French kings of the 14th century. History: dynasties of French kings

The history of France, which is located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Convenient physical and geographical position, proximity to the seas, rich reserves of natural resources have contributed to France being the “locomotive” of the European continent throughout its history. And this is how the country remains today. Occupying leading positions in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic remains in the 21st century a state whose history is being created every day.

Location

The country of the Franks, if the name of France is translated from Latin, is located in the region Western Europe. Neighbors of this romantic and beautiful country are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The coast of France is washed by the warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is covered with mountain peaks, plains, beaches, and forests. Hidden among the picturesque nature are numerous natural monuments, historical, architectural, cultural attractions, ruins of castles, caves, and fortresses.

Celtic period

In the 2nd millennium BC. Celtic tribes, whom the Romans called Gauls, came to the lands of the modern French Republic. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The Romans called the territory inhabited by the Gauls or Celts Gaul, which was part of the Roman Empire as a separate province.

In the 7th-6th centuries. BC, the Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Gaul on ships, who founded on the coast Mediterranean Sea colonies. Now in their place there are cities such as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.

Between 58 and 52 BC, Gaul was captured by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.

During Roman rule, other important events took place in the history of the peoples of future France:

• In the 3rd century AD, Christianity entered Gaul and began to spread.
• Invasion of the Franks, who conquered the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemanni, Visigoths and Huns, who completely put an end to Roman rule.
• The Franks gave names to the peoples who lived in Gaul, created the first state here, and founded the first dynasty.

The territory of France, even before our era, became one of the centers of constant migration flows that passed from north to south, west to east. All these tribes left their mark on the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. But it was the Franks who had the greatest influence, who managed not only to drive out the Romans, but also to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.

The first rulers of the Frankish kingdom

The founder of the first state in the vastness of the former Gaul is King Clovis, who led the Franks during their arrival in Western Europe. Clovis was a member of the Merovingian dynasty, which was founded by the legendary Merovey. He is considered a mythical figure, since 100% evidence of his existence is not found. Clovis is considered the grandson of Merovey, and was a worthy successor to the traditions of his legendary grandfather. Clovis led the Frankish kingdom in 481, and by this time he had already become famous for his numerous military campaigns. Clovis converted to Christianity and was baptized in Reims, which happened in 496. This city became the center of baptism for the rest of the kings of France.

Clovis's wife was Queen Clotilde, who together with her husband revered Saint Genevieve. She was the patroness of the capital of France - the city of Paris. The following rulers of the state were named in honor of Clovis, only in French version this name sounds like "Louis" or Ludovicus.

Clovis The first division of the country between his four sons, who did not leave any special traces in the history of France. After Clovis, the Merovingian dynasty began to gradually fade away, since the rulers practically did not leave the palace. Therefore, the stay in power of the descendants of the first Frankish ruler is called in historiography the period of lazy kings.

The last of the Merovingians, Childeric the Third, became the last king of his dynasty on the Frankish throne. He was replaced by Pepin the Short, so nicknamed for his small stature.

Carolingians and Capetians

Pepin came to power in the mid-8th century, and founded a new dynasty in France. It was called Carolingian, but not on behalf of Pepin the Short, but his son, Charlemagne. Pepin went down in history as a skillful manager who, before his coronation, was the mayor of Childeric the Third. Pepin actually ruled the life of the kingdom, determined the directions of external and domestic policy kingdoms. Pepin also became famous as a skilled warrior, strategist, brilliant and cunning politician, who during his 17-year reign enjoyed the constant support of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Such cooperation of the ruling house of the Franks ended with the head of the Roman Catholic Church prohibiting the French from choosing representatives of other dynasties to the royal throne. So he supported the Carolingian dynasty and kingdom.

The heyday of France began under Pepin’s son, Charles, who spent most of his life in military campaigns. As a result, the territory of the state increased several times. In 800 Charlemagne became emperor. He was elevated to a new position by the Pope, who put the crown on the head of Charles, whose reforms and skillful leadership brought France to the TOP of the leading medieval states. Under Charles, the centralization of the kingdom was laid and the principle of succession to the throne was defined. The next king was Louis the First the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, who successfully continued the policies of his great father.

Representatives of the Carolingian dynasty were unable to maintain a centralized single state, therefore in the 11th century. Charlemagne's state fell apart into separate parts. The last king of the Carolingian family was Louis the Fifth; when he died, Abbot Hugo Capet ascended the throne. The nickname appeared due to the fact that he always wore a mouth guard, i.e. the mantle of a secular priest, which emphasized his ecclesiastical rank after ascending to the throne as king. The reign of representatives of the Capetian dynasty is characterized by:

• Development of feudal relations.
• New classes appear French society- lords, feudal lords, vassals, dependent peasants. Vassals were in the service of lords and feudal lords, who were obliged to protect their subjects. The latter paid them not only through military service, but also tribute in the form of food and cash rent.
• There were constant religious wars, which coincided with the period of the Crusades in Europe, which began in 1195.
• The Capetians and many French were participants in the Crusades, participating in the defense and liberation of the Holy Sepulcher.

The Capetians ruled until 1328, leading France to new level development. But the heirs of Hugo Capet failed to stay in power. The Middle Ages dictated its own rules, and a stronger and more cunning politician soon came to power, whose name was Philip the Sixth of Valois dynasty.

The influence of humanism and the Renaissance on the development of the kingdom

During the 16th-19th centuries. France was ruled first by the Valois and then by the Bourbons, who belonged to one of the branches of the Capetian dynasty. The Valois also belonged to this family and were in power until the end of the 16th century. After them the throne until the mid-19th century. belonged to the Bourbons. The first king of this dynasty on the French throne was Henry the Fourth, and the last was Louis Philippe, who was expelled from France during the period of change from monarchy to republic.

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, the country was ruled by Francis the First, under whom France completely emerged from the Middle Ages. His reign is characterized by:

• He made two trips to Italy to present the kingdom's claims to Milan and Naples. The first campaign was successful and France gained control of these Italian duchies for some time, but the second campaign was unsuccessful. And Francis the First lost territories on the Apennine Peninsula.
• Entered royal loan, which in 300 years will lead to the collapse of the monarchy and the crisis of the kingdom, which no one could overcome.
• Constantly fought with Charles the Fifth, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
• France's rival was also England, which at that time was ruled by Henry the Eighth.

