What is the comparative descriptive method? Traditional methods of anthropology

Representing a system of procedures for collecting, primary analysis and presentation of data and their characteristics. The descriptive method has application in all disciplines of the social, humanitarian and natural science cycles. The extremely wide use of the descriptive method within the boundaries of scientific research is determined by the multi-stage methodology of modern scientific knowledge, in the hierarchy of which the descriptive method occupies a primary position (after observation).

Procedural characteristics of the descriptive method

It is traditional to distinguish the following set of procedures, the systematic application of which ensures the effectiveness of the use of the descriptive method:

• the starting point for the deployment of the descriptive method is the formation of the primary subject of description - the signs, parameters and characteristics of the object, marked as significant and essential, and constituting the main analytical focus of observation and description (operations carried out within the boundaries of this procedure are predominantly analytical in nature);
• the main path passes through the collection, cataloging (typologization, systematization or distribution into categories) of material (data), which opens up the possibility of studying its composition, structure, characteristics, most general relations between them, as well as objectively specified qualities (distribution and polarization of data by type, class, species, genera or category, on the contrary, is implemented primarily in a synthetic manner);
• material collected and recycled into categories, classes, groups, types or types is supplied to the output of in-depth scientific research;

Traditional norms of application

As a rule, the description precedes an in-depth (actually scientific) study (or is its first stage), supplying samples and material for the development of further scientific procedures and methods. Consistent application of the descriptive method involves following a number of traditionally accepted norms:

• strict subject design selected description object;
• maintaining consistency in the description of objectively specified features, parameters and characteristics (qualitative, quantitative) of the material, consistent with the research task;
• orderliness in the recycling of collected material (grouping procedures, systematization classification, etc.);

Descriptive method in the context of scientific methodology

In the field of empirical scientific methods, the descriptive method is necessary (following original primary observation), determining to a large extent the success of the work as a whole, which is developed using other methods, developing, as a rule, the material collected and delivered by him in new (actually, scientific) aspects and new (actually, scientific) subject designs. Often, the material from one application of the description serves as the basis for carrying out the description in a completely different aspect. The descriptive method, like other research methods, is historically variable. It expands the boundaries of its application, the set of research techniques and procedures depending on the development of general scientific theory and practice.

Footnotes and notes

See also

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Links

• // Large explanatory dictionary of Vladimir Chernyshev
• // "Descriptive Research". BYU linguistics department (English)

Excerpt characterizing the Descriptive method

Federal Agency for Education

State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Samara State University"

Faculty of Philology

Department of Russian Language

Specialty "Philology"

General characteristics of the descriptive method techniques

Completed by a student

IV course 07402 groups

Koledova A.V.

Checked:

Ph.D., Associate Professor

Barabina M.N.

Samara 2012

Descriptive method - the most ancient and at the same time relevant method linguistic analysis.

The descriptive method is called a system of scientific research techniques used to characterize language phenomena at a given stage of development; This is a method of synchronous analysis. The study of the norms of the modern Russian language, its description is one of the most important tasks of linguistics, dictated by both the theory itself and the practice of cultural development of society.

The descriptive method has a number of linguistic analysis techniques . The most common ones are: method of linguistic observation, method of linguistic experiment, method of invariant analysis, method of linguistic comparison, method of positional analysis, method of transformation and substitution.

All these techniques are connected not only by the generality of their purpose, but also by the very technique of linguistic analysis.

Let's briefly consider each of the techniques separately.

The most common and natural method of descriptive language learning is observation reception, which is present when using other techniques of the descriptive method. The first condition of any study is accurate and conscientious observation.

Technique of linguistic observation - these are the rules and techniques for isolating a particular fact from the text and including it in the category being studied. The rules of observation concern the selection of facts, the establishment of their characteristics, the clarification of the subject of observation and the description of the observed phenomenon.

It should be noted that conducting linguistic observation presupposes good knowledge of the language, proficiency in it, and the researcher’s linguistic flair. However, the researcher must understand that the approach of the reader and the approach of the researcher differ from each other in that the first uses the text in order to understand or convey a specific idea using language, while the second, i.e. researcher, identifies individual facts, signs, phenomena in the text in order to subject them to a special observation . Conducting linguistic observations therefore presupposes the special skills and knowledge necessary to see the phenomenon being studied. The effectiveness of observation increases with the development of knowledge about a given phenomenon.

Linguistic observation is developed through exercises and training, with the obligatory analysis of shortcomings made during observation.

Using the method of observation, we rely on our senses, on our understanding of the text and knowledge of the text.

Establishing the reliability of the studied segments of speech is of great importance when conducting observations. For these purposes, the linguist uses additional techniques. This technique is criticism.

Criticism of the text is a set of rules and research technique designed to establish the reliability of the information available in the source, establish its authenticity and provide the main text.

Observing this or that fact, extracting it from speech, we must explain it, and we are also obliged to compare our observations with the observations of our predecessors, both from the point of factual material and from the point of view of their linguistic interpretation.

Linguistic interpretation consists not only of including them in a more general category, but also of checking the correctness of such inclusion.

Thus, the assignment of forms read - read - read To verb forms no doubt. On the contrary, the assignment of forms glad to adjectives, shame, sorry- to adverbs, and it's time– to nouns is doubtful, since each of them does not possess the entire complex of features characteristic of an adjective, adverb, or noun, respectively. For example, the word rad does not have full form adjective

When conducting linguistic observation and establishing one or another linguistic interpretation of linguistic facts, the researcher must have sufficient factual material.

Repeatability criterion linguistic facts is of great importance in linguistics. Repeatability allows us to distinguish between the phenomena of language - productive and unproductive facts of language and individual speech, linguistic and extra-linguistic aspects.

The importance of the repeatability criterion forces us to pay special attention to the collection of material, which is also the beginning, the stimulus of linguistic observation and the criterion for judging a particular fact of language.

When collecting factual material, it is necessary to accurately indicate its source.

By expanding the observation material, we begin experiment.

Experiment differs from research in that the researcher is not limited to studying facts in various conditions, but puts the object in such conditions that allow him to find out this or that aspect, this or that connection of the fact or phenomenon being studied.

Along with collecting material from texts, we can use our personal knowledge of the language using the technique of an artificial experiment, i.e. replacing phrases based on their own knowledge of the language, checking the possibility of a particular fact of the language.

Both when collecting material, observing and setting up an experiment, and during further linguistic interpretation, we must not forget about distinguishing linguistic phenomena from non-linguistic ones.

When studying linguistic phenomena, categories of language great value has a study of their constant signs and signs of variables. This technique can be called invariant analysis. The method of analysis by invariants is that constant, invariant features are established and the boundaries of possible variation are considered, in which variants, losing some features, retain others, due to which the linguistic phenomenon is modified, but its unity, its essence is not violated. Variants act as specific cases of manifestation of the same unit.

The study of invariants is important because each phenomenon has not one attribute, but many. This multi-quality nature of linguistic units is explained by the fact that they arose in different periods of language development, and also as a result of the fact that linguistic units are connected with each other in the language system.

Under the influence of different factors, different and the same signs of a linguistic phenomenon manifest themselves to varying degrees. This gives rise to variation.

Variation can be carried out both on a formal and semantic basis, both on the basis of belonging to the same link in the paradigm, and on the basis of the commonality of the syntactic function.

Variation on a formal basis: nouns masculine in the singular they have inflection –om: with an axe, wind, chorus, etc. However, depending on lexical meaning noun and syntactic conditions, the meaning of these forms varies. In combination with chopping with an ax we have a creative tool, in combination with driving through a city - a creative path, and in combination with howling as a wolf - a creative way of action.

Variation on a semantic basis: leads to clarification of doublet forms, synonymous words and forms, lexical-semantic, lexical-grammatical groups. Thus, the instrumental case of the singular has several parallel forms, for example: by a detachment, but by a group, by a bone.

Observing linguistic facts, experimenting with them, studying the variation of features, we compared individual features with each other.

Comparison linguistic phenomena can be used as a special technique for descriptive analysis of language. It consists in the fact that, when comparing similar linguistic phenomena, we compare them in order to identify common and distinctive features.

