Germanium physical properties. Do you know how

Sometimes Germany is called, and very often, “The Land of Poets and Thinkers,” which aptly characterizes this country, located in the very center of Europe. The Germans carefully preserve their traditions, which number almost thousand-year history. Apparently, because of this, tens of millions of tourists visit Germany every year. Moreover, about 10 million tourists come to Berlin every year. Such statistics are quite understandable, given that Germany has a lot of interesting attractions, beach resorts, balneological resorts and high-quality ski slopes in the Alps.

Germany is located in Central Europe. In the north, this country borders with Denmark, in the east with the Czech Republic and Poland, in the south with Austria and Switzerland, and in the west with Luxembourg, the Netherlands, France and Belgium. Germany is washed in the northwest by the Baltic, and in the northeast North Seas. Total area of this country is 357,021 km. sq. The highest point in Germany is the Zugspitze mountain in the Alps (2,962 meters).

There are a lot of rivers in Germany, the longest of which are the Rhine, Elbe, Weser, Danube and Oder.

The capital of Germany is Berlin. The history of this city begins approximately with the first half XIII century. Now the population of Berlin already exceeds 3.5 million people.

In Germany official language- German, which is the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.

The main religion in Germany is Christianity (about 63% of the population). 30% of Christians in Germany are Catholics and 29.9% are Protestants. Catholics mainly live in the south and west of Germany, while Protestants live in the north and east.

1.6% of the German population consider themselves Orthodox Christians, and about 5% are Muslims (mostly Sunnis). IN East Germany and there are many atheists living in megacities.

Germany is a federal parliamentary republic. The head of state is the president (he is elected by the Federal Assembly, which includes members of the Bundestag and state delegates). There are 16 federal (autonomous) states in Germany.

The second most senior official in Germany is the Bundeschancellor (Bundestagspräsident), who is elected by the Bundestag (Parliament).

The main political parties in Germany are the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Christian Social Union, the SPD, the Christian Democratic Union, the Party of Democratic Socialism, the Union 90/Greens and the Free Democratic Party of Germany.

Germany has a generally temperate continental climate with warm summer and rather cold winters (characterized by quite noticeable temperature fluctuations). In northwestern Germany and in coastal areas the climate is maritime with warm summers and mild, cloudy winters. In the south of the country the climate is mountainous with low temperatures and heavy precipitation.

The average air temperature in Germany is about +9 C. In January, which is the coldest month, the average annual temperature in the north is about +1.6 C, and in the south - -2 C. In July, the warmest month, the average annual temperature the temperature in the north is +16-18 C, and in the south - +19.4 C.

Every year in Germany there is an average of about 400-600 mm of precipitation.

Germany is washed by the waters of the North (in the north-west) and Baltic (in the north-east) seas. The total coastline is 2,389 km.

The largest German island is the island of Rügen, which is located in the Baltic Sea. Its area reaches 926 km. sq. About 75 thousand people now live on this island. Another big island Germany - Femern (it is also located in the Baltic Sea).

Most rivers in Germany flow into the North Sea. These are the rivers Rhine, Ems, Weser, Saale and Elbe. The Oder flows into the Baltic Sea.

The most big rivers in Germany, these are, as you probably know, the Rhine and Danube. On the German border in the foothills of the Alps lies Lake Constance, the largest lake in Germany. Its area is 536 km. sq. In general, there are a lot of lakes in Germany, among which we should definitely mention Chiemsee, Wannsee, Eibsee, and Langer Waldsee.

Germanic tribes came to the territory modern Germany from Scandinavia around 100 BC. The Germanic tribes living east of the Rhine came under the rule of Ancient Rome, and the tribes west of the Rhine gave a worthy rebuff to the Romans and lived freely.

Around 800 AD. Charlemagne formed the Carolingian Empire, and Germany became part of it. In the 10th century, the Holy Roman Empire appeared, formed around the German lands.

During the time of the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138-1254), lands in the east inhabited by the Slavs were annexed to Germany.

In 1517, under the influence of Martin Luther, the Reformation of the Catholic Church began in Germany, as a result of which several Protestant churches appeared, including the Lutheran Church.

In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire, consisting mainly of German and Austrian lands, was occupied by the armies of the French Emperor Bonaparte. After graduation Napoleonic Wars The German Confederation was formed (it included 39 sovereign German states).

In 1871, at Versailles in France, it was proclaimed German Empire led by Emperor Wilhelm I. Prussia played a decisive role in Germany at that time.

After the First World War, German Emperor Wilhelm II (in 1918) abdicated power, as a result of which the country was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which historians believe caused the Second World War.

In the first half of the 1930s, Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party came to power in Germany. Events developed in such a way that World War II could no longer be avoided, and it began on September 1, 1939. This bloodiest war in human history lasted for six years. As a result, Germany was defeated and was divided into two parts - East (GDR) and West (FRG) Germany.

In 1989, under the influence of many factors (including due to interference in its internal affairs by some capitalist states) in the GDR was liquidated Communist Party, and then destroyed Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany occurred (this happened in October 1990).

Now Germany is part of the NATO military-political bloc and is a member of the European Union.

The history of Germany goes back many hundreds of years, and therefore the Germans, of course, have very rich culture, which provided (and continues to do so) great influence on the culture of neighboring peoples (Austrians, Dutch and Swiss).

Thanks to Germany, the world received large number brilliant writers, artists, philosophers and scientists:

Literature (Goethe, Schiller, Heine, Thomas Mann, Kafka, Erich Maria Remarque);
- Classical music(Bach, Beethoven, Mozart and Richard Wagner);
- Art (Kolwitz, Durer and Paul Klee);
- Psychology (Jung);
- Philosophy (Kant, Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche);
- Science (Einstein, Kepler, Roentgen, Planck and Virchow).

