Looking at pictures of everyday life, I saw a strong contrast in life. In this post, I collected life in a village hut, empty log walls, dim light, a stove and a heavy table without a tablecloth - a picture of life in this space.

1. Felitsyn R. On the porch of the hut. 1855


Childhood is a carefree time, but looking at these girls, doubt arises. Such a concentrated face of the older one, the younger one braiding her curls, and the eyes of the second one looking into the distance...

2. Shibanov M Peasant lunch. 1774


In the dark space of the hut there is a modest dinner, and from the faces of these people one can read such different emotions! A mother nursing her child is the only one in the world. Exhale deeply and your shoulders become heavy, and you can hear your heartbeat...

3.Kulikov and Winter Evening


The time for field work has ended and in winter, in the dim light of the window and in the evening, work of a different nature, handicraft and homework, continues.

4. Maksimov In Poor Dinner. 1879


And again dark colors, low ceiling of the hut and empty walls. There aren’t even curtains in this house, everything is too heavy, tired faces, doom... And what a beautiful color the men’s shirts are.

5. _Maksimov In Grandmother's Tales. 1867


Probably one of the most interesting moments in life - grandmother's stories on a dark evening with a torch - is learning and knowledge and traditions and the wisdom of life. How cozy...

6. Maksimov V Who is there. 1879


I remember when, on a dark winter evening at my grandmother’s, with the crackling of the stove and the sounds of the wind in the wires, suddenly the crunch of snow under someone’s feet and a knock on the door... for some reason it was always a little scary, while my grandmother went out into the corridor, I waited warily and Here's someone's familiar voice and everything becomes cozy and safe again;)
The shadow on the wall reminded me of this feeling.

7. Maksimov V Sick husband. 1881


A terrible and sad scene... all we can do is pray and wait...

8. Maksimov V Outlived the old woman. 1896

I can’t find words to convey all the feelings that arise while looking at this story. Incredibly strong.

9. Maksimov In Family section. 1876


And again, low ceilings, I can only guess what is causing the division.

10. Shibanov M Celebration of the wedding contract. 1777


The treat is a loaf of bread on the table, and what elegant women! The meaning of “dowry” becomes clearer. A girl's outfit is her spiritual world. You can't buy this...

11. Trutovsky K In the hayloft. 1872


The delightful joys of life. You can't look without a smile ;)

12. Pelevin and Firstborn. 1888

No matter how harsh the world outside may be, the happiness of the arrival of a baby illuminates the heart. There is more light in the hut, and the stove is white and the dishes are shining and the touching kitten is in the cradle, every detail is filled with joy.

13. Korovin P Christening. 1896

Charity wall newspaper for schoolchildren, parents and teachers of St. Petersburg “Briefly and clearly about the most interesting things.” Issue No. 73, March 2015.

"Russian America"

(The history of the discovery and development of Alaska by Russian sailors. The indigenous population of Alaska: Aleuts, Eskimos and Indians)

Campaigns of Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov in 1741.

Russian possessions in North America in 1816.

Wall newspapers of the charitable educational project “Briefly and clearly about the most interesting things” are intended for schoolchildren, parents and teachers of St. Petersburg. They ship free to most educational institutions, as well as to a number of hospitals, orphanages and other institutions in the city. The project's publications do not contain any advertising (only founders' logos), are politically and religiously neutral, written in easy language, and well illustrated. They are intended as informational “inhibition” of students, awakening cognitive activity and the desire to read. Authors and publishers, without claiming to be academically complete in presenting the material, publish interesting facts, illustrations, interviews with famous figures of science and culture and thereby hope to increase the interest of schoolchildren in the educational process. Send feedback and suggestions to: pangea@mail.. We thank the Education Department of the Kirovsky District Administration of St. Petersburg and everyone who selflessly helps in distributing our wall newspapers. Our sincere gratitude to the authors of the material in this issue, Margarita Emelina and Mikhail Savinov, research staff of the Icebreaker Krasin Museum (branch of the Museum of the World Ocean in St. Petersburg, www.world-ocean.ru and www.krassin.ru).

