As a result of studying the chapter, the student should:
know
- features of Russian accent and pronunciation;
- special litter system used in spelling dictionaries to indicate pronunciation options;
be able to
- determine the reasons for the appearance of variants of stress in words, as well as pronunciation individual sounds and their combinations;
- identify cases of incorrect pronunciation of words and suggest replacements in accordance with the norms literary language;
own
- norms of literary pronunciation;
- skills in analyzing options for placing stress in words and pronunciation of individual sounds and their combinations using dictionaries and reference books on speech culture.
Orthoepic norms
Orthoepic norms and deviations from literary pronunciation norms
Orthoepy (from ancient Greek. oithos - straight, correct and epos - speech) establishes rules for the uniform pronunciation of words. Orthoepy fixes the norms of pronunciation of sounds, combinations of sounds in certain phonetic positions. Orthoepic norms are rules for the pronunciation of individual sounds and sound combinations in words.
Orthoepic norms include two types of pronunciation norms: accentological norms (norms for placing stress (with a broad understanding of the term - the pronunciation of a stressed sound refers to orthoepy)) and actually spelling standards (norms for pronunciation of individual sounds).
Due to the fact that orthoepic norms regulate the rules of use linguistic units literary language, they are also called literary pronunciation norms. The norms for the pronunciation of sounds develop simultaneously with the formation national language.
Historical background
Russian literary pronunciation developed under the influence of historical factors. In the 17th century, during the period when Moscow became the center of the Russian state, the unifier of Russian lands, cultural center, many features of the Moscow dialect are perceived as exemplary and are actively adopted (the Moscow dialect was formed on the basis of northern Great Russian dialects under the strong influence of southern Great Russian dialects, i.e. it reflected the features fixed in different territories language options). As a result, such features of the Moscow dialect as akanye - pronunciation - became established as an orthoepic norm in the literary language O in an unstressed position as [a |, - the norm of pronunciation of a letter combination chn as [sh] in a number of words, etc.
In the 19th century the historical and cultural situation is changing. St. Petersburg actively determines not only political, economic, social, but also cultural trends. The nature of the pronunciation of sounds began to be influenced strong influence Petersburg dialect, which manifested itself, in particular, in the pronunciation of the letter combination chn like [chn], in pronunciation in borrowed words e after consonants like [e], etc. The speech of St. Petersburg residents of that time was characterized by orthoepic variants, close to the written form of the word, i.e. the word was pronounced close to how it was written: i[sh, h IR - box, |sh'ch]n - cabbage soup, [w]hat.
Many modern standards pronunciation of endings of adjectives, endings and suffixes of verbs, letter combinations chn and others appeared under the influence of spelling: modern options pronunciations like long>.go[dya|t, gathered, tapping, felt established themselves instead of historical ones dol|go th, hotsut, collected] With], tap]wat, felt
After the revolution of 1917, due to active social change, a large influx of population into capital cities differences in the speech of Muscovites and St. Petersburg residents began to gradually disappear and by the end of the 20th century. have practically disappeared.
Pronunciation variants, which were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century, reflect some features of both Moscow and St. Petersburg pronunciation. These pronunciation variations have become established as a national norm.
Deviations from the norms of literary pronunciation are caused by two main reasons. The first is due to the fact that the unified orthoepic norm is influenced by pronunciation features traditional for a certain territory. Even if you comply spelling standards literary language there are some differences in the pronunciation of individual sounds, characteristic of representatives of different regions.
These seemingly insignificant discrepancies lead to the fact that the pronunciation style of the residents of Samara and Arkhangelsk, Rostov-on-Don and Irkutsk, Voronezh and Yekaterinburg has distinctive features. For example, in the south of Russia there will be a noticeable pronunciation on the spot [g| special sound - [y], paired in deafness/voicing with the sound [x|. This sound is characteristic of southern dialects: |y|orod, [y]tin, |y|say, but it will also be found in a less vivid version in the speech of those who generally master the norms of orthoepy. In the north of Russia, Okanye is a stable dialect feature. Okanye in its pure form may be lost as a result of mastering literary norms, but in place of unstressed | about | in speech educated people, living in northern territories, a sound close to fuzzy [e] is often encountered: water - [veda], home - [demoy], Then - [pet|. According to the norms of literary pronunciation, a vague [a] should be pronounced in the indicated positions: [vada], [dama], [patom]. In Moscow, on the contrary, in similar positions in place of the fuzzy |a| pronounced clearly open sound|a|, which leads to akanya. The speech of the inhabitants of the Ural region is characterized by a kind of “patter”, which arises as a result of rapid speaking, “swallowing” of consonants, and shortening the duration of vowel sounds. It loses the melodiousness characteristic of the literary language and often becomes difficult to understand.