In general, some literary scholars call Germany “The Land of Poets and Thinkers.” Judging by the number of poets and philosophers born in Germany, this name is true.

Germany cannot be imagined without traditional German holidays and festivals. The most popular and famous of them are the Oktoberfest beer festival in Munich, Walpurgis Night, the Love Parade (July), the M'era Luna music festival in Hildesheim (August), the Wave-Gotik-Treffen festival of gothic art and music in Leipzig (August), Nibelung Festival (August) and Kiel Week (July).

Germany is made up of several dozen previously independent principalities, which means there is great regional diversity in German cuisine.

Some tourists believe that German cuisine contains a lot of heavy and fatty dishes, and perhaps they are right in some ways, but the situation has changed in the last 200 years. Thanks to the influence of the Italians and the French, German cuisine has become more refined and sophisticated. Thus, the cuisine of the southern lands of Germany (Bavaria and Swabia) was greatly influenced by the culinary traditions of Switzerland and Austria.

We advise tourists in Germany to try various German sausages, frankfurters, schnitzels, cutlets and steaks, as well as the following traditional dishes: German sausage soup, Eintopf "Pichelstein", pork roll, Saxon potato soup, Wismar fish, goulash with lecho , German herring, Berlin apple pie, and speculative biscuits.

National alcoholic drink in Germany - beer. The Germans produce a wide variety of beers, and a huge number. Moreover, the strength of beer can reach up to 12% alcohol.

Germany also produces excellent wine (mostly white). The main German wine regions are Aar, Baden, Württemberg, Moselle, and Rheinhessen.

In Germany they are very careful about their history. Now in this country there are about 4,700 museums that house unique archaeological, historical and ethnographic artifacts. There are so many attractions in Germany that we will highlight the ten best of them, in our opinion:

Brandenburg Gate (located in Berlin)

“Romantic Road”, 350 km long

Cologne Cathedral

Church of Our Lady (Frauenkirche) in Dresden

"Black Forest" in Baden-Württemberg

Medieval Holstentor gate in Lübeck

Neuschwanstein Castle (located in Bavaria)

Chalk cliffs in national park Jasmund

Heidelberg Castle

Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam

The largest German cities are Berlin (about 3.5 million people), Hamburg (about 1.8 million people, Munich (more than 1.5 million people), and Cologne (1.1 million people) The main ports are Frankfurt am Main, Lübeck and Husum.

In Germany there are many ski and medical (balneological and mud) resorts. Ski resorts are located in the Alps on the border with Austria. The most popular of them are Garmisch-Partenkirchen, the Berchtesgaden region (Berchtesgaden, Schönau am Königssee, Bischofswiesen, Marktschellenberg and Rams) and Oberstdorf.

The most famous German health resorts are Bad Homburg in Hesse, Bad Kissingen in Bavaria, Bad Reichenhall in Berchtesgaden, and, of course, Baden-Baden.

Beer mugs and glasses;
- Wine glasses;
- Traditional German hats;
- Cuckoo clock;
- German toys;
- Football souvenirs;
- Porcelain dolls in vague national costumes;
- Ship models (they are sold in Hamburg);
- German wines (we recommend paying attention to Affentaler Spätburgunder);
- German beer.

Bank opening hours:
Mon-Fri: from 8:30 to 16:00, some until 17:30

Post offices:
Mon-Fri: from 08:00 to 18:00
Sat: from 08:00 to 12:00

Government institutions:
Mon-Fri: from 09:00 to 17:00

Stores:
Mon-Sat: from 08:30 to 18:00

Please note that we receive germanium in any quantity and form, incl. in the form of scrap. You can sell germanium by calling the phone number in Moscow indicated above.

Germanium is a brittle, silvery-white semimetal discovered in 1886. This mineral is not found in its pure form. It is found in silicates, iron and sulfide ores. Some of its compounds are toxic. Germanium is widely used in the electrical industry, where its semiconductor properties are useful. It is indispensable in the production of infrared and fiber optics.

What properties does germanium have?

This mineral has a melting point of 938.25 degrees Celsius. Scientists still cannot explain the indicators of its heat capacity, which makes it indispensable in many fields. Germanium has the ability to increase its density when melted. It has excellent electrophysical properties, which makes it an excellent indirect gap semiconductor.

If we talk about the chemical properties of this semimetal, it should be noted that it is resistant to acids and alkalis, water and air. Germanium dissolves in a solution of hydrogen peroxide and aqua regia.

Germany mining

Now they are mining limited quantity this semimetal. Its deposits are significantly smaller compared to deposits of bismuth, antimony, and silver.

Due to the fact that the share of this mineral in earth's crust is small enough, it forms its own minerals due to the introduction of other metals into the crystal lattices. Highest content germanium is observed in sphalerites, pyrargyrite, sulfanite, in non-ferrous and iron ores. It is found, but much less frequently, in oil and coal deposits.

Uses of germanium

Despite the fact that germanium was discovered quite a long time ago, it began to be used in industry approximately 80 years ago. The semimetal was first used in military production for the manufacture of certain electronic devices. In this case, it found application as diodes. Now the situation has changed somewhat.