Introduction

A little more than 280 years ago, the first European ship reached the shores of Alaska. It was the Russian boat "Saint Gabriel" under the command of military surveyor Mikhail Gvozdev. 220 years ago, Russian colonization of mainland Alaska began. 190 years ago (in March 1825), Russian Emperor Alexander I and “King of Great Britain” George IV signed a convention on the boundaries of “their mutual possessions on the northwestern coast of America.” And in March 1867, an agreement was signed on the sale of Alaska to the young United States of America. So what is “Russian America”, when did it become Russian, did it bring income to the imperial treasury, did Emperor Alexander II do the right thing when he decided to sell this land? We asked the researchers of the Icebreaker Krasin Museum, historians Margarita Emelina and Mikhail Savinov, to talk about this. By the way, we are pleased to congratulate all our readers (and especially history teachers) on World Day historian, which is celebrated on March 28!

Our discovery of America

The campaign of Semyon Dezhnev. Drawing from the book “Semyon Dezhnev”.

Types of Russian ships in Siberia: doshchanik, kayuk and koch (drawing from the 17th century).

Captain-Commander Vitus Bering.

In 1648, Russian sailors on kochas (double-skinned boats), under the leadership of Semyon Dezhnev and Fedot Popov, entered the strait separating Asia and America. Koch Dezhnev reached the Anadyr River, from where the sailor sent a report to Yakutsk. In it, he wrote that Chukotka could be bypassed by sea - in other words, he suggested that there was a strait between Asia and America... The report was sent to the archives, where it lay for more than 80 years, until it was accidentally noticed while analyzing documents. So in the 17th century the discovery “did not take place.”

In 1724, Peter I issued a decree to find and explore the strait between Asia and America, thereby marking the beginning of the expeditions of Vitus Bering. First Kamchatka expedition began in 1728 - the bot “St. Gabriel” left the Nizhnekamchatsky prison. The brave sailors managed to notice that the coast of the Chukotka Peninsula, along which they were sailing, was deviating more and more to the west.

At the same time, by decision of the Senate, a large military expedition under the leadership of the Cossack Afanasy Shestakov, appointed chief commander Kamchatka region. The naval detachment of Shestakov's expedition led by Mikhail Gvozdev in 1732 reached the coast of Alaska in the area of ​​​​Cape Prince of Wales (extreme mainland point northwest America). Here Gvozdev mapped about 300 km of coastline (now these lands are called the Seward Peninsula), described the shores of the strait and the nearest islands.

In 1741, Vitus Bering, who led the voyage of two packet boats "St. Peter" and "St. Paul", approached the mainland - North America was officially discovered from the outside Pacific Ocean. At the same time, the Aleutian Islands were discovered. New lands became the property of Russia. They began to regularly equip fishing expeditions.

The first Russian settlements in Alaska

“Russian merchant ships off the coast of Alaska” (artist – Vladimir Latynsky).

Fishermen returned from newly discovered lands with a rich haul of furs. In 1759, fur trader Stepan Glotov landed on the shores of Unalaska Island. So the ships of Russian fishermen began to constantly arrive here. Hunters were divided into small artels and went to different islands to harvest fur. At the same time, they began to act with local population just as in Siberia, demand payment of fur tax (yasaka). The Aleuts resisted and in 1763 destroyed all the property and almost all the vessels of the fishermen, many of whom died in this armed conflict. The following year, the conflicts continued, and this time they did not end in favor of the local population - about five thousand Aleuts died. Looking ahead a little, let's say that since 1772, the Russian settlement became permanent in the Dutch harbor on the island of Unalaska.

In St. Petersburg, they finally decided to pay closer attention to the new lands. In 1766, Catherine II ordered a new expedition to be sent to the shores of America. It was commanded by Captain Pyotr Krenitsyn, and Lieutenant Commander Mikhail Levashov became his assistant. The flagship ship crashed near the Kuril ridge, other ships only reached Alaska in 1768. Here, during the winter, many died of scurvy. On the way back, Krenitsyn himself died. But the results of the expedition were great: the discovery and description of hundreds of Aleutian islands, stretching over two thousand kilometers, was completed!

"Colombe Rossky"

Monument to Grigory Shelikhov in Rylsk.

This is what the poet and writer Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin called the merchant Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov. In his youth, Shelikhov went to Siberia in search of “happiness”, entered the service of the merchant Ivan Larionovich Golikov, and then became his companion. Possessing great energy, Shelikhov convinced Golikov to send ships “to the Alaskan land, called American... for the production of fur trade... and the establishment of voluntary bargaining with the natives.” The ship "St. Paul" was built, which in 1776 set sail for the shores of America. Four years later, Shelikhov returned to Okhotsk with a rich cargo of furs.