Under this king of France, art, literature, architecture, science and Christianity entered into new period development. This happened mainly due to the influence of Italian humanism.

Humanism was of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly visible in the castles built in the Loire River valley. The castles that were built in this part of the country to protect the kingdom began to turn into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich stucco, decor, and the interior was changed, which was distinguished by luxury.

Also, under Francis the First, book printing arose and began to develop, which had a huge influence on the formation of the French language, including the literary one.

Francis I was replaced on the throne by his son Henry II, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was remembered by his contemporaries for his successful military campaigns, including against England. One of the battles, which is written about in all history textbooks dedicated to France in the 16th century, took place near Calais. No less famous are the battles of the British and French at Verdun, Toul, Metz, which Henry recaptured from the Holy Roman Empire.

Henry was married to Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. The Queen ruled the country with her three sons on the throne:

• Francis II.
• Charles the Ninth.
• Henry the Third.

Francis reigned for only a year and then died of illness. He was succeeded by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. He was completely controlled by his mother, Catherine de Medici. Karl was remembered as a zealous champion of Catholicism. He constantly persecuted Protestants, who became known as Huguenots.

On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Charles the Ninth gave the order to purge all Huguenots in France. This event was called St. Bartholomew's Night, since the murders took place on the eve of St. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died and Henry III became king. His opponent for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen because he was a Huguenot, which did not suit most of the nobles and nobility.

France in the 17th-19th centuries.

These centuries were very turbulent for the kingdom. The main events include:

• In 1598 Edict of Nantes, which Henry the Fourth published, ended the religious wars in France. Huguenots became full members of French society.
• France took an active part in the first international conflict– Thirty Years' War 1618-1638.
• The kingdom experienced its "golden age" in the 17th century. under the reign of Louis the Thirteenth and Louis the Fourteenth, as well as the “gray” cardinals – Richelieu and Mazarin.
• The nobles constantly fought with the royal power to expand their rights.
• France 17th century constantly faced dynastic strife and internecine wars, which undermined the state from within.
• Louis the Fourteenth dragged the state into a war for spanish inheritance, which caused the invasion of foreign countries into French territory.
• Kings Louis the Fourteenth and his great-grandson Louis the Fifteenth had enormous influence on the creation strong army, which made it possible to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
• At the end of the 18th century, the Great War began in France. French Revolution, which caused the liquidation of the monarchy and the establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon declared France an empire.
• In the 1830s. An attempt was made to restore the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.

In 1848 in France, as in other countries of Western and Central Europe, a revolution broke out, which was called the Spring of Nations. The consequence of the revolutionary 19th century was the establishment of the Second Republic in France, which lasted until 1852.

Second half of the 19th century. was no less exciting than the first. The Republic was overthrown, replaced by the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled until 1870.

The empire was replaced Paris Commune, which caused the establishment of the Third Republic. It existed until 1940. At the end of the 19th century. The country's leadership has been actively foreign policy, engaged in the creation of new colonies in different regions world:

• North Africa.
• Madagascar.
• Equatorial Africa.
• West Africa.

During the 80s - 90s. 19th centuries France constantly competed with Germany. Contradictions between states deepened and aggravated, which caused the separation of countries from each other. France found allies in England and Russia, which contributed to the formation of the Entente.

Features of development in the 20-21st centuries.

Started in 1914. First world war, became a chance for France to regain lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was forced to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the borders and territory of France acquired modern contours.

During the interwar period, the country actively participated in the Paris Conference and fought for spheres of influence in Europe. Therefore, she actively took part in the actions of the Entente countries. In particular, together with Britain, she sent her ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans who were helping the Ukrainian government People's Republic drive the Bolsheviks out of their territory.

With the participation of France, they signed peace treaties with Bulgaria and Romania, which supported Germany in the First World War.

In the mid-1920s. were installed diplomatic relations With Soviet Union, signed a non-aggression pact with the leadership of this country. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of far-right organizations in the republic, France tried to create military-political alliances with European states. But France was not saved from the German attack in May 1940. Within a few weeks, Wehrmacht troops captured and occupied all of France, establishing a pro-fascist Vichy regime in the republic.

The country was liberated in 1944 by the forces of the Resistance Movement, the underground movement, and the allied armies of the United States and Britain.

The Second War hit the political, social and economic life of France hard. The Marshall Plan and the country's participation in economic European integration processes, which in the early 1950s, helped to overcome the crisis. unfolded in Europe. In the mid-1950s. France refused colonial possessions in Africa, providing former colonies independence.

Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency of Charles de Gaulle, who led France in 1958. Under him, the Fifth Republic in France was proclaimed. De Gaulle brought the country to the forefront European continent. Progressive laws were adopted that changed the social life of the republic. In particular, women received the right to vote, study, choose professions, and create their own organizations and movements.

In 1965, the country elected its head of state for the first time by universal suffrage. President de Gaulle, who remained in power until 1969. After him, the presidents in France were:

• Georges Pompidou – 1969-1974
• Valeria d'Estaing 1974-1981
• Francois Mitterrand 1981-1995
• Jacques Chirac – 1995-2007
• Nicolas Sarkozy - 2007-2012
• Francois Hollande – 2012-2017
• Emmanuel Macron – 2017 – until now.

After World War II, France developed active cooperation with Germany, becoming with it the locomotives of the EU and NATO. The government of the country since the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, countries of the Middle East, Asia. The French leadership provides support to former colonies in Africa.

Modern France is an actively developing European country that is a participant in many European, international and regional organizations, influences the formation of the world market. Internal problems are present in the country, but the well-thought-out successful policy of the government and the new leader of the Republic, Macron, is helping to develop new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in accordance with global trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants feel comfortable living in France.

In 58 BC. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, which became part of the Roman Empire and became one of its provinces. The Gauls began to be called Gallo-Romans.

Carolingians.