The most popular areas of application of germanium include:

• production of optics. Semi-metal has become indispensable in the manufacture of optical elements, which include optical sensor windows, prisms, and lenses. The transparency properties of germanium in the infrared region came in handy here. Semi-metal is used in the production of optics for thermal imaging cameras, fire systems, and night vision devices;
• production of radio electronics. In this area, the semimetal was used in the manufacture of diodes and transistors. However, in the 70s, germanium devices were replaced by silicon ones, since silicon made it possible to significantly improve technical and performance characteristics manufactured products. The indicators of resistance to temperature influences have increased. In addition, germanium devices made a lot of noise during operation.

Current situation with germanium

Currently, the semimetal is used in the production of microwave devices. Germanium telleride has proven itself well as a thermoelectric material. Germanium prices are quite high now. One kilogram of germanium metal costs $1,200.

Buying Germany

Silver-gray germanium is rare. The brittle semimetal has semiconductor properties and is widely used to create modern electrical appliances. It is also used to create high-precision optical instruments and radio equipment. Great value germanium is present both in the form of pure metal and in the form of dioxide.

The Goldform company specializes in the purchase of germanium, various scrap metal, and radio components. We offer assistance with material assessment and transportation. You can send germanium by mail and receive your money in full.

Germanium - chemical element with atomic number 32 in the periodic table, denoted by the symbol Ge (German. Germanium).

History of the discovery of germanium

The existence of the element eca-silicon, an analogue of silicon, was predicted by D.I. Mendeleev back in 1871. And in 1886, one of the professors of the Freiberg Mining Academy discovered a new silver mineral - argyrodite. This mineral was then handed over to Professor of Technical Chemistry Clemens Winkler for complete analysis.

This was not done by chance: 48-year-old Winkler was considered the best analyst at the academy.

Quite quickly, he found out that the mineral contained 74.72% silver, 17.13% sulfur, 0.31% mercury, 0.66% ferrous oxide, and 0.22% zinc oxide. And almost 7% of the weight of the new mineral was accounted for by some incomprehensible element, most likely still unknown. Winkler isolated the unidentified component argyrodpt, studied its properties and realized that he had indeed found a new element - escaplicium predicted by Mendeleev. This is the brief history of the element with atomic number 32.

However, it would be wrong to think that Winkler’s work went smoothly, without a hitch. Here is what Mendeleev writes about this in the additions to the eighth chapter of “Fundamentals of Chemistry”: “At first (February 1886) the lack of material, the lack of spectrum in the burner flame and the solubility of many germanium compounds made it difficult for Winkler’s research...” Pay attention to the “lack spectrum in flame." How so? After all, in 1886 there was already a method spectral analysis; By this method, rubidium, cesium, thallium, and indium were already discovered on Earth, and helium on the Sun. Scientists knew for sure that each chemical element has a completely individual spectrum, and suddenly there is no spectrum!

The explanation came later. Characteristic spectral lines germanium has it - with wavelengths of 2651.18, 3039.06 Ǻ and several more. But they all lie in the invisible ultraviolet part of the spectrum, and Winkler’s commitment can be considered fortunate traditional methods analysis - they are the ones who led to success.

The method used by Winkler for isolating germanium is similar to one of the current industrial methods for obtaining element No. 32. First, the germanium contained in argarodnite was converted into dioxide, and then this white powder heated to 600...700°C in a hydrogen atmosphere. The reaction is obvious: GeO 2 + 2H 2 → Ge + 2H 2 O.

This is how relatively pure germanium was obtained for the first time. Winkler initially intended to name the new element neptunium, after the planet Neptune. (Like element 32, this planet was predicted before it was discovered.) But then it turned out that such a name had previously been assigned to one falsely discovered element, and, not wanting to compromise his discovery, Winkler abandoned his first intention. He also did not accept the proposal to name the new element angularium, i.e. “angular, controversial” (and this discovery really caused a lot of controversy). Is it true, French chemist The district that came up with the idea said later that his proposal was nothing more than a joke. Winkler named the new element germanium after his country, and the name stuck.

It should be noted that in the process of geochemical evolution of the earth’s crust there was a washout significant amount germanium from most of the land surface into the oceans, so currently the amount of this trace element contained in the soil is extremely small.

The total content of germanium in the earth's crust is 7 × 10 −4% by mass, that is, more than, for example, antimony, silver, bismuth. Due to its insignificant content in the earth's crust and geochemical affinity with some widespread elements, germanium exhibits a limited ability to form its own minerals, dissipating in the lattices of other minerals. Therefore, germanium's own minerals are extremely rare. Almost all of them are sulfosalts: germanite Cu 2 (Cu, Fe, Ge, Zn) 2 (S, As) 4 (6 - 10% Ge), argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6 (3.6 - 7% Ge), confildite Ag 8 (Sn, Ge) S 6 (up to 2% Ge), etc. The bulk of germanium is scattered in large quantities in the earth’s crust rocks and minerals. For example, in some sphalerites the germanium content reaches kilograms per ton, in enargites up to 5 kg/t, in pyrargyrite up to 10 kg/t, in sulvanite and frankeite 1 kg/t, in other sulfides and silicates - hundreds and tens of g/t. T. Germanium is concentrated in deposits of many metals - in sulfide ores of non-ferrous metals, in iron ores, in some oxide minerals (chromite, magnetite, rutile, etc.), in granites, diabases and basalts. In addition, germanium is present in almost all silicates, in some coal and oil deposits.

Germanium is obtained mainly from by-products of processing non-ferrous metal ores (zinc blende, zinc-copper-lead polymetallic concentrates) containing 0.001-0.1% Germanium. Ashes from coal combustion, dust from gas generators and waste from coke plants are also used as raw materials. Initially, germanium concentrate (2-10% Germany) is obtained from the listed sources in various ways, depending on the composition of the raw materials. Extracting germanium from concentrate usually involves the following steps:

1) chlorination of the concentrate hydrochloric acid, its mixture with chlorine in an aqueous medium or other chlorinating agents to obtain technical GeCl 4. To purify GeCl 4, rectification and extraction of impurities with concentrated HCl are used.