Thus, pronunciation features traditional for a particular territory may varying degrees expressiveness manifest itself in the speech of native speakers of a literary language and in some cases cause violations of orthoepy norms.
The second reason for deviations from the norms of literary pronunciation is due to the fact that There is not always a correspondence between the letter and sound form of a word. For example, words are written with the letter h, and in pronunciation it corresponds to the sound [sh|: of course, but, boringly, mo, - or written with a letter G, in place of which it is pronounced [v]: legally va], legally va|; is written resume, de jure, computer, and is pronounced summary [me], [deyure], computer[te]r. Letter G, in particular, can be pronounced as [G]- annual, [To] -forgery, pledge, [in| -legal, lawful, [X] -God, [h] -accountant, bookkeeping, bookkeeping.
IN indefinite form verb in place -tsya According to the literary norm, a long sound is pronounced ts - |zza|:engage - busy tsa],develop - develop[tsa, strive - striving[sha] etc. Under the influence of dialects, they often mistakenly speak as they write - engage], develop], strive [to]. In common parlance, in place of letter combinations - there is , -tsya often an erroneous pronunciation occurs, which is characterized by a lack of long sound [ts|:I don't like it - don't like it[ tsa] instead of the correct one don't like it. No need to be afraid - battle[ tsa] instead of the correct one battle[ 1 sh]a.
Suffix -xia used in verbs after consonants: laughed, washed his face. After vowels the variant -съ is used: laughed, washed. Other pronunciation - laughed, washed - is colloquial.
There are quite a lot of various inconsistencies between letters and sounds, letter combinations and sound combinations in the Russian language, and it is in these cases that spelling errors often arise: we can often hear incorrect pronunciations of words: boring, trivial, computer, producer at er, buhtalteria, boro]a] etc.
- The throat sound [h] - average between the sounds [g] and [x] - is not typical for Russian pronunciation; it can be found in interjections, yeah, wow. This sound can be heard in southern dialects.
Orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language regulate the correct pronunciation of sounds in various phonetic positions, with other sounds, in certain grammatical forms and free-standing words. Distinctive feature pronunciation is uniform. Spelling errors can negatively affect listeners’ perception of speech. They can distract the interlocutor’s attention from the essence of the conversation, causing misunderstanding and irritation. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates the communication process and makes it more effective.
Orthoepic norms determined by the phonetic system of the language. Each language is characterized by its own phonetic laws governing the pronunciation of sounds and the words they create.
The basis of the Russian literary language is the Moscow dialect, however, in Russian orthoepy, the so-called “younger” and “senior” norms are distinguished. The first reflects the distinctive features of modern pronunciation, the second draws attention to Old Moscow spelling norms.
Basic rules of pronunciation
In the Russian language, only those vowels that are under stress are clearly pronounced: garden, cat, daughter. Those vowels that are in an unstressed position may lose clarity and clarity. This is the law of reduction. Thus, the vowel “o” at the beginning of a word without stress or in pre-stressed syllables can be pronounced like “a”: s(a)roka, v(a)rona. In unstressed syllables, an unclear sound can be pronounced in place of the letter “o”, for example, like the first syllable in the word “head”.
The vowel sound “and” is pronounced like “y” after a preposition, a hard consonant, or when pronouncing two words together. For example, “pedagogical institute”, “laughter and tears”.
As for the pronunciation of consonants, it is guided by the laws of deafening and assimilation. Voiced consonants facing a dull sound are deafened, which is characteristic feature Russian speech. An example is the word “pillar”, last letter in which it is deafened and pronounced like “p”. There are very, very many such words.
In many words, instead of the sound “ch”, one should pronounce “sh” (the word “what”), and the letter “g” in endings is read as “v” (the words “mine”, “nobody” and others).