The second expedition of 1783–1786 was also successful and led to the emergence of the first Russian settlements in the Bay of Three Saints on Kodiak Island. And in August 1790, Shelikhov invited his new partner, Alexander Andreevich Baranov, to become the main ruler of the newly founded North-Eastern Fur Company.

The activity of fishermen led to conflicts with the local population, but subsequently neighborly relations improved. In addition, Shelikhov organized the planting of crops familiar to Russians (potatoes and turnips). This reduced the severity of the food problem, although the plants did not take root well.

Chief ruler of Russian settlements in North America

“Portrait of Alexander Andreevich Baranov” (artist – Mikhail Tikhanov).

Alexander Baranov lived in North America for 28 years. All these years - he chief ruler, both companies and Russian possessions. For his zeal “to establish, establish and expand Russian trade in America,” back in 1799, Emperor Paul I awarded Baranov a personalized medal. At the same time, on the initiative of Alexander Andreevich, the Mikhailovsky Fortress was founded (then Novoarkhangelsk and now Sitka). It was this settlement that became the capital of Russian America in 1808. Baranov sent ships to explore the territories adjacent to the Pacific coast of North-West America, established trade relations with California, the Hawaiian Islands, China, and established trade with the British and Spaniards. By his order, the Fort Ross fortress was founded in California in 1812.

Baranov sought to strengthen peaceful relations with the natives. It was under him that comfortable settlements, shipyards, workshops, schools, and hospitals were created on the territory of Russian America. Marriages between Russians and indigenous people became common. Baranov himself was married to the daughter of the leader of an Indian tribe, and they had three children. The Russian-American company tried to provide education to children from mixed marriages (Creoles). They were sent to study in Okhotsk, Yakutsk, Irkutsk, and St. Petersburg. As a rule, they all returned to their native places to serve the company.

The company's income increased from 2.5 to 7 million rubles. We can say that it was under Baranov that the Russians gained a foothold in America. Alexander Andreevich retired in 1818 and went home. But sea ​​voyage was not close. On the way, Baranov fell ill and died. The waves of the Indian Ocean became his grave.

Commander Rezanov

Monument to commander Nikolai Rezanov in Krasnoyarsk.

Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov was born in St. Petersburg into a poor noble family in 1764. In 1778 he entered military service in the artillery, and soon switched to civilian service - he became an official, an inspector. In 1794 he was sent to Irkutsk, where he met Grigory Shelikhov. Soon Rezanov married Anna Shelikhova, the eldest daughter of “Colombe Rossky,” and took up the activities of the family company. Rezanov was entrusted “within the entire scope of the power of attorney given to him and the highest privileges granted by us to intercede in the affairs of the company in everything that may relate to the benefit and preservation of general trust.”

At the beginning of the 19th century, plans for a trip around the world began to be developed at court. Rezanov pointed out the need to establish connections with America by sea. And in 1802, by the highest order, Nikolai Petrovich became a commander - he was appointed head of the first Russian round-the-world expedition on the sloops "Nadezhda" and "Neva" (1803-1806) and envoy to Japan. Establishing relations with the Land of the Rising Sun and inspecting Russian America were the main goals of the trip. Rezanov’s mission was preceded by personal grief - his wife died...

Russian-American company

The building of the Board of Directors of the Russian-American Company.

Back in the mid-1780s, G.I. Shelikhov approached the Empress with a proposal to grant his company certain privileges. Patronage of the governor-general of the Irkutsk province, permission to trade with India and the countries of the Pacific basin, sending a military team to American settlements, permission to conduct various transactions with native leaders, introducing a ban on foreigners for trade and fishing activities within the emerging Russian America - these are the components of his project . For organization similar work he asked the treasury financial assistance in the amount of 500 thousand rubles. The Commerce Collegium supported these ideas, but Catherine II rejected them, believing that the interests of the state would be infringed.

In 1795, G.I. Shelikhov died. His business was taken over by his son-in-law Nikolai Rezanov. In 1797, the creation of a single monopoly company began in the Pacific North (Kamchatka, Kuril and Aleutian Islands, Japan, Alaska). The leading role in it belonged to the heirs and companions of G.I. Shelikhov. On July 8 (19), 1799, Emperor Paul I signed a decree on the creation of the Russian-American Company (RAC).