2) Hydrolysis of GeCl 4 and calcination of hydrolysis products to obtain GeO 2.

3) Reduction of GeO 2 with hydrogen or ammonia to metal. To isolate very pure germanium, used in semiconductor devices, zone melting of the metal is carried out. Single-crystalline Germanium, required for the semiconductor industry, is usually obtained by zone melting or the Czochralski method.

GeO 2 + 4H 2 = Ge + 2H 2 O

Germanium of semiconductor purity with an impurity content of 10 -3 -10 -4% is obtained by zone melting, crystallization or thermolysis of volatile monogermane GeH 4:

GeH 4 = Ge + 2H 2,

which is formed during the decomposition of compounds by acids active metals with Ge-germanides:

Mg 2 Ge + 4HCl = GeH 4 – + 2MgCl 2

Germanium is found as an impurity in polymetallic, nickel, and tungsten ores, as well as in silicates. As a result of complex and labor-intensive operations for ore enrichment and its concentration, germanium is isolated in the form of GeO 2 oxide, which is reduced with hydrogen at 600 °C to a simple substance:

GeO 2 + 2H 2 = Ge + 2H 2 O.

Germanium single crystals are purified and grown using the zone melting method.

Pure germanium dioxide was first obtained in the USSR in early 1941. Germanium glass with a very high refractive index of light was made from it. Research on element No. 32 and methods for its possible production resumed after the war, in 1947. Now, germanium was of interest to Soviet scientists precisely as a semiconductor.

In appearance, germanium can easily be confused with silicon.

Germanium crystallizes in a cubic diamond-type structure, the unit cell parameter a = 5.6575 Å.

This element is not as strong as titanium or tungsten. The density of solid germanium is 5.327 g/cm 3 (25°C); liquid 5.557 (1000°C); t pl 937.5°C; boiling point about 2700°C; thermal conductivity coefficient ~60 W/(m K), or 0.14 cal/(cm sec deg) at 25°C.

Germanium is almost as brittle as glass and can behave accordingly. Even at ordinary temperatures, but above 550°C, it is susceptible to plastic deformation. Hardness Germany on the mineralogical scale 6-6.5; compressibility coefficient (in the pressure range 0-120 H/m 2, or 0-12000 kgf/mm 2) 1.4·10 -7 m 2 /mn (1.4·10 -6 cm 2 /kgf); surface tension 0.6 n/m (600 dynes/cm). Germanium is a typical semiconductor with a band gap of 1.104·10 -19 J or 0.69 eV (25°C); electrical resistivity Germany high purity 0.60 ohm m (60 ohm cm) at 25°C; electron mobility 3900 and hole mobility 1900 cm 2 /v sec (25°C) (with an impurity content of less than 10 -8%).

All “unusual” modifications of crystalline germanium are superior to Ge-I in electrical conductivity. The mention of this particular property is not accidental: the value of specific electrical conductivity (or reciprocal– resistivity) is especially important for a semiconductor element.

In chemical compounds, germanium usually exhibits valency 4 or 2. Compounds with valency 4 are more stable. At normal conditions resistant to air and water, alkalis and acids, soluble in aqua regia and in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. Germanium alloys and glass based on germanium dioxide are used.

IN chemical compounds Germanium usually exhibits valences of 2 and 4, with 4-valent germanium compounds being more stable. At room temperature, Germanium is resistant to air, water, alkali solutions and dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, but easily dissolves in aqua regia and an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. Nitric acid oxidizes slowly. When heated in air to 500-700°C, germanium is oxidized to the oxides GeO and GeO 2. Germany (IV) oxide - white powder with melting point 1116°C; solubility in water 4.3 g/l (20°C). Its chemical properties are amphoteric, soluble in alkalis and difficult to mineral acids. It is obtained by calcination of the hydrate precipitate (GeO 3 ·nH 2 O) released during the hydrolysis of GeCl 4 tetrachloride. By fusing GeO 2 with other oxides, germanic acid derivatives can be obtained - metal germanates (Li 2 GeO 3, Na 2 GeO 3 and others) - solids with high temperatures melting.

When germanium reacts with halogens, the corresponding tetrahalides are formed. The reaction proceeds most easily with fluorine and chlorine (already at room temperature), then with bromine ( low heat) and with iodine (at 700-800°C in the presence of CO). One of the most important compounds Germany tetrachloride GeCl 4 is a colorless liquid; t pl -49.5°C; boiling point 83.1°C; density 1.84 g/cm 3 (20°C). It is strongly hydrolyzed with water, releasing a precipitate of hydrated oxide (IV). It is obtained by chlorinating metallic germanium or reacting GeO 2 with concentrated HCl. Dihalides Germany are also known general formula GeX 2, GeCl monochloride, hexachlorodigermane Ge 2 Cl 6 and German oxychlorides (for example, CeOCl 2).

Sulfur reacts vigorously with Germanium at 900-1000°C to form disulfide GeS 2 - a white solid, melting point 825°C. GeS monosulfide and similar compounds of Germany with selenium and tellurium, which are semiconductors, are also described. Hydrogen reacts slightly with Germanium at 1000-1100°C to form germine (GeH) X, which is unstable and easily volatile compound. By reacting germanides with dilute hydrochloric acid, germanide hydrogens of the series Ge n H 2n+2 up to Ge 9 H 20 can be obtained. Germylene of the composition GeH 2 is also known. Germanium does not react directly with nitrogen, but there is a nitride Ge 3 N 4, obtained by the action of ammonia on Germanium at 700-800°C. Germanium does not interact with carbon. Germanium forms compounds with many metals - germanides.