As mentioned above, orthoepic norms deal with the pronunciation of borrowed words. Usually such words obey the norms existing in the language, and only sometimes can they have their own characteristics. One of the most common rules is to soften the consonants before “e”. This can be seen in words such as “faculty”, “cream”, “overcoat” and others. However, in some words the pronunciation may vary (“dean”, “terror”, “therapy”).
Orthoepic norms– these are also norms for setting stress, which is not fixed in the Russian language. This means that in different grammatical forms of the word the stress may differ (“hand” - “hand _
9. Stress norms in modern Russian
Accent- This is a mandatory feature of the word. This is the highlighting of a syllable in a word by various means: intensity, duration, tone movement. Russian stress is unfixed (various places) and mobile (moves in different grammatical forms of one word). Stress serves to distinguish the grammatical forms of a word. Sometimes stress serves as a sign by which the meanings of a word differ (homographs). In the accentological norm, there are such concepts as proclitic and enclitic. A proclitic is an unstressed word adjacent to stressed word front. An enclitic is an unstressed word attached to the back of a word. In addition, there are words in the language with so-called double stress, these are accentological variants. Sometimes they are equal, often one may be preferable.
Competent oral speech- deposit successful communication. The ability to correctly express your thoughts will help not only when applying for a job or in business negotiations, but also in everyday life. But in order to perfectly master oral speech, you need to know and follow the orthoepic norms of the Russian language. This is what our article will be devoted to.
What is orthoepy?
The word "orthoepy" consists of two Greek roots - "orthos" and "epos", which are translated as "correct" and "speech". That is, the science of correct speech- that's what orthoepy is.
Graphic abbreviations
Graphic abbreviations include initials, standing nearby with a surname, designations of volume or distance, for example, liters (l), meters (m), also pages (s) and other similar abbreviations that serve to save space in printed text. When reading, all these truncated words must be deciphered, that is, the word must be pronounced in full.
The use of graphic abbreviations in a conversation can be assessed as a speech error or irony, which may only be appropriate in certain circumstances.
First names and patronymics
Orthoepic norms of the Russian language also regulate the pronunciation of names and patronymics. Note that the use of patronymics is typical only for our language. In Europe, such a concept does not exist at all.
The use of a person's full name and patronymic is necessary in various circumstances, both verbally and in writing. Such appeals are especially often used in a work environment and official documents. Such an address to a person can also serve as a marker of the degree of respect, especially when talking with elders and elderly people.
Most Russian-language names and patronymics have several pronunciation options, which can vary, among other things, depending on the degree of closeness with the person. For example, when meeting for the first time, it is advisable to pronounce the interlocutor’s name and patronymic clearly, as close to written form as possible.
However, in other cases, the orthoepic norms of the Russian language (pronunciation norms) provide for the historically established method of use in oral speech.
- Patronymic names ending in “-evna”, “-evich”. In female versions it is necessary to observe written form, for example, Anatolyevna. In men's - let's say short version: Anatolyevich / Anatolyich.
- On “-aevich” / “-aevna”, “-eevich” / “-eevna”. For both male and female options, a short version is allowed: Alekseevna / Aleksevna, Sergeevich / Sergeich.
- On “-ovich” and “-ovna”. In the male version, contraction of the form is acceptable: Alexandrovich / Alexandrych. For women, full pronunciation is required.
- In female patronymics, formed from names ending in “n”, “m”, “v”, [ov] is not pronounced. For example, instead of Efimovna - Efimna, Stanislavovna - Stanislavna.
How to pronounce loanwords
Orthoepic norms of the Russian language also regulate the rules of pronunciation foreign words. This is due to the fact that in a number of cases the laws of use of Russian words are violated in borrowed ones. For example, the letter "o" in unstressed syllables pronounced the same way as if it were standing in strong position: oasis, model.
Also, in some foreign words, the consonants preceding the softening vowel “e” remain hard. For example: code, antenna. There are also words with variable pronunciation, where you can pronounce “e” both hard and soft: therapy, terror, dean.
In addition, for borrowed words the stress is fixed, that is, it remains unchanged in all word forms. Therefore, if you encounter difficulties with pronunciation, it is better to turn to a spelling dictionary.