For example, studying the meaning-distinguishing function of sounds m, With, A, O, we establish that they are phonemes of the Russian language, since they distinguish different words and forms: myself, But som, myself, But deputy etc.

Reception of positional analysis consists in the fact that a linguistic fact is considered from the point of view of its repetition in certain combinations, where the signs of the studied linguistic fact or phenomenon are found.

Positional analysis is based on the linearity of speech. However, language is not only a linear entity.

The technique of opposition analysis is that a linguistic phenomenon is considered as a binary opposition of units. Oppositional analysis involves identifying differential features of units and combining their pairs.

Under the influence of various kinds of conditions, a linguistic phenomenon can lose a number of its characteristics as a result of their neutralization. In this case, we can resort to the study of derived forms, various variants and synonymous facts. This study is carried out using accepting transformations or substitutions.

Transformation technique (and in particular substitutions ) is that language pressure is studied by modifying linguistic units and comparing derived forms, different variants and synonymous units. Using the transformation and substitution technique requires good knowledge of the invariant and the language.

For example, unstressed vowels O And A in modern Russian they are neutralized, for example: salt And pour in. To distinguish between these homophonic forms, we can make transformations. The first word, ash, is associated with words such as ash, ash, ash pan. As a result of substitution and transformation of different morphemes, we must isolate the root - angry- and set the spelling of the letter O.

To summarize, we note that any linguistic phenomenon is multi-qualitative. Therefore, its complete description presupposes the study of all its sides, all its features. A truly scientific writing of a linguistic phenomenon must be multifaceted, and therefore must use all known techniques and developed techniques of linguistic analysis.

The descriptive method is of exceptional importance when school study native language. School grammars are descriptive grammars. They set themselves the task of giving a brief and accessible description of the grammatical structure of the language for students, teaching language skills, and instilling linguistic observation.

The modern descriptive method is constantly enriched by methods and techniques of analysis developed in line with other linguistic methods.

List of used literature

Ivanova L.P. Course of lectures on general linguistics. Scientific manual. K.: Osvita Ukrainy, 2006.

Kodukhov, V.I. Methods of linguistic analysis/V.I. Kodukhov. – L., 1963.

As their name indicates, descriptive methods place the researcher in the role of observer. He never interferes with the observed phenomenon, but limits himself to describing it as objectively as possible.

Observation in natural conditions

Observation in natural conditions is the simplest, but also the most boring method. The observer must stay to the side so as to remain unnoticed, or blend well into the group so as not to attract attention. At the same time, he must notice and evaluate all events related to the phenomenon to be described.

The most great difficulty is due to the fact that one can easily confuse the essential with the unimportant, or interpret some events based on what the observer expects to see, and not on what actually happens. One way to avoid this is to equip yourself with a tape recorder, camera or video camera, which will allow you to record behavior and, if necessary, show the recordings repeatedly to different observers.

Systematic observation

In systematic observation, attention should be focused on one specific aspect of behavior in order to describe as accurately as possible exactly those characteristics that the study is dedicated to studying.

For this they often use questionnaires or surveillance maps, which include various elements, requiring attention: the frequency of a given form of behavior (how many times it occurs in a certain period of time), its intensity (taking into account the conditions in which it manifests itself), how it arises and how it disappears, etc. This kind of observation allows the researcher to concentrate his attention on essential points, without distracting him with minor details.

Questionnaires and tests

A more structured way of solving a particular problem involves using, if possible, tools selected depending on the phenomenon being studied.

Questionnaires provide an opportunity to obtain information about large groups people by interviewing some part of these people who make up a representative (representative) sample. Of course, questionnaires only produce reliable results if the questions asked are carefully designed and if the sample fairly accurately reflects the population as a whole. Large companies engaged in sounding public opinion usually obtain results that deviate from the results of a survey of the entire population by no more than 3-4% in both directions (see document 3.4).

Regarding tests,then it is a standardized method used to measure various characteristics of individuals who serve as objects of observation. They are supposed to assess intellectual or perceptual abilities, motor functions or personality traits, the threshold for anxiety or frustration in a particular situation, or interest in a particular activity.

However, as we will see in Chapter 9, there are many problems with using tests. One of them, and an important one, is related to the method normalization test. Of course, results obtained for one subject or for one population can only be interpreted when compared with results obtained from a sample of people tested using the same tests and adequately representing the individual or population. We will see, however (see document 9.3 and file 9.1) that this requirement is not always met. In fact, the test method, which sometimes turns out to be very effective, is often used to confirm ideas that belong more to the field of politics than science.

Correlation analysis

Using the methods described above allows you to carry out more deep analysis data, if it is possible to compare the results for two or more of the observed characteristics with each other. This will answer questions like “can 13-14 year old girls be considered more sociable than boys of the same age?” or “Are highly intelligent people also endowed with great creative abilities?”

In order to answer these questions, it is enough to establish the relationship between various data obtained as a result of observation or using a questionnaire, or subject the subjects to tests. In the first case, it is necessary to compare, for example, assessments of girls' sociability with the corresponding assessments for boys; in the second, to compare the scores obtained in intelligence tests with assessments of creative abilities.

Such dependencies are assessed mainly using statistical methods. Most often, the correlation coefficient is calculated (see Appendix B).

Advantages correlation analysis are obvious: it allows you to get for very short time a lot of data for a significant number of subjects. In addition, this method can be used in a number of special occasions, in which an experimental approach is difficult or even impossible (mainly for ethical reasons); Examples include collecting data on suicide, drug addiction, or parenting in disadvantaged environments. Finally, correlation analysis produces information that is based on a more diverse sample and is closer to social reality—as opposed to the results of experiments conducted in a laboratory, which often use the same population of students.

This method, however, does not solve one problem related to the possible interpretation of the dependence existing between the variables. For example, when studying aggression in children (for more details, see dossier 6.1), it turned out that violent children are more likely than others to watch television films with scenes of cruelty. Does this mean that such a spectacle breeds aggressiveness in them or, on the contrary, that cruel spectacles attract the most aggressive children? How can we determine which of these two variables is the cause and which is the effect? Correlation analysis does not answer such questions.

It also happens that two factors vary in a similar way even in the absence of a cause-and-effect relationship between them, and their variations depend on some third variable. Consider, for example, the claim that the more marijuana a person consumes, the more likely he or she is to become a heavy drinker. It is possible, however, that in fact there is no causal relationship between these two parameters - there is simply a relationship between drug use in general and the personality of some young people who resort to drugs to forget about their problems.

The interpretation of the relationship between two variables very often also depends on the meaning of the terms used. This certainly relates to the concept of “mind”. Is it possible, for example, to say that “the smarter a given student is, the more chances he has to achieve brilliant success in his studies”? This is true only if by “intelligence” we mean the totality of qualities that a school requires, where discipline is of particular importance (see document 9.2). A perfect example Contrary to this statement is Einstein, who as a teenager had difficulty adapting to the school system.

Some classic studies, such as Tryon's work (see paper 3.5), have already used methods of the type described above to elucidate the relationship between heritability, mental abilities and acquiring new skills or knowledge.

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Traditional methods of anthropology. Descriptive research methods

1. Descriptive research methods in anthropology

Comparative Description morphological features humans began to be used to characterize races and create racial classifications. Special questionnaires were developed for geographers and travelers, including questions on body length, hair and eye pigmentation, and hair structure. The first racial classification, proposed by the French scientist F. Bernier (1684), was based only on descriptive characteristics. Almost to the second half of the 19th century century, anthropology developed as a descriptive science. At the end of the 19th century, R. Martin introduced a program for measuring the human body (Martin, R., 1928).

Nowadays, anthropology uses descriptive and measurement methods fossil research and modern population, primarily morphological characteristics. In addition, methods for studying functional indicators are used. Along with this, a survey is carried out, the purpose of which is to clarify the characteristics of individual development and socio-economic status of the person being studied.

