exceed half the number of elected deputies of the embassy hut, which consisted of 128 members (77 representatives from the landed nobility and 51 deputies from cities and communities). At the same time, deputies had to be at least 30 years old, senators - 35 years old, and every owner who had reached 21 years old could be a voter.

The Diet was to be convened every two years for four weeks, and it was mainly responsible for changes in the field of civil and criminal law. Administrative and economic issues were regulated by decisions of the governor, and later of the Administrative Council.

By the way, the first governor (deputy of the emperor-king) was the former Napoleonic divisional general Jozef Zajoncek. But this man, by the way, fought against Russia and in 1812 lost his leg at the Berezina, and was then captured. But Alexander I forgave him and promoted him to infantry general. Maybe this is also a “painful question of the past”?

Executive power was in the hands of the king and five responsible ministers. The ministers constituted a council under the chairmanship of the governor, and together with state councilors and secretaries of state, a general meeting of the State Council, in which draft laws were to be drawn up.

As we see, Alexander I granted the Poles, who had recently fiercely fought against Russia, the status of a sovereign Kingdom of Poland with its own Constitution, which preserved the traditions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Poland retained its government, army, national monetary unit(zloty). Polish continued to have the status of the state language. The most important government positions were held by Poles.

DIRT IS THE FIFTH ELEMENT OF POLAND

What was the territory that became the Kingdom of Poland like then?

Historian D. A. Kropotov wrote in 1874:

“The newly acquired region was in many respects a semi-wild country, covered with dilapidated shacks in which dirt and poverty nested, and so devoid of communications that Napoleon, bogged down with his army in its impenetrable swamps, said that he had discovered the fifth element in Poland - dirt. Magnificent churches, vast stone monasteries and luxurious palaces of Polish magnates, built by the blood and sweat of the people, did not at all soften the sad impression made by general view countries".

In fact, for Napoleon, Poland was only a military depot from which he recruited soldiers for his continuous campaigns. Trade, industry, and the welfare of citizens did not flourish at that time. Poland was something of an outpost of France in northeastern Europe. Napoleon's campaign in Russia finally completed the depletion of the country and robbed it of its last vital juices.

What happened to this territory?

The same D.A. Kropotov notes:

“With the annexation of the kingdom to Russia, in a short time everything in it changed: agriculture, manufacturing, trade and finance of the kingdom were brought into a flourishing position by the unrelenting care of the Russian government. In the first years of Russian rule, all the expenses of the kingdom, exhausted by war, indemnities and the continental system, were taken over by Russia, while all the income of the kingdom was directed towards the organization and its internal needs.”

Such a statement may seem biased. But here are just a few numbers. In 1788, Poland's revenues amounted to 80 million zlotys, and since 1816 they reached more than 100 million zlotys, despite the fact that the Kingdom of Poland in 1816 constituted barely a fifth of the previous territory. The population of the kingdom in 1815 was 2.4 million inhabitants, in 1830 - 4 million.

A university arose in Warsaw in 1816, whose professors could compete with colleagues from the world's leading universities. Two military academies were founded in Warsaw and Kalisz, a school of agriculture was opened in Marimont (a suburb of Warsaw) and agriculture etc. The sciences and arts have developed with such force that without exaggeration we can say: Poland has never had so many scientists and writers as “under the heel of damned Russia.”

Even the salary is Polish army“four times the salary determined for the Russian army.” The Poles themselves said:

“Poland has never been so happy as in the time of Alexander. You just need to compare the past with the present in order to be convinced of the justice of this.”

GROWING DISCONTENT

But the Poles were dissatisfied with what they received and demanded even more. They wanted Alexander I to separate Belarus, Lithuania, Volyn and Podolia from Russia and annex them to Poland. It looks strange, but the dissatisfied claimed that the Russian sovereign “gave them the Constitution with the secret thought of never fulfilling it.”

However, in the first two years there were no complaints, and no disturbances were heard of. It is clear that further events very reminiscent logical paradox about the chicken and the egg. What came first? Repression and then discontent? Or discontent and then repression?

The new Constitution came into force in 1816, but very soon the harmony between Alexander I and the Poles was upset.

“The previous organization of the country enabled me to introduce that which I bestowed upon you, bringing into operation the liberal institutions.” And his speech ended like this: “Now prove to the world that these institutions are not a dangerous seduction, that if applied to the matter with sincerity and good intention, they can be consistent with order and serve as the basis for the true well-being of the people.”