Accentological norm
Now we will take a closer look at the orthoepic and accentological norms of the Russian language. First, let's figure out what it is accentological norm. This is the name for the rules for placing stress in a word.
In Russian, stress is not fixed, as in most European languages, which not only enriches speech and increases opportunities language game, but also provides enormous opportunities for violating the accepted norm.
Let's consider the functions that a non-fixed accent performs. So here it is:
- provides an opportunity for stylistic coloring words (silver - silver) and the appearance of professionalisms (kompas - kompas);
- provides for a change in the etymology (meaning) of the word (melI - meli, Atlas - atlas);
- allows you to change morphological features words (pines - pines).
Also, placing stress can change the style of your speech. So, for example, the word “maiden” will refer to the literary, and “maiden” will refer to the neutral one.
There is also a class of words in which the variability of stress does not carry any semantic load. For example, Butt - butt, barge - barge. The emergence of these exceptions is due to the lack of a unified norm and equal existence of the dialect and literary language.
Also, placing stress in some words can be simple outdated form. For example, music is music, an employee is an employee. In essence, you are only changing the stress, but in fact you are starting to speak with an outdated syllable.
Most often, the placement of stress in a word has to be remembered, since existing rules do not regulate all cases. In addition, sometimes a violation of a literary norm can become an individual author's technique. This is often used by poets to poetic line sounded smoother.
However, one should not assume that accentology is included in the orthoepic norms of the Russian language. The emphasis and its correct placement are too broad and complex topic, therefore it is usually placed in a special section and studied separately. Those who want to familiarize themselves with the topic in more detail and eliminate violations of the norm of stress placement from their speech are recommended to acquire an orthoepic dictionary.
Conclusion
It would seem that what could be difficult about speaking native language? In fact, most of us have no idea how many norms of the Russian language are violated every day.
Orthoepy is a system of norms for correct pronunciation. Orthoepic norms are historically established and socially accepted rules for the pronunciation of words and grammatical forms of words. Orthoepic norms are no less important for a literary language than the norms for the formation of grammatical forms of words and sentences or spelling norms.
It is customary to distinguish between different spelling norms: “senior” and “younger”, as well as norms of high and neutral pronunciation styles.
The older norm, which primarily distinguishes the speech of educated older people, is characterized by the pronunciation of bulo[sh]aya, myag[ky], [z`v`]er. The younger pronunciation norm, observed in the speech of young people who speak a literary language, allows the pronunciation of bulo[chn]aya, soft[k`y], [zv`]vr.
The norms of a high pronunciation style (cf. the measured speech of a radio or television announcer, as well as an artist reading a solemn ode from the stage) allow, for example, the pronunciation of the unstressed sound [o] in borrowed words: p[o]et, s[o]net, nocturne. In a neutral style, these and similar words are pronounced according to the general rule of replacing the unstressed sound [o] with the sound [a]: p[a]et, s[a]net, n[a]cturn.
The system of modern norms of Russian literary pronunciation and the pronunciation features of more than 63,000 words and their grammatical forms are reflected in the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by R. A. Avanesov (the first edition was published in 1983, after which there were a number of reprints). The compact “Dictionary of Russian Pronunciation Difficulties” by M. L. Kalenchuk and R. F. Kasatkina (M., 1997) is also useful for both the student and the teacher, which presents 15,000 of the most common Russian words, the pronunciation of which can cause difficulties.
To master the norms of correct literary pronunciation, it is important to take into account four sections of orthoepy: orthoepy of consonant sounds; orthoepy of vowel sounds; spelling of individual grammatical forms; spelling of borrowed words.