Descriptive method - anthroposcopy is used in cases where measurements are difficult. For example, such racial characteristics how hair shape and pigmentation (skin color, eye color, sometimes hair color) cannot be measured. To unify assessments of skin color, eye color, hair shape and color, special scales have been developed. Score using such scales allows us to avoid sharp discrepancies in the data of different researchers.

When observing physical development, determining the type of constitution and in some other cases, attention is paid to the development and correlation of such features as the shape of the chest, back, abdomen, legs, development of muscle, fat and bone tissue.

Somatoscopy includes:

1. Assessing the condition of the musculoskeletal system - determining the shape of the skull, chest, legs, feet, spine, type of posture, muscle development.

2. Determination of the degree of fat deposition.

3. Determining the shape of the abdomen.

4. Assessment of the degree of puberty.

5. Assessment of the condition of the skin.

6. Assessing the condition of the mucous membranes of the eyes and oral cavity.

7. Examination of teeth and drawing up a dental formula.

The shape of the chest changes little with age. Depending on the inclination of the sternum, the inclination and curvature of the ribs, four main forms of the chest are distinguished - flat, flattened, cylindrical and conical, as well as some transitional forms (Table 1). The sign is assessed using a three-point system with transition points when examining the subject in profile and frontal view.

The most common shape of the human chest is an elongated cylinder compressed from front to back. However, there are many variations of this basic type. The chest can be elongated in length, have the same shape along its entire length, or change - narrow or expand downwards.

Fig.1. Epigastric angle (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003). 1 - sharp, 2 - straight, 3 - blunt.

Table 1. Characteristics of chest shapes (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

The researcher applies thumbs both hands to the lower ribs of the subject, along the direction of their attachment to the sternum. The angle formed by the ribs and therefore repeated by the position of the examiner's thumbs is called epigastric (Fig. 1).

Abnormal chest shapes. In cases of rickets, a “brim of the hat” is often observed - a continuous bone ridge at the site of fusion of the ribs with the sternum (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003).

Fig.2. Shape of the back (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003). 1 - straight; 2 - regular (normal); 3 - stooped.

With severe compression of the chest from the sides, the sternum protrudes forward in the form of a keel, resembling the shape of a “chicken” chest. With a flat chest, there is sometimes a depression in the sternum area. This shape is called the “shoemaker's chest.” Anomalies also include: asymmetry of the right and left sides of the chest, mobility of the X rib. The shape of the chest is related to the shape of the back and largely depends on it.

Table 2. Characteristics of back shapes (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

The shape of the back is determined by studying it from the side and behind by the degree of curvature of the spine and the position of the shoulder blades. Both are largely dependent on muscle tone.

A person’s back has a straight, regular or stooped shape, characterized in points. Various defects, originality and age-related changes in posture, such as scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis, change the shape of the back (Fig. 2, Table 2).

Belly shape. This sign is largely related to the shape of the chest and muscle tone of the abdomen. There are three main forms of the abdomen (Fig. 3, Table 3).

Fig.3. Shape of the abdomen (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003). 1 - sunken, 2 - straight, 3 - convex

Table 3. Characteristics of abdominal shapes (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

Assessment of the condition of the lower extremities. There are true and false curvature of the lower extremities (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003).

True curvature - features of the anatomy of the lower extremities associated with deformation of the tibia, which are externally manifested by the presence of a defect in the internal contour from the perineum to the closed ankles (O-shaped) or the absence of closure of the ankles with closed hips (X-shaped) in a free stance without tension.

False curvature is a structural feature of the lower extremities that manifests itself as an impression of curvature in the absence of bone deformation and is associated with the distribution of soft tissues.

Among the true forms of curvature of the lower extremities, three types are distinguished:

1. Varus (type O), in which the knees are slightly spread apart and the axis of the lower leg forms a small angle with the axis of the thigh, open inward.

2. Straight position.

3. Valgus type (type X) - the opposite of varus - the knees are shifted, the axes of the legs are slightly divergent.

The axis of the lower limb refers to the direction of the axes of the thigh and lower leg in relation to each other and to the plane of the pelvis. This sign is assessed by the angle between the axes of the thigh and lower leg in a strictly defined position of the subject (straightened position, heels touching, toes apart by 10-15 cm). There are three types of position of the leg axes, two of which have a three-point gradation.

O-shaped legs (varus type). In the above pose, the subject's knees and shins are not touching, but there is a gap (gap) between them. The axis of the tibia bone forms a certain angle with the axis of the femur, the apex facing outward. The degree of severity of the gap between the legs is assessed by points:

· score 1 (O1) - the size of the gap from a weak lumen to a width of about 5 cm;

· score 2 (O2) - gap size from 5 to 10 cm;

· score 3 (O3) - the size of the gap is over 10 cm, the angle between the bones of the femur and tibia is most clearly expressed.

In addition to the indicated three points for O-shaped legs, crooked legs should be noted - O4, where the gap (clearance) between the legs exceeds 20 cm.

Type X - shaped legs (valgus type). The type of arrangement of the axes of the thigh and lower leg is opposite to the first: the angle between the axes of the thigh and lower leg is directed inward by its apex. In the above position, the subject's knees overlap each other, so the subject should be asked to take a comfortable position for him, in which the knees only touch. Then a noticeable distance forms between the medial edges of the feet. The greater this distance when the knees touch, the more pronounced the angle between the axes of the thigh and lower leg. The degree of severity of this angle, and, consequently, the distance between the medial edges of the feet is assessed by points:

· score 1 (X1) - the distance between the medial edges of the feet does not exceed 5 cm;

· point 2 (X2) - distance from 5 to 10 cm;

· point 3 (X3) - distance over 10 cm.

Straight legs. In the above position, in such a subject not only the thighs, knees and inner ankles are in contact, but, as a rule, also the lower legs (due to the development of the calf muscles). There is no angle between the axes of the thigh and lower leg. In the case of underdeveloped calf muscles, there may be a gap here, but the knees are touching. The type is designated by the letter N and has no gradations.

It is necessary to distinguish between anomalies of extreme curvature of the axes of the legs - their extremely valgus and extremely varus position, as well as asymmetry in the length of the legs - lameness.

Assessment of foot condition. To determine the shape of the foot, its supporting surface is examined and attention is paid to the width of the isthmus connecting the heel area to the front part and the location of the vertical axes of the Achilles tendon and heel under load.

A normal foot has a narrow isthmus, the vertical axes are located along one line perpendicular to the surface of the support.

Flattened foot - the isthmus is wide, the line of its outer edge is more convex, the vertical axes are perpendicular to the surface of the support.

Flat foot - the isthmus occupies almost the entire width of the foot, the vertical axes of the heel and Achilles tendon form an angle open outward.

For objective assessment To shape the foot, the plantography method is used - obtaining an imprint and then calculating it.

1. The first method of calculating the degree of flattening of the foot (according to Strieter) - a tangent is drawn on the print to the most protruding points of the inner edge of the foot, a perpendicular is restored from its middle to the outer edge of the foot. Next, it is calculated what percentage is the segment passing through the painted part of the foot from the length of the entire perpendicular. If the isthmus is up to 50% of the perpendicular length, the foot is normal, 50-60% is flattened, and more than 60% is flat.

2. The second method of express assessment of the degree of flattening of the foot (according to Yaralov - Yaralendu V.A.) - two straight lines are drawn on the imprint from the middle of the heel: one - to the middle of the base of the digital phalanx of the 1st | finger, the second - to the second interdigital space.

Normal foot - both lines do not intersect the inner curve of the print outline.

Flattened foot - the inner curve of the print contour lies between straight lines.

Flat foot - both straight lines are completely located on the painted surface of the print.

The degree of development of skeletal muscles is assessed by its volume and tone. Attention is paid to the whole body - legs, chest and always the biceps of the shoulder.

Table 4. Characteristics of the degree of muscle development (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

When assessing the degree of fat deposition, you should pay attention to the development of subcutaneous fatty tissue on the surface of the entire body - on the body, limbs and face.

Table 5. Characteristics of the degree of development of fat deposition (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

Fat deposition is also assessed on a three-point scale (Table 5). It is necessary to take into account possible development obesity, in which the assessment of fat deposits is carried out somewhat differently. It should be noted that in this chapter and in the text of the book in general, for the most part we are talking about a healthy organism and its variability. It is assumed that the student learns the basics of clinical anthropology traditionally through the study of clinical disciplines.