So, the “lazy kings” - the last descendants of the once great Merovingian family, gradually, without a fight, ceded power to their ministers - the majordomos. And so on the throne of the Frankish state appeared new king Pepin the Short. This was in 751. So it began new era in the history of France - the era of Carolingian rule. But even before the new dynasty came to power, one of the Carolingians did more for France than all the “lazy kings” combined. It's about about the father of Pepin the Short - Charles Martel. Yours formidable nickname(and in translation Martell means “hammer”) he received for the heroic battle with the Arabs at Poitiers in 732. It was he, being the military commander of King Clothar VI, who led his warriors into battle and won a brilliant victory. The Arabs fled, and their emir Abd el-Raman was killed in the battle.
Charles Martell's son, Pepin, called the Short because of his height, was, like his father, a brave soldier, but many found that a man of such short stature could not be their king. One day Pepin ordered a huge bull and a fierce lion to be brought. The lion grabbed the bull by the neck. Pepin said to those who laughed at him:
- Go and free the bull or kill the lion.
But no one dared to even approach the ferocious animals. And Pepin took out his sword, and with one blow cut off the heads of both the lion and the bull.
- Well, can I be your king and rule over you?
Hearing these words, those who mocked him fell to their knees. So Pepin became king, replacing the last of the Merovingians, Childeric III, on the throne.
Pepin was not only a true brave man, but also a skillful politician. He strongly supported the Catholic Church and readily responded to the requests of the Pope if he asked military assistance. In gratitude, the pope blessed Pepin's ascension to the throne and, under pain of excommunication, forbade "the election of a king from any other family." This is how the Carolingian dynasty grew stronger, relying on the support of the church.
However, the Carolingian dynasty does not owe its name to Pepin.

The son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada, or Bertha, as she was called in epic tales, became not just the king of France, but also the first emperor, for which he was called Charlemagne. In addition, the very name of the state - France - appears during the reign of Charlemagne.
After Pepin's death, according to Frankish custom, his two sons, Charles and Carloman, divided the lands of the kingdom. However, Carloman dies, and Karl is given his possessions.
It was not for nothing that Charles was nicknamed the Great. From an early age he was taught to royal life: he was studying physical exercise, horse riding, hunting, swimming. Learned monks told him biblical stories and taught him moral lessons using the example of the Gospel. Karl often had to go to church and attend liturgies. His father, Pepin the Short, from an early age taught the prince to politics, to lead the country, and simply taught him human relations. Karl was very inquisitive. The best scholars and grammarians of the time were his teachers. In addition to his native language- the Germanic dialect spoken by the Franks, Karl also knew very well both classical Latin and folk Latin, from which the French language subsequently took shape. He perfectly understood the importance of education for the development of the state, and therefore not only never stopped learning himself, but also did a lot to make knowledge available to everyone. So, in 789, Charles ordered the opening of schools so that “children could learn to read.” According to contemporaries, the king himself often sat in class, trying to “write letters, but since he was no longer a child, the results turned out to be mediocre.”
Charlemagne continued the unification of France. He created a real administrative system, dividing the country into regions and appointing his governors who ensured that the will of the king was carried out. Under Charlemagne, France became a real empire, which included virtually the entire territory of Western Europe: in 774, at the invitation of the Pope, he occupied Lombardy and annexed it to his state, suppressed the Saxon uprising in the north and became the rightful master of this region, and in 796 he defeated the Avars - descendants of the legendary Huns, which allows the state to expand to the east. In the year 800, Charles was proclaimed emperor.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis I the Pious. Thus, the Frankish custom, when the kingdom was divided among all the sons, was forgotten, and from then on the eldest son became king. The constant quarrels between the grandchildren of Charlemagne in the struggle for the imperial crown weakened the empire, and, ultimately, led to its collapse. The Viking tribes of the Normans took advantage of the weakening of royal power in France. On their small boats with a flat bottom - drakkars - they could successfully sail not only in the sea, but also in rivers. In 843 they climbed up the Seine and occupied Paris. Charles the Bald, the then king of France, pays off the Vikings, and they leave France.
However, this was not the last Viking invasion. In 885, their army of twenty thousand again approached Paris on 700 longships. Count Ed was the commander of the garrison of the city's defenders. The Vikings lifted the siege only a year later - they were never able to conquer Paris a second time. The nobility, dissatisfied with the rule of Karl Tolstoy, elects Ed as king. Who knew that this brave count would be the founder of a new royal dynasty? Yes, the Carolingian dynasty was shaken, but they still ruled until 987. The last of them was Louis V. And on July 3, the nobility elected a new king - Hugo Capet, who gave the name to the new dynasty French kings- Capetians.

Capetians.

In turn, the lord obliged to protect and support his vassal. France at that time consisted of small estates, in which the lords were the full owners. However, in the state, the main lord to whom all others had to obey was the king. In fact, at first royal power did not extend beyond the royal domain - the area between Compiegne and Orleans. But Hugo Capet finally managed to unite the entire territory of the state under his leadership.
Another innovation introduced by Hugh Capet was the inheritance of royal power. Thus, the place of the first Capetian was taken by his eldest son, Robert II. The tradition of inheritance of royal power contributed to the further unification and strengthening of France.
But the advent of the new dynasty was marked not only by reforms, but also by new wars. It was under the Capetians that, for the first time in history, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. It all started with the First crusade. In 1095, on November 26, Pope Urban II convened the most influential representatives of the clergy and nobility in Clermont. He said that the Turks, who had owned Jerusalem since 1078, were oppressing the pilgrims. At that time, knights-errant were called pilgrims. These were the children of wealthy lords who left their father's castles in search of God or simply adventure. Urban II recalled that, in addition, the Holy Sepulcher is located in Jerusalem, and that it is unsuitable for this Christian shrine to be in the hands of Muslims. The Pope called for a campaign against Jerusalem and promised those who save the Holy Sepulcher remission of all sins.
The pope's call was instantly taken up. And now the first Europeans with large crosses embroidered on their clothes reached towards Jerusalem. The first crusaders were ordinary townspeople. Armed with anything, they went to distant Jerusalem under the leadership of Pierre l'Hermite. However, they were completely defeated by the Turks in 1096 on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus. The lords - barons and counts - followed them. They were led by the brother of the king himself. After a fierce struggle, they occupied first Constantinople, then Antiochus and, finally, the road to Jerusalem was opened. The last transition was especially difficult - the wells were poisoned, and the crusaders were thirsty. On July 8, 1099, Jerusalem was taken under siege, and on July 15 at 3 pm the defense was taken. The city fell. The Holy Sepulcher was “saved” from the Gentiles, and in Jerusalem, Count of Lorraine Godefroy de Bouillon was appointed ruler of the region.
After this Crusade there were seven more - in the 12th and 13th centuries. But the First Crusade was more than a simple military campaign. It fully embodied all the hopes and aspirations of the knights-errant - pilgrims, and the common people for the first time felt their involvement in the creation of History.
As for the history of France, in the future it is closely connected with the descendants of Hugo Capet, who did not cede royal power to anyone else. From 987 to 1328, the direct heirs of the Capetians ruled - the last of them was Charles IV the Handsome, then they were replaced by the Capetians of the Valois family (1328-1589) - from Philip VI to Henry III, and in 1589, the first of the Capetian Bourbon family, Henry IV, ascended the throne. The Bourbons were the last kings in the history of France. The Capetian royal dynasty ends in 1848 with Louis Philippe.