There are numerous known complex compounds Germany, which buy everything higher value as in analytical chemistry Germany, and in the processes of obtaining it. Germanium forms complex compounds with organic hydroxyl-containing molecules ( polyhydric alcohols, polybasic acids and others). Germany heteropolyacids were obtained. Just like other elements of group IV, germanium is characterized by the formation of organometallic compounds, an example of which is tetraethylgermane (C 2 H 5) 4 Ge 3.

Germanium (II) hydride GeH 2. White unstable powder (in air or oxygen it decomposes explosively). Reacts with alkalis and bromine.

Germanium(II) monohydride polymer (polygermine) (GeH2)n. Brownish-black powder. It is poorly soluble in water, decomposes instantly in air and explodes when heated to 160 o C in a vacuum or in an atmosphere of inert gas. It is formed during the electrolysis of sodium germanide NaGe.

Germanium(II) oxide GeO. Black crystals with basic properties. Decomposes at 500°C into GeO 2 and Ge. Slowly oxidizes in water. Slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid. Shows restorative properties. It is obtained by the action of CO 2 on germanium metal heated to 700-900 o C, by alkalis on germanium (II) chloride, by calcination of Ge(OH) 2 or by the reduction of GeO 2 .

Germanium (II) hydroxide Ge(OH) 2 . Red-orange crystals. When heated, it turns into GeO. Shows amphoteric character. It is obtained by treating germanium (II) salts with alkalis and hydrolysis of germanium (II) salts.

Germanium (II) fluoride GeF 2 . Colorless hygroscopic crystals, melting point =111°C. It is obtained by the action of GeF 4 vapor on germanium metal when heated.

Germanium (II) chloride GeCl 2 . Colorless crystals. t pl =76.4°C, t boil =450°C. At 460°C it decomposes into GeCl 4 and metallic germanium. Hydrolyzed by water, slightly soluble in alcohol. It is obtained by the action of GeCl 4 vapor on germanium metal when heated.

Germanium (II) bromide GeBr 2 . Transparent needle-shaped crystals. t pl =122°C. Hydrolyzes with water. Slightly soluble in benzene. Dissolves in alcohol, acetone. Prepared by reacting germanium (II) hydroxide with hydrobromic acid. When heated, it disproportions into metallic germanium and germanium(IV) bromide.

Germanium (II) iodide GeI 2. Yellow hexagonal plates, diamagnetic. t pl =460 o C. Slightly soluble in chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. When heated above 210°C, it decomposes into metallic germanium and germanium tetraiodide. Obtained by reduction of germanium (II) iodide with hypophosphoric acid or thermal decomposition of germanium tetraiodide.

Germanium (II) sulfide GeS. Obtained dry - grayish-black shiny rhombic opaque crystals. t pl =615°C, density is 4.01 g/cm 3. Slightly soluble in water and ammonia. Dissolves in potassium hydroxide. Obtained by wet means is a red-brown amorphous sediment, the density is 3.31 g/cm 3 . Dissolves in mineral acids and ammonium polysulfide. It is obtained by heating germanium with sulfur or passing hydrogen sulfide through a solution of germanium (II) salt.

Germanium(IV) hydride GeH4. Colorless gas (density 3.43 g/cm 3 ). It is poisonous, smells very unpleasant, boils at -88 o C, melts at about -166 o C, and dissociates thermally above 280 o C. By passing GeH 4 through a heated tube, a shiny mirror of metallic germanium is obtained on its walls. It is obtained by the action of LiAlH 4 on germanium (IV) chloride in ether or by treating a solution of germanium (IV) chloride with zinc and sulfuric acid.

Germanium (IV) oxide GeO 2 . It exists in the form of two crystalline modifications (hexagonal with a density of 4.703 g/cm 3 and tetrahedral with a density of 6.24 g/cm 3 ). Both are air stable. Slightly soluble in water. t pl =1116 o C, t boil =1200 o C. Shows amphoteric character. It is reduced by aluminum, magnesium, and carbon to metallic germanium when heated. It is obtained by synthesis from elements, calcination of germanium salts with volatile acids, oxidation of sulfides, hydrolysis of germanium tetrahalides, treatment of alkali metal germanites with acids, and metallic germanium with concentrated sulfuric or nitric acids.

Germanium(IV) fluoride GeF4. A colorless gas that fumes in air. t pl =-15 o C, t boil =-37°C. Hydrolyzes with water. Obtained by the decomposition of barium tetrafluorogermanate.

Germanium (IV) chloride GeCl 4 . Colorless liquid. t pl = -50 o C, t boil = 86 o C, density is 1.874 g/cm 3. Hydrolyzes with water, dissolves in alcohol, ether, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride. It is prepared by heating germanium with chlorine and passing hydrogen chloride through a suspension of germanium(IV) oxide.

Germanium (IV) bromide GeBr 4 . Octahedral colorless crystals. t pl =26 o C, t boil =187 o C, density is 3.13 g/cm 3. Hydrolyzes with water. Dissolves in benzene, carbon disulfide. It is obtained by passing bromine vapor over heated germanium metal or by the action of hydrobromic acid on germanium(IV) oxide.