Bone component. When assessing it, the massiveness of the skeleton is determined by the degree of development of the epiphyses of the bones and the massiveness of the joints (Table 6). Sometimes intermediate scores are also allocated - 1-2 and 2-3.

Often, with sufficient development of adipose tissue, visual assessment of the bone component is difficult or erroneous.

Table 6. Characteristics of the degree of development of the bone component (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

Descriptive characteristics are recorded on the anthropological form.

In the classification of racial types the most important features are the pigmentation of the skin, eyes and hair, the shape of the hair, nose, lips, eyebrows, eye shape, etc.

Pigmentation. The color of various tissues in humans is due to the presence of pigments. The color of the skin, hair and iris of the eyes is determined by one pigment - melanin. All the diversity in the color of these organs depends on the amount and location of melanin in the skin, iris and hair. The lack of melanin in them is a phenomenon known as albinism. Albinos have very light skin, white hair and red iris of the eyes, due to the lack of pigment in it and the resulting translucency of the blood vessels. Albinos are very sensitive to sunlight. Their skin, due to the lack of melanin in it, is not subject to tanning. Albinism occurs among both light-skinned and dark-skinned races (for example, blacks) and is always genetically determined. Sometimes it does not spread to the entire body and is expressed only in certain areas of the skin - partial albinism. Hair color is determined by the amount and nature of melanin contained in the cortical layer (granular and diffuse). The more granular pigment in the cells of the cortex, the darker the hair. The presence of diffuse pigment gives the hair a reddish tint.

Pigmentation changes somewhat throughout life. With age, hair darkens. During the aging process, it occurs gradual decrease melanin and hair graying. Graying of hair occurs as a result of the cessation of melanin production. The loss of pigment begins from the part of the hair shaft that is closer to the root. The age-related dynamics of eye color are more complex.

Special scales have been created to determine hair color (Nikityuk B. A., 2000). The most widely used is the Fisher scale, according to which 24 different types are distinguished by color (with the exception of red hair - No. 1-3): No. 4 - black-chestnut, No. 5-7 - chestnut, No. 8 - dark blond, No. 9 -20 - light blond, No. 22-26 - ash, No. 27 - black.

The Fisher scale, especially in the part that relates to dark hair options, is very imperfect. Currently used is the one developed by V.V. Bunak scale, which is based on the precise colorimetric determination of individual shades, dividing the entire gamut of colors into three rows by wavelength: reddish-orange, yellowish-orange and ashy. Individual numbers in each row are separated by equal intervals according to color intensity (Bunak V.V., 1941).

Hair color shows a clear territorial differentiation. The lightest hair is typical for the Scandinavian population. So, among Norwegians the frequency of light hair shades is about 75%. The population of Central and, even in to a greater extent, Southern Europe dark shades predominate significantly. Dark hair is characteristic of the rest of humanity, and blond hair occurs only in the form of very rare individual deviations.

Skin pigmentation is one of the main characteristics in racial taxonomy.

Methods for determining skin color. There are various methods for determining skin color. Verbal descriptions of skin pigmentation, despite the existing schemes with strictly defined terms, are imperfect and cannot objectively reflect the variety of shades that characterize skin color different groups humanity. The most accurate is to measure color using various colorimetric instruments, but this technique is not widely used in anthropological practice due to the labor-intensive nature of its use in mass surveys.

Various color tables with numerical designations were proposed, such as Broca's chromatic table (1864), containing 34 color stripes of different colors, etc. A major technical drawback of these tables, reproduced by printing or coloring, was that they faded over time . This drawback was eliminated by using painted glass.

The most widely used is the Lushan scale, which contains 36 glasses of different colors. Using this scale, a large amount of material has been collected on skin color from different peoples of the globe. When processing material, it is often customary to combine numerous shades of the scale into larger groups (Table 7).

Table 7. Assessment of skin pigmentation according to the Lyushan scale (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

By summing the individual digital values ​​of these scores (0 + 1 + 5 +...) and dividing the resulting sum by the number of individuals studied, the average score for the group is obtained.

But the Lushan scale is also imperfect, since the intervals between individual scale numbers are unequal; not all numbers closely reproduce the shades of human skin; The glasses have a shine that is unusual for leather, which makes it difficult to select the appropriate number.

Later, V.V. Bunak developed a skin color scale, which is based on the principle of equidistance (equality of intervals between individual scale numbers).

Differences in the degree of skin coloration among related groups are noted in connection with the peculiarities of adaptation to environmental conditions (for example, in forests and open spaces). It shows up in the tan protective function skin. Darkly pigmented people better tolerate the strong effects of both ultraviolet and thermal rays of the sun. Although their skin heats up more than that of light-colored people, the pigment protects the deeper-lying blood vessels from overheating.

No matter how great the individual variations in skin color and the dependence of skin color on external influences, intergroup differences in skin pigmentation in areas not exposed to sunlight come to the fore.

Skin pigmentation varies according to to the globe from pinkish (among light-colored European groups, where the color is mainly due to the translucency of blood vessels) to dark brown, chocolate (among African blacks, Papuans, Melanesians, Australians). There is a complex range of transitions between these extreme types of coloration. Different groups show a shift towards reddish, yellowish or olive shades.

Various scales are also used to determine eye color. Eye color refers to the color of the iris. The most successful for determining eye color is the V.V. Bunak scale. It distinguishes three main types of iris color (dark, mixed and light), with each type divided into 4 classes (Bunak V.V., 1941). Thus, a total of 12 classes are distinguished (Table 8).

Geographic differentiation of eye color most often coincides with hair color, but light eye shades in medium-pigmentation groups are much more common than light hair. Despite the predominance of dark pigmentation, eyes of mixed shades are relatively common (up to 20% and higher) among a number of peoples of Siberia.

Sex differences in iris color are small. Dark pigmentation is more common in women. Age-related changes are quite significant. Light-eyed people have irises childhood usually somewhat lighter, darker in dark-eyed people. In old age, the percentage of dark eyes decreases.

Table 8. Assessment of eye color according to the V.V.Bunaku scale (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003)

When describing the population characteristics of the scalp, the shape and stiffness of the hair is assessed.

The degree of bending of the hair depends on the shape of its cross section. Straight hair is close to round in the cut, and as the bend intensifies, the cut becomes more and more oval. There is also a correlation between the shape of the hair and the amount of bending of its root (subcutaneous) part and, accordingly, the angle at which it passes through the surface of the skin.

Hair shape, as well as signs of pigmentation, is included in the set of mandatory differentiating characteristics in traditional racial classifications. There are straight, wavy and curly hair (Fig. 4). The shape of the hair is determined according to the descriptions in the methods and using template samples.

Depending on the degree of hardness, there are usually two types of hair - hard (tight) and soft. They are determined “by touch,” and although this is not a very convincing method, it is the most convenient for mass and field studies. In a cross section, the differences between hard and soft hair are determined by their diameter and cross-sectional area.

The trait is apparently inherited by several genes, but there is a definite tendency for curved forms to dominate over straight ones. Two straight-haired spouses have straight-haired children. If spouses differ in the shape of their hair, then in children it can be varied, but no more curved than that of a spouse with wavy hair. Apparently, the wavy hair shape is a consequence of heterozygous inheritance.

Coarse hair has a large cut area, and the edges of the cells fit tightly to each other. Soft hair, in addition to a smaller cut area, has raised cell edges, which promotes hair adhesion to each other. Hair shape and stiffness are inherited independently, so any combination of these two characteristics is possible.

Characteristic territorial variations are found in the structure of scalp hair. Coarse straight hair is characteristic of the majority of the population of Central, Northern and East Asia, the American Indians, and soft straight or wavy hair is characteristic of Europeans, while wavy hair is characteristic of Australians (the indigenous population of Australia) and a number of groups in South and Southeast Asia. The black peoples of Africa, the population of New Guinea and Melanesia are distinguished by curly hair (E.N. Khrisanfova, I.V. Perevozchikov, 1999).