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The French government at first was the same as everyone else's northern peoples: everything was decided at general meetings of the people, kings were the leaders of these meetings. This was almost the only government the French had under the first two dynasties before Charles the Simple.

When, during the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the monarchy was divided and the Kingdom of Arles rose11, and the provinces fell under the rule of vassals almost independent of the crown, the designation “French” became more limited: under Hugh Capet, Robert, Henry and Philip12 only residents in the north of Loire. There was then a great variety of customs and laws in the provinces that remained under the rule of the French crown. Individual lords, having become masters of these provinces, introduced new customs in their new states. Nowadays the Breton and the Flanders have some similarities, despite the difference in their characters, depending on the soil and climate; but at that time there was almost nothing in common between them.

Only with Francis I does some uniformity of morals and customs begin to appear: only at this time did the court become an example for the annexed provinces, but in general, uncontrollability in war and lack of discipline always remained the main features in the character of the nation. Courtesy and politeness began to distinguish the French under Francis I, but after the death of Francis II, morals hardened. However, even then at court (183) politeness was constantly observed, which the Germans and English tried to imitate. Even then, the rest of Europe envied the French and sought to be like them. One of the characters in Shakespeare’s comedy says: “If you try really hard, you can become polite without ever having been to the French court.”13 Text hidden

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GENERAL PROVISIONS AND OBJECTIVES OF IFRS No. 12 “ON...
Natalia G. Schroeder. IFRS No. 1 "PREPRESENTATION...

CHAPTER XVII Feature in the election of kings of the second dynasty, Charles Montesquieu
28 October 2010 02:25

From the coronation formula of Pepin it is clear that Charles and Carloman were also anointed with chrism and blessed, and that the French lords undertook, under pain of interdict and excommunication, never to elect a king from another family.

From the will of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, it should be concluded that the Franks elected one of the royal children as their king, which fully meets the condition just given. When the imperial dignity passed to another house, the franchise, which had been limited and conditional, became simple and unconditional, and the old constitution was thus subject to change.

Feeling the approach of death, Pepin summoned the spiritual and secular lords to Saint-Denis and divided his kingdom between his two sons - Charles and Carloman. Although the acts of this meeting have not reached us, we find news of what happened at it in the old historical collection, published by Canisius, and in the Metz Annals, as indicated by Baluz. I find here two somewhat contradictory circumstances: firstly, that Pepin made the division with the consent of his nobles, and, secondly, that he did this by virtue of his parental right. This proves what I have already said, namely, that the right of the people under this dynasty was to elect a king from royal family. Strictly speaking, it was more a right of exclusion than a right of election.

This unique right of choice is confirmed by the monuments of the second dynasty. This also includes the capitulary of Charlemagne on the division of the empire between his three sons, in which, having determined their shares, he says that “if one of the three brothers has a son whom the people want to elect as heir to his father, his uncles will have to submit to this.” .

This very order is contained in the division made by Louis the Pious between his three sons - Pepin, Louis and Charles - in 837 at the Aachen Congress, and in another division of the same sovereign, made 20 years earlier between Lothar, Pepin and Louis. You can also refer to the oath of Louis the tongue-tied, taken at his coronation in Compiègne. “I, Louis, made king by the grace of God and the election of the people, promise...” What I said is confirmed by the acts of the congress in Valence, convened in 890 to elect Louis, son of Boson, king of Arles. Louis was elected, and the main reasons given for his election were that he came from imperial family that Charles the Fat informed him of the dignity of a king and that the Emperor Arnulf confirmed him in this dignity by the power of his scepter and by sending his envoys to him. The Kingdom of Arles, like other kingdoms that separated from or were dependent on the empire of Charlemagne, was elective and hereditary. Text hidden

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Diplomacy of the Hundred Years' War

The events of the Hundred Years' War were a turning point in the political development of France. In 1328, the Capetian dynasty ended, and a side branch in the person of Philip VI of Valois ascended the throne. He also claimed his rights to the French throne. Edward III, English grandson of Philip IV through the female line.

An unusually complex diplomatic game began, into which almost all the main forces of the then Europe gradually became involved: the pope, the German emperor, the kings of Scotland, Sicilia, Castille, and numerous sovereign princes. On the side of Philip VI were the pope, the Count of Flanders, whom he helped deal with the cities that rebelled against him, and the king of Scotland; According to the tradition established since the time of Philip IV, the French kings helped the Scottish kings in their fight against England. This was one of the constant trump cards of French diplomacy in its clashes with England. The alliance with Scotland, skillfully created by Philip the Fair and which proved so useful for France during the Hundred Years' War, lasted until the 17th century. Edward III, for his part, also developed a whole system of alliances. So, for 300 thousand florins, he attracted to his side the German Emperor Louis of Bavaria, who was under excommunication. In like manner he purchased the assistance of the counts of Holland, Gennegau and Zeeland, the Duke of Brabant, the Count of Gueldern, the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Archbishop of Mainz and a number of other minor princes. The rich and powerful Flanders cities, embittered against their count and against the French, interested in receiving English wool, spoke out in favor of neutrality benevolent towards Edward III. Subsequently, this neutrality turned into open assistance. Then Philip VI announced the confiscation of Gieni. In response, Edward III declared Philip VI a usurper and renewed his claims to the French crown. Attempts at mediation on the part of the pope did not lead to anything: in 1338, hostilities began. Edward III declared himself king of France.