Historian D.A. Kropotov writes about this:

“Emperor Alexander, having granted Poland a very liberal Constitution and broad representative government, was confident that through mercy, generosity, paternal concern for the welfare of the kingdom, praise and insignia that elevate the souls of soldiers, it would be possible to unite both nations and, ending the enmity existing between them , merge both parts into a single whole. It turned out differently: this event not only had the opposite effect to what was expected, but provided the Poles with ways to rebel and maintain the fight against Russia, which they did not even dare to think about.”

The Sejm deputies began to directly and sharply condemn the government and ministers. The Poles wanted to return to the times of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and as a result, the new Sejm, convened on September 1 (13), 1820, acted clearly in the spirit of opposition; secret societies and conspiracies, and this terribly angered Alexander I.

In his speech, noting that the Poles themselves are hindering the restoration of their homeland, the Russian emperor announced that he even wanted to abolish the Constitution, but limited himself to threats. At the same time, the government strengthened precautions, and the conspirators, considering such measures to be humiliation and persecution, carried out their subversive work even more diligently.

The historian D. A. Kropotov in 1874 made the following conclusion:

“The innate vanity of the Poles, their habit of self-will and complete inability to obey the laws undermined at the very root the new social order Poland. Instead of discussion legislative issues The Diet became a field in which nuncios, in order to gain personal fame for their eloquence, were distinguished by unbridled expressions, forgetfulness of all decency and violent antics against the very authorities that had granted them representative government.”

MEANINGLESS AND RELENTLESS

As a result, the third Sejm was assembled only five years after the second Sejm. This happened on May 1 (13), 1825, and in November of the same year, Emperor Alexander I died, and his brother Nicholas I ascended the throne. Accordingly, he was crowned King of Poland in Warsaw. By this time, illegal opposition had already reached a significant level in Poland, and this soon led to the uprising of 1830-1831, which entailed its very harsh suppression.

The rebels declared Nicholas I of Poland deposed, and the people took to the streets demanding the complete separation of Poland from Russia. At the same time, the brother of Emperor Alexander I, Konstantin Pavlovich, who was the governor there after the death of General Zajonchek, loved Poland, knew its language perfectly and was married to the Polish Countess Joanna Grudzinskaya.

Konstantin Pavlovich cared about the country: developed the economy, culture, and the Poles had privileges that the Russian people did not have. In short, in Warsaw he was quite happy with his fate and, perhaps, that’s why he renounced Russian throne in favor younger brother Nicholas.

But in November 1830, Warsaw fell into the hands of the rebels. And then the uprising was suppressed, after which power, along with the title of Prince of Warsaw and the post of governor, passed to Field Marshal General Count I.F. Paskevich, who pacified the rebellion.

A provisional government was established to help him. By the way, according to Paskevich, it would be best then to annex the Kingdom of Poland to the Russian Empire and arrange the usual Russian management, but this idea was not accepted by Nicholas I at that time.

Thousands of Poles fled outside the Kingdom of Poland. They settled in different countries Europe, and it was these emigrants who tried to create an extremely unsightly image of Russia as a strangler of freedoms, threatening “ civilized Europe" It was from the beginning of the 1830s that Polonophilia and Russophobia became important components of European public opinion.

Well, then, in 1837, the voivodeships were transformed into provinces, and in 1841 they were abolished State Council. The Russian language was introduced into office work, estates were confiscated Polish gentry were granted to Russians, highest government positions were occupied by Russians, etc.

The revolution of 1848 greatly agitated the Poles, and they raised uprisings in the Duchy of Poznań and Galicia. Then the Crimean War further revived the hopes of the Poles. It was decided to form Polish legions in the theater of operations to fight against Russia.

By the way, this plan was facilitated by the Polish emigration led by Prince Adam Czartoryski, who at one time was among the closest friends and associates of Alexander I.

END OF THE KINGDOM OF POLISH

Meanwhile, Emperor Nicholas I died on February 18 (March 2), 1855, and I. F. Paskevich died on January 20 (February 1), 1856. In May 1856, the new Emperor Alexander II arrived in Warsaw, but that’s a completely different story...

In any case, during the First World War, the Poles Russian subjects, fought against the Poles who served in the Austro-Hungarian and German armies. The Kingdom of Poland found itself under German-Austrian occupation, and then ceased to exist altogether.

Well, the conclusion to all of the above was drawn by the historian K.V. Elpatievsky, who wrote in the “Textbook of Russian History”, published in 1906:

“Poland has never been as happy as in the time of Alexander I, and if it had continued on this path, it would soon have forgotten two hundred years of its anarchy and would have become alongside the most educated states of Europe.”

Unfortunately, “the outbreak of the revolution quickly destroyed all the flourishing crops and threw Poland back for many years.”