The tortuosity and rigidity of the hair is associated with the characteristics of its cross section, which is determined micrometrically. The larger the cross-sectional area of ​​the hair, the stiffer it is. Coarse hair is characterized by an area of ​​6-7 microns 2. The tortuosity of the hair is related to the shape of its cross-section: straight hair is characterized by the most rounded cross-section.

The hair cross-section index is calculated as the ratio of the smallest cross-section diameter to the largest cross-section diameter. For straight hair the index is 80 and above, for curly hair it is below 60 (Bunak V.V., 1941; Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003).

Tertiary hair, which develops during puberty on the pubis and in the armpits of both sexes, and in men also on the face and chest, has racial diagnostic significance. Intra- and intergroup fluctuations in the severity of these signs can be significant - from mild severity to very high degrees of hairiness of the whole body. This trait is also characterized by great age-related variability.

A score for the development of signs is carried out in men, most often facial and chest hair. Beard development is determined on a 5-point scale: very weak, weak, average, 4 strong, very strong.

Due to the fact that the formation of tertiary hairline is completed by the age of 25, the severity of symptoms in men is taken into account from 25 years of age and older. As for age dynamics, it should be noted that the average beard development score also increases in old age (over 40 years) (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003).

The degree of development of tertiary hair on the chest is also determined on a 5-point scale. Even in groups characterized by strong development of tertiary hair, where individuals with weak beard growth are a rare exception, there is always a certain percentage of individuals with a lack of hair on the chest, abdomen and limbs (Tegako L.I., Salivon I.I., 1997) .

The degree of intensity of development of hair on the face and chest is a sign that is given great importance in ethnic anthropology due to the fact that it reveals a clear geographical differentiation. The weakest degree of beard development is observed in some groups North Asia, and the strongest is among the Australians, the peoples of Western Asia and Transcaucasia.

Structure of the soft tissues of the face. The orbital region is characterized by the width of the palpebral fissure (wide, medium, narrow), its inclination, i.e., the level of location of the outer and inner corners, the degree of development of the fold of the upper eyelid and the presence of a fold covering the inner corner of the eye - the epicanthus. The last two signs have significant age-related variability and depend on the severity of fat deposition on the face.

Upper eyelid fold. The skin of the upper eyelid in some cases does not have folds, in others it forms transverse folds. There are four degrees of severity of the folds of the upper eyelid and epicanthus: absent, weak, moderate and strong.

Nose shape. The general idea of ​​the structure of the nose is strongly influenced by the position of its tip and base in relation to the horizontal and the so-called height of the wings of the nose, i.e. the position of the alar groove on the lateral surface of the nose, which is assessed when viewed from the side.

The height of the wing of the nose is assessed regardless of the severity of the groove: point 1 - when the height of the wing is equal to 1/5 of the height of the nose, point 3 - when the height is 1/3 of the height of the nose.

The protrusion of the nose and the shape of its profile are more related to the development of its bone base. The transverse profile of the back (the cross-section through the upper part of the back near the nose bridge) is assessed regardless of the height of the nose bridge. The profile of the dorsum of the nose is determined separately in the bone and cartilaginous parts, and an assessment of the general profile of the chin, the shape of the forehead, the back of the head, eyebrows, nose, ears, mouth, lips and other signs is mandatory.

When describing the shape of the nasal openings when viewed from below, the width, location of the nostrils in relation to each other, their shape and angle of inclination to the midline are also recorded (Fig. 4).

anthropology sleeping belly skin

Fig.4. The shape of the nostrils (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003). 1 - longitudinal, 2 - slightly elongated, 3 - oval, 4 - round, 5, 6 - bean-shaped

Fig.5. Method for assessing the “thickness” of the lips (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003).

In the mouth area, three signs are usually used: the “thickness” of the lips, the width of the mouth and the contour of the profile of the skin part upper lip(Fig. 11). The latter sign may have an independent meaning regardless of the protrusion of the jaw and is described as procheilia, orthocheilia and opistocheilia. Traits of racial types are recorded on an anthropological form.

The set of external signs characteristic of this person, used in criminology under the name “verbal portrait”. IN practical work need to be able to classify external signs people and highlight their typical combinations. The verbal portrait is drawn up according to a specific plan (Tegako L.I., Marfina O.V., 2003). In this case, the main types of head contour, the profile of the face, forehead, dorsum of the nose and chin, the shape of the forehead, back of the head, eyebrows, nose, ears, mouth, lips and other signs are identified.

Literature

1. Negasheva M. A., Bogatenkov D. V., Glashchenkova I. A., Drobyshevsky S. V. Megapolis and somatotype features as increased risk factors coronary disease heart // Disease prevention and health promotion. - M., 2001. - P. 32-37.

2. Nikityuk B. A. Integration of knowledge in human sciences. - M.: Sports Academy. Press, 2000. - 440 p.

3. Nikityuk B. A., Gladysheva A. A. Anatomy and sports anthropology: (Workshop). [For the institute of physics. culture] / B. A. Nikityuk, A. A. Gladysheva - M. Physical education and sports. - 1989. - 174 p.

4. Nikityuk B. A. Changes in the body size of newborns over the last 100 years // Questions of anthropology. Vol. 42. - M., 1972. - p. 78-94.

5. Nikityuk B.A. Factors of growth and morpho-functional maturation of the body. - M., 1978. - 144 p.

6. Nikolaev V.G. Anthropological examination in clinical practice / V.G. Nikolaev, N.N. Nikolaeva, L.V. Sindeeva, L.V. Nikolaev - Krasnoyarsk: Publishing House "Verso" LLC, 2007. - 173 p.

7. Pavlovsky O.M. Biological age of a person. - M., 1987. - 454 p.

8. Panasyuk T.V. Anatomical and anthropological features of infants, early and preschool children. - M., 1998. - 27 p.

9. Pende N. Insufficiency of the constitution / N. Pende. - M.: Medgiz, 1930. - 98 p.

10. Perevozchikov I.V. Determination of blood groups of the ABO system among the population of the Eurasian steppes of the 1st millennium BC. e.: abstract. dis.... cand. biol. Sci. - M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1976 - 19 p.

11. Popper K.R. Logic and the growth of scientific knowledge. Favorite works / Transl. from English - M.: Progress, 1983. - 605 p.

12. Gain M. G., Lysenkov N. K., Bushkovich V. I. Human anatomy. - M., 1985. - 672 p.

13. Roginsky Ya. Ya., Levin M. G. Anthropology: Textbook for students of the University. 3rd ed. - M., graduate School, 1978. - 528 p.

14. Rokitsky P. F. Biological statistics. - Mn., 1973. - 327 p.

15. Growth and development of children and adolescents. Results of science and technology. Ser. Anthropology. Volume. 3. - M., 1989. 200 p.

16. Rokhlin D. G. Diseases of ancient people: Bones of people from different eras - normal and pathological changes. - M.-L., 1965. - 304 p.

17. Rusalov V. M. Biological foundations of individual psychological differences. - M., 1979. - 352 p.

18. Rychkov Yu. G., Balanovskaya E. V., Nurbaev S.D., Shneider Yu.V. Historical genogeography of Eastern Europe // Eastern Slavs. Anthropology and ethnic history / Ed. T.I. Alekseeva. M., 1999. pp. 109-134.

19. Ryabinina A. Four blood groups - four lifestyles. - St. Petersburg, 2001. -157 p.

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IN In traditional (substantive) research, interpretation is considered an obligatory component of the third stage of descriptive analysis of language, because the identification of language units presupposes their assessment, which affects the analysis procedure, the choice of its units, techniques and techniques. Linguistic interpretation is recognized as the most essential, since it determines the independence of the science of language. If we proceed from this understanding of the tasks of descriptive language learning, then all the techniques and techniques of the linguistic descriptive method can be divided into two main types - techniques of external and techniques of internal interpretation.

Techniques of external interpretation.

The study of the purpose of linguistic units gives rise to methods of their functional interpretation. In relation to the structure of the linguistic units themselves, such an interpretation is external. For a long time, the main methods were considered to be external, cultural and historical interpretation.