Norms of orthoepy. Orthoepic norms are also called literary pronunciation norms, since they serve the literary language, i.e. a language spoken and written by cultured people. Literary language unites all Russian speakers; it is needed to overcome linguistic differences between them. And this means that he must have strict standards: not only lexical - norms for the use of words, not only grammatical, but also spelling norms. Differences in pronunciation, like other differences in language, interfere with people's communication by shifting their attention from what is being said to how it is being said. Pronunciation standards are determined by the phonetic system of the language. Each language has its own phonetic laws according to which words are pronounced. For example, in Russian percussion sound[o] in an unstressed position changes to [a] (v[o]du - v[a]da, t[o]chit - t[a]chit); after soft consonants, stressed vowels [o, a, e] change to an unstressed sound [i] (m[ya]so - m[i]snoy, v[yo]l - v[i]la, l[e]z - get in); at the end of words, voiced consonants change to voiceless (du[b]y - du[p], moro[z]y - moro[s]). The same exchange of voiced for voiceless occurs before voiceless consonants (ru[b]it - ru[p]ka, slide - how much [s]ko), and voiceless consonants change to voiced before voiced ones (ko[s]it - goat, molo [t]it - young [d]ba). Phonetics studies these laws. Orthoepic norms determine the choice of pronunciation options - if the phonetic system is in in this case allows for several possibilities. Thus, in words of foreign language origin, in principle, the consonant before the letter e can be pronounced both hard and soft, while the orthoepic norm sometimes requires hard pronunciation (for example, [de]kada, [te]mp), sometimes soft (for example, [d] "e]claration, [t"e]perament, mu[z"e]y). The phonetic system of the Russian language allows both the combination [shn] and the combination [ch"n], cf. bulo[ch"n]aya and bulo[sh]aya, but the orthoepic norm prescribes to say kone[sh"o, and not kone[h"n]o. Orthoepy also includes stress norms: correctly pronounce document, not document, started, not started, zvont, not zvnit, alphabet, not alphabet). The basis of the Russian literary language, and therefore literary pronunciation, is the Moscow dialect. This is how it happened historically: it was Moscow that became the unifier of Russian lands, the center of the Russian state. Therefore, the phonetic features of the Moscow dialect formed the basis of orthoepic norms. If the capital of the Russian state were not Moscow, but, say, Novgorod or Vladimir, then the literary norm would be “okanye” (i.e. we would now pronounce v[o]da, not v[a]da), and if Ryazan became the capital - “yakanye” (i.e. we would speak in [l "a]su, and not in [l"i]su). Orthoepic rules prevent errors in pronunciation and cut off unacceptable options. Pronunciation options recognized as incorrect, unliterary, may appear under the influence of the phonetics of other language systems- territorial dialects, urban vernacular or closely related languages, mainly Ukrainian. We know that not all Russian speakers have the same pronunciation. In the north of Russia they “okayat” and “yakayat”: they pronounce v[o]da, g[o]v[o]rit, n[e]su), in the south - “akayat” and “yakat” (they say v[a] ]da, n[ya]su), there are other phonetic differences. A person who has not mastered the literary language since childhood, but is consciously mastering literary pronunciation, may encounter in his speech pronunciation features characteristic of the local dialect, which he learned in childhood. For example, people from the south of Russia often retain a special pronunciation of the sound [g] - they pronounce in its place a voiced [x] (a sound denoted in transcription by the sign [g]). It is important to understand that this kind of pronunciation features are a violation of norms only in the system of a literary language, and in the system of territorial dialects they are normal and correct and correspond to the phonetic laws of these dialects. More details in the specified source
The term “orthoepy” is used in the science of language in two meanings: 1) a set of norms of a literary language associated with the sound design of words: norms of pronunciation of sounds, stress and intonation; 2) a science that studies the variation in pronunciation norms of a literary language and develops pronunciation recommendations (spelling rules). Orthoepy ensures the unity of the sound design of the national language, which promotes fast and easy linguistic communication. The rules of orthoepy have their own long history and develop as language norms, usually late, when various forms develop public speech and increases specific gravity oral speech in the life of society. Theater, which preserved the norms of orthoepy in its purest form, was of great importance in the development of literary pronunciation. Stage speech in many languages is the basis of orthoepic norms. The importance of orthoepy increases with the development of sound cinema, radio, and television. The orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in their most important features back in the first half of the 17th century as norms of the Moscow dialect, which later began to acquire the character of national norms. The norms of orthoepy were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century and are largely preserved today; Only some private rules have changed.
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy(Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepy is also called a set of rules of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in in separate words.
Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation has great value. Spelling errors always interfere with the perception of the content of speech: the listener’s attention is distracted by various incorrect pronunciations and the statement is not perceived in its entirety and with sufficient attention. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the communication process. That's why social role correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses.