The Hundred Years' War ended in 1453 with the expulsion of the English from France, who, of all their possessions and conquests, were left with only the important port of Calais. From the trials of this war and the devastation that accompanied it, France emerged more united and stronger, being the first to show an example of those national monarchies, which arose at the turn of the Middle Ages and modern times. But by this time, the powerful Burgundian state had grown up on the eastern outskirts of France, whose duke played a treacherous role in relation to France at the most critical moments of the Hundred Years' War. Charles VII, under whom France was freed from the English occupiers, did not yet feel strong enough to fight this eastern neighbor. However, the king was already preparing the system of alliances that was necessary to fight the Duke of Burgundy and the independent princes within France itself. The implementation of this task fell to the lot of his son Louis XI. Text hidden

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Burgundy. Bourgogne
I came across an interesting question here on one site. What is Burgundy? Vineyards? Modern region? Old province? Grand Duchy of Charles the Bold? Pillar of France during the first Capetians? An ancient kingdom? Those. the question, in traditional French style, is immediately asked with an answer. There are many Burgundies, and every person, pronouncing this name, must clearly understand what kind of Burgundy he is bringing to light.

The first kingdom was founded by the Germanic Burgundian tribe in the 5th century. The capital was Worms, which is now in Germany. The Huns destroyed this formation. There is no particular point in talking about this glorious state here, especially since most of the stories have a mythological overtones. For those who want to get acquainted with this particular Burgundy, I can recommend “The Song of the Nibelungs”. The epic is famous, very widespread in bookstores, so there will be no problems reading it.

The surviving Burgundians migrated to Lake Geneva and formed a new kingdom in the territory of modern Savoy and western Switzerland, with its capital in Geneva. Against the background of the declining Empire, the Burgundians, in alliance with the Visigoths, absorbed the entire Rhone basin. Later, building on their success, they expanded the kingdom to the north, reaching Dijon. However, in the north they were met by their “countrymen” the Franks and big troubles. After several wars, Burgundy was annexed in the 6th century to the Frankish empire, with which it lived until the division of the empire by the grandchildren of Charlemagne.

As you know, this glorious event took place in 843 in the city of Verdun. The empire was divided into three parts. Chapter Frankish Empire- this is a separate page in history, which is very interesting to get to know. Here we will skip it, focusing solely on the results. The eldest son of Louis the Pious, Lothair received the Middle Kingdom (Lorraine, Provence, Italy). The second son, Louis became the ruler of the Eastern Kingdom (Germany). And the youngest, Charles, received the Western Kingdom, i.e. France. At the same time, Burgundy was also divided. Small western part went to Charles (Duchy of Burgundy), and the larger eastern part went to Lothair (Kingdom of Burgundy). From then on, the duchy became one of the foundations of the kingdom of France and was never separated from it again.

The Kingdom of Burgundy later split into Upper and Lower. Then they were united into the Kingdom of Arles. They were gradually annexed to the Holy Roman Empire, from where they later migrated piecemeal to France. Now these parts can be seen in the southeast of France - these are Dauphine, Savoy, Provence. After all the movements, the name Burgundy retained only a small formation in the north, with the capital in Besançon. This was called the Palatine County of Burgundy (county in France). Now this is the region of Franche-Comté.

Let's return to France. The family of Charlemagne gradually declined and powerful vassals began to encroach on the power of the descendants of the great emperor. Count Ed of Paris declared himself the first king. But the Carolingians managed to regain power. Then it was the turn of the Burgundians. The second Duke of Burgundy, Raoul (Rudolph), becomes King of France. However, the Carolingians regain power again. The third was Robert, Ed's brother. With the same success. And only Robert’s grandson Hugo Capet finally overthrows the old dynasty, in which his brother Ed-Henry of Burgundy greatly helps him.

In 1032, the brother of King Henry I (the same husband of Anna of Russia) Robert received the Duchy of Burgundy from his brother. This dynasty will sit on the ducal throne for a long time. They are loyal to the kings (of course they rebelled at times, but there was nowhere without this at that time), participate in the crusades, receive overseas titles, and support the church. Along with the Dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, the Counts of Toulouse, Champagne and Flanders are peers of France, i.e. the highest nobles, equal to the king. After all, it was the peers who chose Hugh Capet as king, as first among equals. And, starting with Robert, the city of Dijon becomes their capital.

However, dynasties do not last forever, and after the 12th Duke, nature said enough was enough. In 1361, King Jean II, nicknamed the Good, was the same anti-hero of the Hundred Years' War. annexes no one's (escheated) dukedom to the crown. And immediately gives it to his youngest son Philip. From now on, the second dynasty of dukes (from the Valois family) rules in Burgundy, and it is with it that the true flourishing of the Dijon court begins. Four rulers are painstakingly assembling their state. Dukes Philip II, Jean and Philip III create a prototype of the kingdom from Burgundy, Franche-Comté, Luxembourg, Artois, Hainault, Brabant, Flanders, Holland, Guelder. This allows the latter to call himself Grand Duke of the West. In alliance with the British, the Burgundians fight France. Science and art flourish in cities. Gold flows like a river. As a result, Philip's son, Duke Charles the Bold, inherited a state comparable to both France and England. Powerful and authoritative. After all, it was Burgundy’s transition to the side of France that decided the outcome of the Hundred Years’ War. Duke Charles even captures and holds captive the King of France. At the same time, he allows himself the phrase “I love France so much that I would prefer to have six sovereigns in it instead of one,” which fully reflects his self-esteem. He is ready to become king.

However, what neither he nor his ancestors ever did was separate themselves from France. Formally, they never took this step. And then all this power comes across a new force - Swiss mercenaries. Mountain shepherds destroy a magnificent army to smithereens. Charles the Bold died in 1477 near Nancy on the spears of harsh Swiss guys. The northern provinces go to the Empire as the property of the daughter of Charles, the wife of the emperor. And Burgundy is annexed to the crown. Now a province, and forever.