External interpretation techniques are divided into two types:

1. Interpretation of linguistic units from the point of view of their connections with non-
linguistic phenomena; This includes sociological techniques,
logical-psychological and articulatory-acoustic;

2. Interpretation of linguistic units according to their connection with other units
prostrate tongue; V this group includes, first of all, methods of me-
level interpretation and distribution technique.

Let's consider the techniques of external interpretation.

A) Sociological techniques

These techniques are more applicable in the normative-stylistic and historical study of language, but they are also used in descriptive studies, especially when studying the vocabulary of a language.

1. Reception of "words and things" was proposed by G. Schuchardt and P. Me-
ringer. It consists in the fact that the meaning of a word is studied in close
connection with the reality that the word names and denotes. Meaning
words are revealed through a description of realities, the properties of which are about
are revealed or illustrated with examples of the use of data
no word. The main products of using this technique
dictionaries.

2. Reception of thematic groups is that based on
one subject-thematic reference is selected with
a set of words that are subject to special study.
With the help of thematic groups, primarily sub-
stative vocabulary (names of birds, plants, drinks, etc.), as well as
terminological vocabulary.

3. Reception of linguistic geography is to study the territory
torial distribution of individual words or their groups, in you
the phenomenon of dialect and language zones. These actions are carried out
are determined using a lexicographic description and compilation
tion of vocabulary maps.

4. Acceptance of normative and stylistic characteristics used
in the compilation of explanatory dictionaries and stylistic character
teristics of the vocabulary of a particular work of art or
author.

B) Logical-psychological techniques

Logical laws and rules of logical operations are an integral part of any research technique. Logical techniques of linguistic analysis, however, are not called the logical foundations of linguistic techniques, but such techniques of linguistic analysis that explore the connections between the content of linguistic units and categories with the units and categories of thinking. Among the logical techniques of linguistic analysis, invariant-metalinguistic and variant-linguistic techniques stand out; in the history of linguistics, these two types of techniques were recognized as logical and psychological techniques for analyzing language.

1. Invariant-me melting linguistic logical methods of language analysis are based on a distinctly deductive path of cognition, with 242

Before the law, specific units of language are considered as the implementation of an abstract model of language, therefore the study of a metalanguage, correlated primarily with the abstract model of language, the definition of various levels of abstraction and their structural and systemic description constitutes the main task of the logical knowledge of language. This task also determines the methodology of linguistic analysis. The subject of study is the stratification structure of language, the logical structure of a speech act and the logical-thematic structure of the context.

Invariant-logical techniques of linguistic analysis were first formulated in the Port-Royal grammar, and are now widespread in structural and logical-mathematical linguistics.

2. Variant-language methods of logical analysis are based on the recognition of the diversity of language units and languages ​​themselves, so that their general logical properties manifest themselves in a very unique and contradictory way, therefore the subject of analysis is specific language units, their functioning and connections not only with logical forms of thought, but also with other meaningful ones units and categories. In the language as a whole, variant linguistic logical techniques are used when talking about linguistic relativity, about various types linguistic meanings, their categories and connections with context. For example, when studying the content structure of a sentence, the methods of logical-morphological and actual-syntagmatic division of sentences are widely used. The logical form of thought distinguishes the subject-predicate basis of a sentence, represented by the main members of the sentence, and its logical distribution, expressed by the secondary members of the sentence.

B) Articulatory-acoustic techniques

Speech sounds can take on physical and biological characteristics; at the same time, as a product of human higher nervous activity, they are a mental phenomenon. Thus, articulation of sound is a muscular effort that involves not only the movement of the speech organs, but also control and management of articulation, the development of articulation skills, and the education of phonological hearing.

Physical and physiological properties speech sounds are studied using direct observation and various techniques of the experimental phonetic method. Articulatory-psychological and acoustic-psychological features of speech sounds are studied using the classification of techniques and component analysis of the articulation of sounds and the articulatory act. The components of articulation are described using articulation tables developed separately for vowels and consonants. The set of articulatory features varies for different languages. Thus, the articulatory characteristics of the consonant sounds of the Russian and Ukrainian languages ​​include 4 mandatory differential features indicating the articulator (active organ of speech), the place of articulation, the participation of the vocal cords and the presence of additional movement of the articulator, creating palatalization (for example, the consonant [d"] is characterized as anterior lingual , dental, voiced, soft). In Polish or French, an indication of the participation of the nasal resonator is required, and in German or Yakut - the duration of articulation of the vowel.

D) Techniques of cross-level interpretation

These techniques, which do not have a clear name, are widely used in the practice of linguistic research. Their meaning is that units of an adjacent tier or smaller units of the same tier are used as units of linguistic analysis. In cross-level analysis, the properties of the phenomenon being studied are looked at from the point of view of the adjacent tier, which reveals new features of the phenomena being studied and helps to establish cross-level connections. The most common techniques are morphological syntax and morphemic morphology.

Syntactic units usually recognize a phrase and a sentence; without losing their specificity, they include word forms and parts of speech. Reception morphological syntax is that syntactic structure studied from the point of view of its morphological expression (for example, the main member of a nominative sentence can be expressed by a noun, pronoun, numeral, substantive

shaped word, semantically and syntactically indivisible phrase).

The technique of morphemic morphology is that the morpheme is considered as the basic unit of morphology and morphological analysis. With this approach to grammatical structure the technique of morphemic articulation and morphemic structure pushes aside all other aspects of the units and categories of the morphological tier and language structure generally.

D) Distributive technique

Linguistic units in the text are adjacent, the ultimate units are connected to each other as part of more complex language units. Among the methods of studying compatibility, positional and distributional ones are distinguished.

Positional techniques are based on the recognition of the positional structure of language units (for example, according to the N-V model, many sentences are formed: The train is moving. The student is sleeping. The bird is flying, etc.); with the help of distributional techniques, they study the environment of linguistic units, their context (for example, deciphering analysis in line with descriptive linguistics).

Techniques of internal interpretation

Units of language have their own structure. Studying it involves your own, or internal, interpretation. V.I. Kodukhov names three types of internal interpretation.

1. Methods of classification and systematization aimed at you
division various groups, categories, classes of linguistic units, and
also categories characteristic of certain units of language.

2. Techniques for revealing the structure of selected units, categories and
their samples. This group includes: a) paradigmatic
emes, including oppositional and the method of semantic field;
b) syntagmatic techniques, including positional ones; c) techniques
transformations, including transformation methodology.

A) Method of classification and taxonomy

Classification as logical operation dividing the scope of the concept is that the entire set of studied techniques or phenomena is divided into separate groups, classes based on similar

or various signs. Examples of linguistic classification include the classification of words by parts of speech, simple sentences (two-part - one-part, etc.).

B) Techniques of paradigms and paradigmatic methodology

The paradigmatic technique is one of the ways to model language. A paradigm is understood as a pattern that is extracted from speech material, but not a single paradigm is fully realized in speech (see the paradigm of noun declension, verb conjugation, etc.). Understanding language as paradigmatics has led to the widespread use of paradigmatic techniques. Syntactic and lexical-semantic paradigms began to be identified, and attempts were made to identify phonological paradigms (their methodology appeared as an extrapolation of the method of receiving morphological paradigms).

B) Oppositional technique

Opposition (from Lat. Opposition - opposition, opposition) is any opposed pair of linguistic units: antonyms, vowels - consonants, perfect - imperfect form. The method of receiving oppositions was developed by representatives of the Prague linguistic school: N. S. Trubetskoy first used it in phonology, R. O. Yakobson - in the study morphological categories as oppositional semantic structures.

The technique of opposition is based on two basic principles: 1) the opposition of language (paradigm) and speech (context); 2) recognition of the inequality of members of the opposition. The categories of language are understood as general values, formed by a bunch of differential features. The latter form the phonological content of the phoneme and the grammatical content of the word form, therefore oppositional analysis is preceded by component analysis.