Let's consider basic rules of literary pronunciation, which must be adhered to.
Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose clarity and clarity of sound; they are pronounced with weakened articulation. It's called law reduction.
The vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: ravine –[a] enemy, autonomy –[a] vt[a] nomiya, milk - m[a]l[a]ko.
In the remaining unstressed syllables, i.e. in all unstressed syllables, except the first prestressed one, in place of the letter oka after hard consonants a very short (reduced) unclear sound is pronounced, which different positions ranges from a pronunciation close to [s] to a pronunciation close to [a). Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the letter [ъ]. For example: head – g[b]lova, side - st[b]rona, Expensive - d[b] horny, city - gor[ъ]d, watchman - side [ъ] g.
Letters e And I in a pre-stressed syllable they denote a sound intermediate between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is indicated by the sign [and e]: nickel - p[i e ] so, feather - p[i e] ro.
The vowel [and] after a hard consonant, preposition, or when pronouncing a word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical school – medical institute from a spark - from[s] hidden, laughter and grief - laughter[s] grief. If there is a pause, [i] does not transform into [s]: laughter and grief.
The absence of vowel reduction interferes with normal speech perception, as it reflects literary norm, A dialect features. So, for example, the letter-by-letter (unreduced) pronunciation of the word [milk] is perceived by us as a voicing, and the replacement of unstressed vowels with [a] without reduction - [malako] - as a strong akan.
Pronunciation of consonants. Basic laws of consonant pronunciation - stun And assimilation.
In Russian speech, there is a mandatory deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word. We pronounce bread[n] – bread, sa[t] – garden, smo[k] – could, any[f"] – Love etc. This stun is one of characteristic features Russian literary speech. It should be taken into account that the consonant [g] at the end of a word always turns into a paired unvoiced sound [k]: le[k] - lay down, poro[k] – threshold etc. In this case, pronouncing the sound [x] is unacceptable as a dialect. The exception is the word God - bo[x].
In the position before vowels, sonorant consonants k (v), the sound [g] is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant. Only in a few words, Old Church Slavonic in origin - bo [γ] a, [γ] lord, blah [γ] o, bo [γ] aty and derivatives from them, the fricative velar consonant [γ] sounds. Moreover, in modern literary pronunciation and in these words, [γ] is replaced by [g]. It is most stable in the word [γ] Lord,
[G] pronounced as [x] in combination gk And gh: le[hk"] – ii – easy, le[hk] o – easily.
In combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants (as well as voiceless and voiced), the first of them is likened to the second.
You should pay attention to the combination chn, since mistakes are often made when pronouncing it. There is fluctuation in the pronunciation of words with this combination, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation.
According to the norms of modern Russian literary language, the combination chn This is usually pronounced [chn], especially for words of book origin (greedy, careless) as well as to words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing).
Pronunciation [shn] instead of spelling chn currently required in female middle names on – ichna: Ilyini[shn]a, Lukini[shn]a, Fomini[shn]a, and is also preserved in separate words: horse[shn]o, pere[shn]itsa, laundry[shn]aya, empty[shn]y, skvore [shn]ik, ya[shn]itsa, etc.
Some words with combination chn in accordance with the norm, they are pronounced in two ways: order [shn] o and order [chn] o. IN in some cases different pronunciation of the combination chn serves for semantic differentiation of words: heart [chn] – th blow – heart [sh] friend.
Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern spelling norms and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features. For example, sometimes the pronunciation of the sound [o] is preserved in unstressed syllables (m[o] del, [o] azis, [o] tel) and hard consonants before the front vowel [e] (s[te] nd, ko[de] ks, cough [ne]). In most borrowed words, the consonants before [e] are softened: ka[t"] et, pa[t"] ephon, faculty[t"] et, mu[z"] her, [p"] ector, pio[n" ] er. The back-lingual consonants are always softened before [e]: pa[k"] et, [k"] egli, s[x"] ema, ba[g"] et.
A description of orthoepic norms can be found in the literature on speech culture, in special linguistic studies, for example, in the book by R.I. Avanesov “Russian literary pronunciation”, as well as in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian literary language, in particular, in the one-volume “ Explanatory dictionary Russian language" S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova.