Germanium (IV) iodide GeI 4. Yellow-orange octahedral crystals, t pl =146 o C, t bp =377 o C, density is 4.32 g/cm 3. At 445 o C it decomposes. It dissolves in benzene, carbon disulfide, and is hydrolyzed by water. In air it gradually decomposes into germanium (II) iodide and iodine. Adds ammonia. It is obtained by passing iodine vapor over heated germanium or by the action of hydroiodic acid on germanium(IV) oxide.

Germanium (IV) sulfide GeS 2. White crystalline powder, t pl =800 o C, density is 3.03 g/cm 3. It is slightly soluble in water and hydrolyzes slowly in it. Dissolves in ammonia, ammonium sulfide and alkali metal sulfides. It is obtained by heating germanium (IV) oxide in a stream of sulfur dioxide with sulfur or passing hydrogen sulfide through a solution of germanium (IV) salt.

Germanium (IV) sulfate Ge(SO 4) 2. Colorless crystals, density 3.92 g/cm 3 . Decomposes at 200 o C. Reduced by coal or sulfur to sulfide. Reacts with water and alkali solutions. Prepared by heating germanium (IV) chloride with sulfur (VI) oxide.

Five isotopes are found in nature: 70 Ge (20.55% wt), 72 Ge (27.37%), 73 Ge (7.67%), 74 Ge (36.74%), 76 Ge (7.67% ). The first four are stable, the fifth (76 Ge) undergoes double beta decay with a half-life of 1.58×10 21 years. In addition, there are two “long-lived” artificial ones: 68 Ge (half-life 270.8 days) and 71 Ge (half-life 11.26 days).

Application of germanium

Germanium is used in the production of optics. Due to its transparency in the infrared region of the spectrum, ultra-high purity metallic germanium has strategic importance in the production of optical elements for infrared optics. In radio engineering, germanium transistors and detector diodes have characteristics different from silicon ones, due to the lower turn-on voltage of the pn junction in germanium - 0.4V versus 0.6V for silicon devices.

For more details, see the article on the use of germanium.

Germanium is found in animal and plant organisms. Small amounts of germanium have no physiological effect on plants, but are toxic in large quantities. Germanium is non-toxic to molds.

Germanium has low toxicity for animals. Germanium compounds have no pharmacological effects. The permissible concentration of germanium and its oxide in the air is 2 mg/m³, that is, the same as for asbestos dust.

Compounds of divalent germanium are much more toxic.

In experiments determining the distribution of organic germanium in the body 1.5 hours after its oral administration, the following results were obtained: a large amount of organic germanium is contained in the stomach, small intestine, bone marrow, spleen and blood. Moreover, its high content in the stomach and intestines shows that the process of its absorption into the blood has a prolonged effect.

The high content of organic germanium in the blood allowed Dr. Asai to propose the following theory the mechanism of its action in the human body. It is assumed that in the blood organic germanium behaves similarly to hemoglobin, which also carries negative charge and, like hemoglobin, participates in the process of oxygen transfer in the tissues of the body. This prevents the development of oxygen deficiency (hypoxia) at the tissue level. Organic germanium prevents the development of so-called blood hypoxia, which occurs when the amount of hemoglobin capable of attaching oxygen decreases (a decrease in the oxygen capacity of the blood), and develops due to blood loss, carbon monoxide poisoning, and radiation exposure. The central nervous system, heart muscle, kidney tissue, and liver are most sensitive to oxygen deficiency.

As a result of experiments, it was also found that organic germanium promotes the induction of gamma interferons, which suppress the processes of reproduction of rapidly dividing cells and activate specific cells (T-killers). The main directions of action of interferons at the body level are antiviral and antitumor protection, immunomodulatory and radioprotective functions of the lymphatic system

In the process of studying pathological tissues and tissues with primary signs of diseases, it was found that they are always characterized by a lack of oxygen and the presence of positively charged hydrogen radicals H +. H+ ions have an extremely negative impact on the cells of the human body, up to their death. Oxygen ions, having the ability to combine with hydrogen ions, make it possible to selectively and locally compensate for the damage to cells and tissues caused by hydrogen ions. The effect of germanium on hydrogen ions is due to its organic form - the sesquioxide form. In preparing the article, materials from A. N. Suponenko were used.

Germanium

GERMANIUM-I; m. Chemical element (Ge), solid grayish-white color with a metallic sheen (is the main semiconductor material). Germanium plate.

◁ Germanium, oh, oh. G-th raw materials. G. ingot.

(lat. Germanium), chemical element of group IV periodic table. The name is from the Latin Germania - Germany, in honor of the homeland of K. A. Winkler. Silver- gray crystals; density 5.33 g/cm 3, t pl 938.3ºC. Disseminated in nature (own minerals are rare); extracted from non-ferrous metal ores. Semiconductor material for electronic devices(diodes, transistors, etc.), component of alloys, material for lenses in IR devices, ionizing radiation detectors.