And then there’s “region”, “wine” and so on. Departments of Côte d'Or, Saône et Loire, Nièvres, Yonne. 31.6 thousand km². 1.61 million people. Sister city of Volgograd. Magny-Cours. The birthplace of Gustav Eiffel and Virginie Radzano. Like all French people, Burgundians are proud of their region. The wines are famous all over the world. Flags of Charles the Bold fly on houses. The knights converge, as before in tournaments.

But Burgundy the Great fell asleep, giving way to Burgundy the Beautiful. Let's wish her a good night's sleep. And let him appear in the dreams of the rest of the inhabitants. The way everyone wants to see her. Text hidden The history of the Franks is reflected in two sources: in the code of customary law - “Salic truth”, which owes its name to this tribe, and in the “History of the Franks” by Bishop Gregory of Tours. Gregory of Tours was either a Gaul or a Roman by origin. King Clovis continued the tradition of Theodoric, who invited noble and learned Romans to his place. Gregory of Tours wrote the “History of the Franks” in the second half of the 6th century, after the death of Clovis, but based on the living memories of his children, grandchildren, entourage, etc. His descriptions of the royal family with which he was closely associated are interesting. Frankish king V-VI centuries. was still very similar to a barbarian. Gregory of Tours writes that Clovis himself and all members of the royal family wore long hair, and this is not accidental. Clovis was an outstanding figure, with whose name all the major events of this period in the life of the Frankish state, which rapidly developed under him, are associated. In the 5th century, when Germanic tribes Franks come from beyond the Rhine to the West, Clovis conquers first of all Romanized Gaul. Only central part Gaul, centered in Paris, was ruled by the Roman magnate Syagrius. Having conquered northern Gaul, Clovis descends further south, i.e. goes to Paris. Syagrius was unable to resist the Franks and fled to the Visigothic king (at that time there was Visigothic kingdom). The Visigothic king betrays Syagrius to Clovis, and he kills him.
Having conquered a large and important territory in the center of Gaul (the Seine and Loire basin), Clovis settled the Franks on it and generously allocated them with land. Thus, the center of the future France becomes the territory of continuous settlement of the Franks. By the end of his reign, Clovis had already advanced significantly to the south of Gaul, reaching the Garonne River. Here he had to meet the Visigoths. Clovis conquers large areas of the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse. After the death of Clovis, moving further and further south, the Visigoths crossed the Pyrenees and formed a new state on the territory of the future Spain, centered in the city of Toledo.
Clovis tried to conquer Burgundy, but he failed. Burgundy was conquered by his descendants. Nevertheless, Clovis had strong influence to the Kingdom of Burgundy. In the mid-90s. V century Clovis converts to Christianity. According to legend, Clovis hesitated for a long time to accept Christianity, until he suffered a major defeat in one of the battles and a threat loomed over his life. Then he swore an oath that if he won the battle and remained alive, he would accept Christianity. He won the battle, remained alive and accepted Christianity. However, there was another reason that forced Clovis to accept Christianity. He had a wife, a Visigoth princess, and she was a Christian, so it may not have been just the battle that was dangerous for the king's life. Together with Clovis, his squad also accepts Christianity. The lower strata of Frankish society gradually converted to Christianity. Text hidden

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The Capetians were a royal dynasty in France that ruled after the Carolingians from 987 to 1328. In 987, after the childless Carolingian Louis V the Lazy, Duke Hugh Capet of Ile-de-France, with the support of Bishop Adalberon of Reims and his learned secretary Herbert (the future Pope Sylvester II), was elected king at a congress of spiritual and temporal lords of France. Capetian Domain before beginning of XII century was limited to the territory of Ile-de-France. The Capetians set themselves the goal of destroying the power of the lords and creating a united France with strong royal power. By the end of the Capetian rule, the territory of France expanded significantly: by the beginning of the 14th century, the royal domain included 3/4 of the territory of France and stretched from the English Channel to the Mediterranean Sea and included Normandy, Anjou, Maine, most of Poitou, Languedoc, Champagne and others territories. The Capetians were replaced by the Valois dynasty.

996 - 1031 Robert II Saint

1031 - 1060 Henry I

1137 - 1180 Louis VII the Young

1270 - 1285 Philip III the Bold

1314 - 1316 Louis X the Grumpy

1316 John I Posthumous

1316 - 1322 Philip V the Long

1322 - 1328 Charles IV the Handsome

French king since 1223. Accessed the throne as the first hereditary king of France; Before him, the election of royal power remained, although the Capetians circumvented this situation by the fact that the king crowned his heir during his lifetime and made him a co-ruler, and the feudal lords could only confirm the king. Under Louis VIII, the principle of independence of royal power from feudal elections received formal legal confirmation; the royal domain was divided between the heirs, who were allocated apanages. Louis VIII continued the policies of Philip II Augustus; as a result of two successful campaigns in 1224 and 1226, he annexed the county of Toulouse and part of the lands along the Mediterranean Sea to the domain.

French king since 1226. Until Louis IX came of age, he was ruled by his mother Blanca of Castile, who fought with the major feudal lords, especially the Counts of Champagne and the Dukes of Brittany.

Louis IX carried out military, monetary and judicial reforms. Judicial combat was prohibited on the territory of the royal domain; an appeal could be filed to the royal court against the decision of the seigneurial or city court. The Paris Parliament became the supreme court. Louis IX sought to replace the feudal militia with mercenary troops; he partially succeeded. Private wars were prohibited, the rule “40 days of the king” was established between the declaration of war and its start - during this time, opponents could come to their senses, lords who found themselves in the face of a conflict could appeal to the king. Louis IX began minting royal coins with a high content of gold and silver, which gradually replaced various types coins minted by feudal lords and cities in the royal domain; a unified monetary system was introduced in this territory, and in other areas of the kingdom the royal coin had to circulate along with the local ones and soon began to displace the latter from circulation.

Louis IX organized the VII and VIII Crusades; During the VII campaign in 1250, he was captured by the Egyptian Sultan, then released under a large ransom. Louis IX was distinguished by piety and justice. He died during the VIII Crusade in Tunisia from the plague. Canonized in 1297.