The first rule of the opposition analysis methodology is to establish differential features(for Russian and Ukrainian vowels - row, rise, labialization). The second rule is to determine the unevenness of opposition members. R. O. Yakobson, characterizing a marked member as A, and an unmarked one as non-A,

said a few words heifer - calf. The heifer, as a marked member of the opposition, always denotes the female, calf can mean both male and female. The lack of expression of the substantive feature of a member of the opposition (calf) makes it dependent on the context and gives rise to its particular meanings and secondary functions. For example, when using present historical imperfective verbs, you can indicate a one-time action, usually expressed perfect look: Here included student in the audience. Thus, the oppositional technique begins with a component analysis and ends with a contextual one. The rules for selecting differential features and their unequal interpretation are actually positional.

D) Techniques of the semantic field

Semantic features of linguistic units can be expressed to varying degrees and have varying degrees of proximity to each other. This technique involves building a model according to the “center - periphery” principle and recognizes the presence of gradual transitions and the continuity of the deployment of semantic features. The technique of the conceptual field (Begriffsfeld), or the field of J. Trier, is that in the center of the semantic field there is a semantic dominant, representing a set of semantic features of a given concept, generic concept or topic (subject reference). The presence of a multifamily component in the center makes it possible to deploy it in such a way that the characteristics are reduced and the analyzed unit is removed from the center. Extremely peripheral elements have to varying degrees removal from the set of signs of the semantic dominant and thereby receive their semantic certainty, which can be characterized as the degree of semantic gravity and semantic distance.

D) Reception semantic valence words(Bedeutungsfeld) V. Porziga studies the semantic compatibility of the word: given noun with all verbs or adjectives, etc.

E) Transformation techniques and transformation methodology.

Transformation techniques are based on the understanding of language as a process, as a dynamic structure, the individual units of which

The swarm are connected to each other. Transformation techniques arose, on the one hand, in comparative historical linguistics, and on the other, in logical linguistics and in the stylistic analysis of a literary text. The transformation technique was used to replace the actual phrase with a passive one, while shortening a complex sentence and expanding a simple one. Thus, F.I. Buslaev widely used the technique of abbreviations of subordinate clauses: the one who is to blame is the culprit; I’m thinking about going - I’m thinking about going, etc.

The traditional transformation methodology (transformation methodology) consists of establishing the rules of transformation, determining the direction of the transformation process and comparing the resulting transforms or intertransformable units (synonymous or derivative). The transformational methodology is based on the recognition of the interconnection and relatedness of language units. It is widely used to study syntactic features and is also used to analyze units of other layers of language. When using the traditional transformation technique, it was possible to establish any connections that provided data from the real language and its categories. The logical procedure was generally considered formal logic, and therefore remained outside the scope of linguistic analysis. On the contrary, with structural-mathematical analysis, the logical procedure of analysis becomes clearly expressed and constitutes an essential part of it.

Thus, the modern descriptive method is constantly enriched by methods and techniques of analysis developed in line with other linguistic methods.

Lecture No. 21

Comparative method

1. Comparative historical method.

2. Historical-comparative method and its techniques.

In the totality of specific methods of linguistic research, a large role is given to the technique of comparison. A linguist needs historical information in order to more clearly imagine the development of a language or a group of related languages. The comparative-historical study of languages ​​is based on the fact that the components of a language appeared at different times, which leads to the fact that in languages ​​there are simultaneously layers belonging to different chronological sections. Due to its specificity as a means of communication, language cannot change simultaneously in all its elements. Various reasons language changes also cannot act simultaneously. All this makes it possible to reconstruct, using the comparative historical method, a picture of the gradual development and change of languages ​​since the time of their separation from the proto-language of a particular language family.

The comparative historical method is based on comparing languages. Comparing the state of a language in different periods helps create a history of the language. The material for comparison is its most stable elements: in the field of morphology - word-formation and inflectional formants, in the field of vocabulary - etymologically reliable words (terms of kinship, words denoting vital important concepts and natural phenomena, numerals, pronouns and other stable lexical elements).

Comparative historical linguistics, at the origins of which are F. Bopp, A. Kh. Vostokov, I. Grimm, R. Raek, begins the analysis by borrowing typological data, outlining the circle of linguistic

languages ​​that can go back to a common source, that is, a circle of supposedly related languages. However, typological similarity does not prove the relationship of languages. For example, the Turkic and Mongolian languages ​​have noticeable typological similarities, but belong to different families.

Before the start of comparative historical research, the hypothesis about the kinship of a group of languages ​​is also supported by the presence of a certain number of words that have a similar sound and meaning. However, the similarity of vocabulary is not considered proof of the relationship of languages; it may be a consequence of cultural influence. For example, in the Japanese language, up to 70% of words are of Chinese origin, but these languages ​​are not related. However, the similarity of vocabulary is an extremely important hypothetical sign of the relationship of languages.

After a basis for comparison has been formed using the hypothesis about the relationship of languages, they move on to verifying the hypothesis, which is the essence of comparative historical research. The basis of the comparative historical method is complete induction. The conclusion is drawn from the entire set of linguistic facts. Comparison of supposedly related languages ​​begins with a comparison of vocabulary. Morphological and phonetic differences can be summarized. For this purpose, lists of related parts of words are compiled: roots and affixes. The comparison can then be carried out not by words, but by roots and affixes. Comparison of parts of words significantly expands the comparison base. There are significantly more common parts of words in related languages ​​than common words. This is one of the signs of the relationship of languages: if the number of common parts of words exceeds the number of common words, then the languages ​​are related, but if the number of common words exceeds the number common parts words, then unrelated or distantly related.

If the historical continuity of the languages ​​being compared is established, then the correspondences in the sounds of common words, roots and affixes in historically successive related languages ​​are called phonetic(or sound) laws. The phonetic law is established by comparing sounds according to their positions in words and morphemes. For example, Gothic. widuwo - n. in.-German wituwa

"widow". The natural change in the series of sounds extends not only to words with a homogeneous meaning, but also to other original words and reveals the relative independence of the evolution of speech sounds. Phonetic laws explain the historical continuity of languages. The presence of phonetic laws connecting words that are similar and dissimilar in meaning indicates the historical continuity and historical variability of speech material and is an important methodological achievement of comparative historical linguistics. The traced continuity of the evolution of languages ​​is the main proof of their relationship. All languages ​​hypothetically identified as related are recognized as related only when the continuity of the evolution of their sounds and morphemic composition to the modern state and shows the point of divergence on the line of continuity. The proof of the continuity of evolution completes the analytical procedures of the comparative-historical method.

The analysis allows us to consider the continuity of relationships between languages ​​and thereby prove the origin of all languages ​​of one family from a common base language. The task of synthesis includes the ordering of historical relations between languages, the classification of sounds within a family according to their historical relationships, and the systematization of all facts of the continuity of evolution in their relation to extraneous (relative to the continuity of evolution) influences.

The synthesis is carried out through the construction of reconstructions, classifications and derivation of etymology. These methods are interconnected; each of them and all together represent hypotheses about the historical process. These hypotheses are verified both by direct linguistic facts and indirectly by evidence from various historical sources, data from the history of material culture, evidence from documents, decipherment of written monuments.

The comparative historical method is addressed to modern languages: the more deeply into history the fate of a language is traced, the more thoroughly and widely its current state is covered. Historical interpretation of modern language (uni-

prostrate and systems) is its etymology. Etymology in the broad sense of the word is the general result of the application of the comparative historical method. It represents a historical justification for the internal form of modern language. Inner form language, i.e. specific to of this language the way to convey meaning by sounds is revealed by the comparative-historical method regarding the entire set of connections between sound and the meaning of words: the general relationships of ways of expressing lexical and grammatical meanings in a word, the history of speech sounds, the history of forms of word formation and inflection. Etymology in the broad sense of the word is used in the construction of special linguistic disciplines, such as the history of language, the history of literary language, dialectology, etc.