GERMANIUM (lat. Germanium), Ge (read “hertempmanium”), chemical element with atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.61. Natural germanium consists of five isotopes with mass numbers 70 (content in the natural mixture is 20.51% by weight), 72 (27.43%), 73 (7.76%), 74 (36.54%), and 76 ( 7.76%). Outer electron layer 4 configuration s 2 p 2 . Oxidation states +4, +2 (valency IV, II). Located in group IVA, in period 4 of the periodic table of elements.
History of discovery
Was discovered by K. A. Winkler (cm. WINKLER Clemens Alexander)(and named after his homeland - Germany) in 1886 during the analysis of the mineral argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6 after the existence of this element and some of its properties were predicted by D. I. Mendeleev (cm. MENDELEEV Dmitry Ivanovich).
Being in nature
The content in the earth's crust is 1.5·10 -4% by weight. Refers to scattered elements. It is not found in nature in free form. Contained as an impurity in silicates, sedimentary iron, polymetallic, nickel and tungsten ores, coals, peat, oils, thermal waters and algae. The most important minerals: germanite Cu 3 (Ge,Fe,Ga)(S,As) 4, stottite FeGe(OH) 6, plumbogermanite (Pb,Ge,Ga) 2 SO 4 (OH) 2 2H 2 O, argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6, rhenierite Cu 3 (Fe,Ge,Zn)(S,As) 4.
Obtaining germanium
To obtain germanium, by-products of processing non-ferrous metal ores, ash from coal combustion, and some coke chemical products are used. Raw materials containing Ge are enriched by flotation. Then the concentrate is converted into GeO 2 oxide, which is reduced with hydrogen (cm. HYDROGEN):
GeO 2 + 4H 2 = Ge + 2H 2 O
Germanium of semiconductor purity with an impurity content of 10 -3 -10 -4% is obtained by zone melting (cm. ZONE MELTING), crystallization (cm. CRYSTALLIZATION) or thermolysis of volatile monogermane GeH 4:
GeH 4 = Ge + 2H 2,
which is formed during the decomposition of active metal compounds with Ge - germanides by acids:
Mg 2 Ge + 4HCl = GeH 4 – + 2MgCl 2
Physical and chemical properties
Germanium - substance silver color with a metallic sheen. Crystal lattice stable modification (Ge I), cubic, face-centered diamond type, A= 0.533 nm (at high pressures three other modifications were obtained). Melting point 938.25 °C, boiling point 2850 °C, density 5.33 kg/dm3. It has semiconductor properties, the band gap is 0.66 eV (at 300 K). Germanium is transparent to infrared radiation with a wavelength greater than 2 microns.
By chemical properties Ge resembles silicon (cm. SILICON). Under normal conditions, resistant to oxygen (cm. OXYGEN), water vapor, dilute acids. In the presence of strong complexing agents or oxidizing agents, Ge reacts with acids when heated:
Ge + H 2 SO 4 conc = Ge(SO 4) 2 + 2SO 2 + 4H 2 O,
Ge + 6HF = H 2 + 2H 2,
Ge + 4HNO 3 conc. = H 2 GeO 3 + 4NO 2 + 2H 2 O
Ge reacts with aqua regia (cm. AQUA REGIA):
Ge + 4HNO 3 + 12HCl = GeCl 4 + 4NO + 8H 2 O.
Ge interacts with alkali solutions in the presence of oxidizing agents:
Ge + 2NaOH + 2H 2 O 2 = Na 2.
When heated in air to 700 °C, Ge ignites. Ge easily interacts with halogens (cm. HALOGEN) and gray (cm. SULFUR):
Ge + 2I 2 = GeI 4
With hydrogen (cm. HYDROGEN), nitrogen (cm. NITROGEN), carbon (cm. CARBON) germanium does not react directly; compounds with these elements are obtained indirectly. For example, nitride Ge 3 N 4 is formed by dissolving germanium diiodide GeI 2 in liquid ammonia:
GeI 2 + NH 3 liquid -> n -> Ge 3 N 4
Germanium (IV) oxide, GeO 2, is a white crystalline substance that exists in two modifications. One of the modifications is partially soluble in water with the formation of complex germanic acids. Exhibits amphoteric properties.
GeO 2 reacts with alkalis as an acid oxide:
GeO 2 + 2NaOH = Na 2 GeO 3 + H 2 O
GeO 2 interacts with acids:
GeO 2 + 4HCl = GeCl 4 + 2H 2 O
Ge tetrahalides are non-polar compounds that are easily hydrolyzed by water.
3GeF 4 + 2H 2 O = GeO 2 + 2H 2 GeF 6
Tetrahalides are obtained by direct reaction:
Ge + 2Cl 2 = GeCl 4
or thermal decomposition:
BaGeF 6 = GeF 4 + BaF 2
Germanium hydrides are similar in chemical properties to silicon hydrides, but monogermane GeH 4 is more stable than monosilane SiH 4 . Germanes form homologous series Gen H 2n+2, Gen H 2n and others, but these series are shorter than those of silanes.
Monogerman GeH 4 is a gas that is stable in air and does not react with water. During long-term storage, it decomposes into H 2 and Ge. Monogermane is obtained by reducing germanium dioxide GeO 2 with sodium borohydride NaBH 4:
GeO 2 + NaBH 4 = GeH 4 + NaBO 2.
A very unstable GeO monoxide is formed by moderate heating of a mixture of germanium and GeO 2 dioxide:
Ge + GeO 2 = 2GeO.
Ge(II) compounds are easily disproportionate to release Ge:
2GeCl 2 -> Ge + GeCl 4
Germanium disulfide GeS 2 is a white amorphous or crystalline substance, obtained by precipitation of H 2 S from acidic solutions of GeCl 4:
GeCl 4 + 2H 2 S = GeS 2 Ї + 4HCl
GeS 2 dissolves in alkalis and ammonium or alkali metal sulfides:
GeS 2 + 6NaOH = Na 2 + 2Na 2 S,
GeS 2 + (NH 4) 2 S = (NH 4) 2 GeS 3
Ge can be part of organic compounds. Known are (CH 3) 4 Ge, (C 6 H 5) 4 Ge, (CH 3) 3 GeBr, (C 2 H 5) 3 GeOH and others.
Application
Germanium - semiconductor material, used in technology and radio electronics in the production of transistors and microcircuits. Thin films of Ge deposited on glass are used as resistors in radar installations. Alloys of Ge with metals are used in sensors and detectors. Germanium dioxide is used in the production of glasses that transmit infrared radiation.