Dynasties of French monarchs.

and his heirs laid the foundation Merovingian dynasty- the first French royal dynasty.

The Merovingian dynasty originated from the Sycambrians - a tribe German people, commonly known as "Franks". From the 5th to 7th centuries, the Merovingians ruled large areas of modern France and Germany. The period of their heyday coincides with the period of King Arthur - the same one at whose court the novels about the Holy Grail arose.

At the beginning of the 5th century, the Sicambrian ancestors of the Merovingians crossed the Rhine and moved into Gaul, settling in the regions of modern Belgium and Northern France, in the vicinity of the Ardennes. A century later, this area received the name Austrasia. And the “heart” of Austrasia was modern Lorraine.

The first Merovingians ruled according to the model of the old Roman Empire.

Under the rule of the descendants of Merovei, the kingdom of the Franks flourished. In many ways it can be compared to " high civilization" Byzantium. Secular literacy under the Merovingians was more widespread than five centuries later. Even kings were literate, if we take into account the rude, uneducated and unlearned monarchs of the Middle Ages.

The descendants of the Merovingian family were not kings by “coronation”. Power was simply transferred to the next king, as if by sacred right. He was a ritual figure, a priest-king, he reigned but did not rule. The affairs of management and administration were handled by an official who held the title of "major-domo".

The most famous of all the Merovingian monarchs was Meroving's grandson, I , 481-511 reign. Under Clovis, the Franks converted to Catholicism, and thanks to Clovis, the Roman Catholic Church began to establish its supremacy in Western Europe. The baptism of Clovis marked the birth of a new Roman Empire - a Christian empire governed at a secular level by the Merovingian dynasty. An indissoluble bond was established between church and state, both sides needed each other and were united with each other forever. To confirm this union, Clovis agreed to formal baptism in 496 and was baptized at Reims by Saint Remy.

The Church did not make Clovis king at all, it simply recognized this fact and officially entered into an alliance not only with individual, but also with the whole family.

The main family of the Merovingians lost their throne with death Dagobert II . Therefore, the murder of Dagobert can be considered a sign of the end of the Merovingian dynasty.

Power passed into the hands of the mayors. It was the majordomo who set up the murder of Dagobert - Pepin of Geristal . And Pepin of Geristal was replaced by his son, the famous Charles Martell - one of the most heroic figures French history. Under Charles, at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, the Moorish invasion of France was stopped. Charles Martel, being very strong personality, never captured the throne. He probably considered the throne to be a kind of religious shrine - and the specific prerogative of the Merovingians. Charles's successors, who nevertheless seized the throne, resolved this issue by marrying Merovingian princesses.

Son of Charles Martel Pepin III , majordomo - a person in whose hands real power is concentrated. Pepin became crowned king of the Franks.

The Church invented a ceremony capable of sanctifying even the blood of usurpers. This ceremony was called coronation and anointing - in the sense in which these terms were understood throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The ritual of anointing in the past was only a ceremony - an act of recognition and affirmation. From now on, the ritual of anointing took precedence over blood ties and could “magically” sanctify blood. Through the ritual of anointing, the church arrogated to itself the right to create kings.

In 754, Pepin III underwent a formal anointing ceremony in Pontion. This was the beginning Carolingian dynasty. The name of this dynasty comes from Charles Martel, although he is usually associated with the most famous of the Carolingians - Charlemagne - Charlemagne. In 800, Charlemagne was given the title of Holy Roman Emperor, a title which, thanks to the pact with Clovis, would have remained exclusively with the Merovingians.

With the emergence of Charlemagne's empire, a revival began in Europe. Charles was the sole ruler, but under him there already existed an assembly resembling a parliament.

Poets and philosophers gathered at the court of Charlemagne in the city of Aachen. Charles demanded that the children of free people go to school and ordered that a grammar of the Frankish language be written. He himself could read and write a little.

The empire created by Charlemagne went to his son Louis, nicknamed the Pious, or the Good-natured. Louis was unable to preserve what his father had handed over to him. Having received the crown, Louis the Pious He paid a lot of attention to his subjects, the church, and cared about morality and justice.

The strict monk Benedict became the main state adviser. Louis agreed to solemnly accept the crown from the hands of the Pope, emphasizing his dependence on the Holy See. The empire was fairly divided between his three sons.

The sons of Louis fought with each other for a long time. As a result of these wars, France, Germany and Italy emerged. The Carolingian dynasty was fragmented, and later the once Merovingian dynasty disappeared.

France was the name given to the small territory around Paris that belonged to the king. Other parts of the future great power - Burgundy, Gascony, Provence, Normandy, Navarre - were ruled by counts who did not have a crown, but were sometimes more powerful than the king.

France was ravaged by Norman raids.

Every now and then the Carolingians, who changed positions on the throne, could not defend the country, and the French peasants, having lost faith in their rulers, often left with the Normans.

One of the Parisian counts, Robert Strong , defeated the Normans several times. His descendants are Robertids- founded a new royal dynasty. Robert's son Eda They were elected king because he “surpassed everyone in beauty, height, strength and wisdom.”

The Carolingians did not want to give in. Charles the Simple returned the crown after Ed's death. Ed's son opposed Charles and died in battle. But Ed's grandson, Hugo the Great , led his troops and won. Hugo the Great did not achieve the throne, but remained the most powerful ruler in France. And only his son, , became king. He was nicknamed Capet for the monk's hood, which he wore because he was the secular head of the monastery of St. Martin. A clever politician, he achieved his goal by skillfully using the church and the disagreements of his enemies. The crown remained for a long time Capetians, the third French dynasty after the Merovingians and Carolingians.

The name of Louis the Pious went down in history as the name of the king who, with his honesty and good character, destroyed the empire created by the labors of Charlemagne. And the nickname Hugo Capet gave the name to the new royal dynasty of France.

The kings of the Capetian dynasty occupied the French throne for almost four hundred years. Under them, France became a unified power, under them a French parliament arose, which was called the Estates General.