In modern comparative historical research, the point of view is increasingly spreading, according to which the scientific and cognitive significance of the proto-linguistic hypothesis is affirmed. The restoration of the Indo-European proto-language-base is now not ultimate goal comparative studies. The works of domestic linguists repeatedly emphasize that the reconstruction of the proto-linguistic scheme should be considered as creating a starting point in the study of the history of languages. This is the scientific and methodological significance of reconstructing the base language of any language family, since, being a starting point on a certain chronological plane, the reconstructed proto-linguistic scheme will make it possible to more clearly present the history of the development of a specific group of languages ​​or separate language.

As has been repeatedly emphasized, the comparative historical method is based on the comparison of several related languages. Historical-comparative method is a system of techniques and methods of analysis used in the study of the historical development of a particular language in order to identify its internal and external patterns.

The principle of the historical-comparative method is the establishment of historical identities and differences in the forms and sounds of a language. The most important techniques of the historical-comparative method: techniques of internal

reconstruction and chronologization, dialectography, cultural and historical interpretation, textual criticism.

1) Reception of internal reconstruction is that more
ancient form is restored by comparing its different
reflections within the same language; related facts
languages ​​are not used or are used for control. For example
measures, with word formation and inflection in the Russian language about
alternation a\im\en\in appears (remove - remove, name -
names, memory - remember, etc.). Some of these forms are borrowed
from Old Slavonic language, some are original East Slavic.
In all likelihood, more early period in East Slavic
dialects had a front nasal vowel. Sledova
Naturally, nasal vowels were characteristic not only of common Slavs
Russian, but also individual Slavic languages.

2) Method of chronologization linguistic phenomena is that
linguistic facts receive absolute and relative dating.

A) Absolute chronology is established by identifying the first recording of this fact in any source: a written monument, testimony of a contemporary, etc. Thus, from the memoirs of one old writer we learn what was said and written in 1910 flyer, flyer. pilot, although the borrowed word was more common aviator- this is how the use of words is dated aviator And pilot. If we compare these readings with the data of modern dictionaries, we can see that the word is now more commonly used pilot, which has a synonym - archaic aviator and special pilot, word flyer became colloquial and changed the meaning of the word flyer disappeared.

B) Reception of relative chronology consists in dating phenomena relative to each other. Thus, V. A. Bogoroditsky explains the absence of I labialization in the words grandfather, father and the presence of flight in its word by the fact that the transition of [e] to ["o] occurred later than the disappearance Kommersant(compare Russian grandfather and Ukrainian did) and hardening (father). Consequently, these phenomena have different chronologies relative to each other.

The technique of chronologizing linguistic phenomena, including the technique of identifying archaisms and neologisms, is of great importance

not only when using the historical-comparative method, but also when using the descriptive method, since any complete synchronic description of a language, according to the fair remark of E. Kurilovich, cannot do without the concepts of archaism and innovation.

3) Dialectographic techniques used in collecting
work and interpretation of dialect material. They cover
dialectological, linguogeographical and areal techniques
research. But if a linguogeographer uses areal (iso-
loss) techniques, then the dialectologist uses the field anke technique
testing.

4) Technique of cultural and historical interpretation founded
on the close connections of linguistic phenomena with data from ethnography and de
mography.

Ethnographic interpretation is an ethnographic grouping of languages ​​and linguistic phenomena, especially dialect vocabulary, as well as the identification and characterization of “ethnographisms.”

An example of cultural-historical interpretation is the sociological periodization of the history of the Russian literary language and the establishment of a connection between the history of the literary and written language with the history of business writing and the language of fiction. The methodology of the history of individual words is associated with cultural-historical interpretation. This technique consists in the fact that the history of the meanings of any word in a modern language is traced in connection with the history of the realities it denotes and the history of the vocabulary of the language. For example, in Old Russian red- “beautiful, joyful”, in the second half of the 17th century. the adjective "beautiful" appeared, and the word red began to denote only color, remaining as a permanent epithet; at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. under the influence of the French bourgeois revolution, this color, and with it the word, became a symbol of the revolutionary struggle.

5) Textual criticism is the sum of techniques for studying the history of technology
hundred ( literary monument or historical document), us
formation of the main text and its variants (lists, editions),
authorship and time of writing, preparation of the text in accordance
with publication type. The beginnings of textual criticism date back to Alexandrian

which era, when grammarians from Alexandria tried to restore the texts of the Odyssey and Iliad. Domestic textual criticism originates from the deciphering of the “dark places” of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” first published in 1800. Note that textual criticism is a modern term; previously philological criticism, archeography, exegesis, hermeneutics were in use (the latter is now becoming new value).

Textual research involves the use of a comparative historical method when studying copies and editions of the same text, less often - related texts ("The Tale of Igor's Host" - "Zadonshchina"). The main textual techniques are as follows: criticism (review), attribution and interpretation of texts (manuscripts, publications). Textual studies require integrated use historical, literary and linguistic knowledge. The practical result of textual research is the publication of monuments. In textual analysis linguistic features remain in the shadows, in connection with this there is a need to develop linguistic source studies.

6) The subject of linguistic source study is the identification, annotation and systematization of sources from the point of view of their linguistic content, information content and the development of principles for their reproduction.

Thus, following A. A. Reformatsky, we emphasize: “Although in the very technique of application they (comparative and comparative methods - L. I.) may coincide, the “outputs” of comparative and comparative analysis are different: the first is focused on detecting similar things, the second - to detect different things."

Lecture No. 22

Comparative method

In the comparative study of languages, the historical aspect does not play any role: both related and unrelated languages ​​can be compared. The comparative method is the study and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. It is especially effective when applied to related languages, since their contrasting features appear most clearly against the background of similar features. The idea of ​​the comparative method was theoretically substantiated by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay; elements of comparison were also found in grammars of the 18th-19th centuries, but how linguistic method with certain principles it began to take shape in the 30s and 40s of the 20th century. In our country, important contributions to the theory and practice of the comparative method were made during these years by E. D. Polivanov, L. V. Shcherba, and S. I. Bernshtein. The classic application of this method was the works of E. D. Polivanov (1933), Sh. Bally (1935). The importance of the comparative method is increasing due to increasing interest in the linguistic foundations of teaching non-native languages.

The practical goal of comparative typological research of languages, according to V. G. Gak, is:

a) identifying similarities and divergences in language use
language means in different languages. This has an important methodological
meaning, because knowledge of discrepancies allows one to overcome language
vuy interference: the influence of one (native) language with beneficial
knowledge of another language, in addition, it provides linguistic information
foundation of translation patterns;

b) studying the specific features of both languages. Compared
tion sometimes allows us to identify some features of a foreign language
and native languages, which escape during his “internal” study;

c) establishment general patterns and facts characteristic of different languages, identifying linguistic universals and the possibilities of their implementation in specific languages. This approach allows us to distinguish what is universal from what is specific in the language being studied, to better understand the structure of human language as a whole, and the patterns of human language activity, which has important philosophical and general educational significance.

Comparative and comparative study of related and unrelated languages.

Comparative typological study of languages ​​makes it possible to identify the structural features of various languages. Using the comparative method, the degree and nature of the influence of one language on another as a result of historical and territorial contacts are studied. A comparative study of individual linguistic phenomena helps to identify their essential features from the point of view of both all compared languages ​​and each language separately. The comparative method is widespread in applied linguistics - in the theory and practice of compiling bilingual dictionaries and translations, in methods of teaching a second language.

According to V.I. Kodukhov’s definition, the comparative method is a system of techniques and analysis techniques used to identify the general (universal) and the particular in the languages ​​being compared. Comparative analysis depends on what goals the researcher sets for himself, how many languages ​​he uses for comparison, and what method of description he chooses.

Comparison of facts from different languages ​​has posed the task of linguistics to establish the principles of such comparison, since the comparison can be carried out incorrectly and not give the correct result. For example, if we compare the consonance of the Russian interjection Well\ And Chinese word Well“slave,” then such a comparison is meaningless, although it may give rise to a false Russian-Chinese etymology: “a slave is one who is urged.” Thus, V.K. Trediakovsky, combining the Russian word livestock And tribal name Scots Scott claimed that the name of this people came from the word livestock"animals". Therefore, entire systems should be compared with each other, only after that

You can compare parts of systems or even individual elements, but only if it is established that the subsystem or individual elements occupy similar places in entire systems.

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