Encyclopedic Dictionary . 2009 .

See what “germanium” is in other dictionaries:

A chemical element discovered in 1886 in the rare mineral argyrodite, found in Saxony. Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. germanium (named in honor of the homeland of the scientist who discovered the element) chemical. element... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (Germanium), Ge, chemical element of group IV of the periodic table, atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.59; non-metal; semiconductor material. Germanium was discovered by the German chemist K. Winkler in 1886... Modern encyclopedia

germanium- Ge Element of group IV Periodic. systems; at. n. 32, at. m. 72.59; TV item with metallic shine. Natural Ge is a mixture of five stable isotopes with mass numbers 70, 72, 73, 74 and 76. The existence and properties of Ge were predicted in 1871 by D.I.... ... Technical Translator's Guide

Germanium- (Germanium), Ge, chemical element of group IV of the periodic system, atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.59; non-metal; semiconductor material. Germanium was discovered by the German chemist K. Winkler in 1886. ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Latin Germanium) Ge, chemical element of group IV of the periodic table, atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.59. Named from the Latin Germania Germany, in honor of the homeland of K. A. Winkler. Silvery gray crystals; density 5.33 g/cm³, melting point 938.3 ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (symbol Ge), a white-gray metallic element of group IV of the periodic table of MENDELEEV, in which the properties of not yet open elements, in particular Germany (1871). The element was discovered in 1886. A by-product of zinc smelting... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

Ge (from Latin Germania Germany * a. germanium; n. Germanium; f. germanium; i. germanio), chemical. element of group IV periodic. Mendeleev system, at.sci. 32, at. m. 72.59. Natural gas consists of 4 stable isotopes 70Ge (20.55%), 72Ge... ... Geological encyclopedia

- (Ge), synthetic single crystal, PP, point symmetry group m3m, density 5.327 g/cm3, Tmelt=936 °C, solid. on the Mohs scale 6, at. m. 72.60. Transparent in the IR region l from 1.5 to 20 microns; optically anisotropic, for l=1.80 µm coefficient. refraction n=4,143.… … Physical encyclopedia

Noun, number of synonyms: 3 semiconductor (7) eca-silicon (1) element (159) ... Dictionary of synonyms

GERMANIUM- chem. element, symbol Ge (lat. Germanium), at. n. 32, at. m. 72.59; brittle silver-gray crystalline substance, density 5327 kg/m3, bil = 937.5°C. Scattered in nature; it is mined mainly by processing zinc blende and... ... Big Polytechnic Encyclopedia

Germanium- an extremely valuable element of the periodic table for humans. Its unique properties as a semiconductor have made it possible to create diodes that are widely used in various measuring instruments and radio receivers. It is needed for the production of lenses and optical fiber.

However technical advances- this is only part of the advantages of this element. Organic germanium compounds have rare therapeutic properties, having a broad biological effect on human health and well-being, and this feature is more expensive than any precious metals.

History of the discovery of germanium

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, analyzing his periodic table of elements, in 1871 suggested that it was missing another element belonging to group IV. He described its properties, emphasized its similarities with silicon, and named it eca-silicon.

A few years later, in 1886, in February, a professor at the Freiberg Mining Academy discovered argyrodite, a new silver compound. His full analysis was entrusted to Clemens Winkler, professor of technical chemistry and the best analyst at the academy. After studying the new mineral, he isolated 7% of its weight as a separate unidentified substance. A thorough study of its properties showed that this is the eca-silicon predicted by Mendeleev. It is important that the method of isolating eca-silicon used by Winkler is still used in its industrial production.

History of the name Germany

Ecasilicon in periodic table Mendeleev occupies 32nd position. At first, Clemens Winkler wanted to give it the name Neptune, in honor of the planet, which was also first predicted and discovered later. However, it turned out that one falsely discovered component was already called that and unnecessary confusion and controversy could arise.

As a result, Winkler chose the name Germanium for him in honor of his country, in order to remove all differences. Dmitry Ivanovich supported this decision, assigning this name to his “brainchild”.

What does germanium look like?

This one is expensive and rare element, like glass, fragile. A standard germanium ingot looks like a cylinder with a diameter of 10 to 35 mm. The color of germanium depends on its surface treatment and can be black, steel-like or silver. His appearance easily confused with silicon - its closest relative and competitor.

To see small germanium parts in devices you need special means increase.

Application of organic germanium in medicine

The organic compound germanium was synthesized by the Japanese, Dr. K. Asai in 1967. He proved that it has antitumor properties. Continued research has proven that different germanium compounds have such important properties for humans, as pain relief, reduction blood pressure, reducing the risk of anemia, strengthening the immune system and destroying harmful bacteria.

Directions of influence of germanium in the body:

• Promotes saturation of tissues with oxygen and,
• Accelerates wound healing,
• Helps cleanse cells and tissues of toxins and poisons,
• Improves the condition of the central nervous system and its functioning,
• Accelerates recovery after severe physical activity,
• Increases overall human performance,
• Strengthens defensive reactions the entire immune system.

The role of organic germanium in the immune system and oxygen transport

The ability of germanium to carry oxygen at the level of body tissues is especially valuable for preventing hypoxia (oxygen deficiency). This also reduces the likelihood of developing blood hypoxia, which occurs when the amount of hemoglobin in red blood cells decreases. Delivery of oxygen to any cell reduces the danger oxygen starvation and save the cells most sensitive to lack of oxygen from death: the brain, kidney and liver tissue, and heart muscles.