The last Capetian king - Charles IV the Handsome died without a son-heir. The regent, that is, the ruler of the country (from the Latin “regent” - “ruling”), became the king’s cousin Philip , Count of Valois . When the widow of Charles IV the Fair gave birth to a daughter, Philip, with the consent of representatives of the highest nobility, was declared king. Came to power new dynasty - Valois.

The sister of Charles IV the Fair, Isabella, married the English King Edward. Her son, King Edward III of England, after the death of his uncle, Charles IV the Fair, believed that he had more rights to the French throne than the new king of France.

Successor to the first king of the Valois dynasty - John, nicknamed the Good , received a heavy inheritance from his father. Plague began in the country, the British did not continue the war. A peasant uprising, the Jacquerie, broke out in the country.

Son of John the Good - Charles V brutally suppressed the uprising. With the help of the Pope, he achieved a truce with the British.

The royal throne went to Charles V, and after his death - to the son of Charles V - twelve years old Charles VI . His relatives, the Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, became rulers under him.

The war between the Duke of Orleans and the Duke of Burgundy split the country into two parties. King Charles VI turned out to be mentally ill. In history he remained under the nickname Charles the Mad.

King Henry V was a brave, decisive and talented monarch.

After the death of the unfortunate Charles VI the Mad, his wife, Queen Isabella of Bavaria, disowned her son Charles VII . She agreed that the English king Henry V should take the throne, and gave her eldest daughter to him.

The heir to the throne, Charles VII, fled to the south of the country. English troops together with the Burgundians they besieged Orleans - last stronghold independence

Gallery of Figures

Merovingian Dynasty

Merovingians- the first dynasty of Frankish kings in the history of France. The kings of this dynasty ruled from the end of the 5th century to the middle of the 8th century in the territory modern France and Belgium. They came from the Salic Franks, who in the 5th century settled in Cambrai (Chlodion Longhair) and Tournai (Childeric I).

Contemporaries also called Merovingians "long-haired kings". From pagan times until their fall, the Merovingians wore long hair, which was considered an obligatory attribute of the monarch. The Franks believed that the Merovingians had sacred magical power, which consisted in the extremely long hair of their owners, and was expressed in the so-called “royal happiness,” which personified the well-being of the entire Frankish people. This hairstyle separated him from his subjects, who wore short haircuts, popular in the Roman era, considered a sign of the low status of a servant or slave. Cutting off hair was considered the gravest insult for a representative of the Merovingian dynasty; in practice, it meant the loss of rights to have power (an example of this is the son of Clodomir Clodoald, later known as Saint Claude).

Carolingian Dynasty

Carolingians- a royal and imperial dynasty in the state of the Franks, and after its collapse - in the West Frankish kingdom, in the East Frankish kingdom, in Italy and in some small states.

The Carolingians came to power in 751 when Charlemagne's father, Pepin the Short, overthrew the last king from the Merovingian family, Childeric III; Pepin was crowned Frankish ruler in 754 at the Basilica of Saint-Deninet, near Paris. But in 787, his successor Charlemagne chose the city of Aachen (today a territory of Germany).

After the collapse of the Frankish Empire, the Carolingians ruled: in Italy - until 905, in the East Frankish Kingdom (Germany) - until 911 (from 919 the Saxon dynasty was established), in the West Frankish Kingdom (France) - intermittently until 987 (replaced by the Capetians).

Capetian Dynasty

Capetians- descended from the Robertine dynasty of French kings, whose representatives ruled from 987 to 1328, and along lateral lines until 1848. In the history of the French state, it is the third dynasty after the Merovingians and the Carolingians. The first king of the dynasty was the Parisian Count Hugh Capet, who was elected king by the royal vassals after the death of the childless Louis V. Abbot Hugh was nicknamed Capet because he wore the mantle of a secular priest, which was called a “capa”. It was Hugo Capet who gave the name to the largest royal dynasty in France, whose descendants ruled the country for many centuries.

The last representative of the direct Capetian branch on the French throne was Charles IV. Then the Valois dynasty, a junior branch of the Capetian family, came to power. And after the suppression of the Angoulême line of the Valois dynasty, another branch of the Capetian house, the Bourbons, came to power. The two current contenders for the throne of France are also direct descendants of Hugh Capet: the Legitimists are a representative of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons, the Autorléanists are a representative of the Orleans branch of the Bourbons.

Coat of arms of the Capetian dynasty

Kings of France:

DynastyValois(branch of the House of Capetians)

Valois- dynasty of kings of France, branch of the House of Capetian. It got its name from the title of Comte de Valois, which was borne by the founder of this branch, Charles of France, Comte de Valois.

Representatives of the Valois dynasty occupied the French throne from 1328 to 1589, when it was replaced by a younger branch of the Capetian house, the Bourbon dynasty.

Kings of France:

Bourbon Dynasty (junior branch of the House of Capet)

Bourbons- a European dynasty, a junior branch of the royal house of the Capetians, descended from Robert (1256-1317, Count of Clermont, by wife Sir de Bourbon), the youngest son of Louis IX the Saint. They ascended the French throne with the suppression of another branch of the Capetians - the Valois dynasty - in 1589 (represented by Henry IV of Navarre).

The dynasty is probably not only the oldest, but also the most numerous of the European royal houses. Even before the proclamation of Henry of Navarre as King of France, the Bourbon family separated from the main tree

Louis XVII

1793 – 1795

actually did not reign, was recognized as king by the French monarchists, the USA and most European states.

Family tree of the Bourbon dynasty

Conclusion: From V to XIX century in France there were 5 dynasties of rulers. Many kings had nicknames such as " King Knight", "Fair", "Beloved", etc. And they received these nicknames due to the events that happened to them, or their personal qualities. So, for example, Louis XV received his nickname while in the War of the Austrian Succession. At one time, Louis participated personally, but fell dangerously ill in Meteo. France, greatly alarmed by his illness, joyfully welcomed his recovery and nicknamed himBeloved. Pepin the Short got his nickname because given his short stature, to put it mildly. Dumas wrote a short story of the same name about him (Le chronique du roi Pepin).

Despite the political unification of the country, religious and spiritual community and the establishment of absolutism, French law until the revolution of 1789 was a conglomerate of numerous legal systems . As Voltaire sarcastically noted, in France, “by changing post horses, they change the law.”