The company's charter was copied from monopoly trade associations in other countries. The state, as it were, temporarily delegated a significant part of its powers to the RAC, since the company managed the government funds allocated to it and organized all fur fishing and trade in the region. Already been to Russia similar experience– for example, the Persian and Central Asian companies. And the most famous foreign company, of course, was the East India Company in England. Only in our country the emperor still had more control over the activities of merchants.

The company's board of directors was located in Irkutsk. And in 1801 it was transferred to St. Petersburg. Its building can be seen while walking along the embankment of the Moika River. Now it is a historical monument of federal significance.

The first Russian expedition around the world

The first Russian round-the-world expedition on the sloops “Nadezhda” and “Neva” began on July 26, 1803. “Nadezhda” was commanded by Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (he was also entrusted with general naval leadership), “Neva” - Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. The head of the expedition, as we have already said, was Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov.

One of the ships, the Neva, was equipped with funds from the Russian-American Company. He had to approach the shores of America, while Nadezhda was heading to Japan. During the preparation of the expedition, its leaders were given a lot of various assignments of an economic, political, scientific nature - including the study of the American shores. The Neva approached the islands of Kodiak and Sitka, where the necessary supplies were delivered. At the same time, crew members took part in the Battle of Sitka. Then Lisyansky sent his ship sailing along the coast of the northwestern part of America. The Neva spent almost a year and a half off the coast of America. During this time, the coastline was studied and a collection was collected household items Indians and a lot of information about their way of life. The ship was loaded with valuable furs that were to be transported to China. Not without difficulties, but the furs were still sold, and the Neva continued sailing.

Rezanov at that time was on the sloop Nadezhda off the coast of Japan. His diplomatic mission lasted six months, but was not successful. At the same time, the relationship between him and Krusenstern did not work out at all. The discord reached the point that they communicated with each other, exchanging notes! Upon returning to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Nikolai Petrovich was released from further participation in the voyage.

In August 1805, Rezanov arrived in Novoarkhangelsk on the merchant brig Maria, where he met Baranov. Here he drew attention to the food problem and tried to solve it...

Rock opera hero

Poster for the rock opera “Juno and Avos.”

In 1806, Rezanov, having equipped the ships “Juno” and “Avos”, went to California, hoping to purchase food for the colony. Soon more than 2,000 pounds of wheat were delivered to Novoarkhangelsk. In San Francisco, Nikolai Petrovich met the governor’s daughter, Conchita Arguello. They got engaged, but the count had to travel to St. Petersburg. The overland journey through Siberia turned out to be fatal for him - he caught a cold and died in Krasnoyarsk in the spring of 1807. The bride was waiting for him and did not believe the rumors about his death. Only when, 35 years later, the English traveler George Simpson told her the sad details, did she believe it. And she decided to connect her life with God - she took a vow of silence and went to a monastery, where she lived for almost 20 years...

In the twentieth century, Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov became the hero of a rock opera. The basis of the sad and poignant story, which talented performers tell from the stage in songs, was the above real events. The poet Andrei Voznesensky wrote a poem about the unhappy love of Rezanov and Conchita, and the composer Alexei Rybnikov composed music for it. Until now, the rock opera “Juno” and “Avos” is still on at the Moscow Lenkom Theater with constant sold-out houses. And in 2000, Nikolai Rezanov and Conchita Arguello seemed to have met: the sheriff of the Californian city of Benisha brought a handful of earth from Conchita’s grave to Krasnoyarsk to the white memorial cross in honor of Rezanov. On it is the inscription: “I will never forget you, I will never see you.” These words are also heard in the most famous composition of the rock opera; they are a symbol of love and fidelity.

Fort Ross

Fort Ross is a Russian fortress in California.

“Russian fortress in California? It can’t be!” you say, and you’re wrong. Such a fortress really existed. In 1812, Baranov decided to create a southern settlement to supply food to the Russian colony. He sent a small detachment led by company employee Ivan Kuskov to search for a convenient place. Kuskov needed to make several trips before he was able to come to an agreement with the Indians. In the spring of 1812, a fortress (fort) was founded in the possessions of the Kashaya-Pomo tribe, named “Ross” on September 11 of the same year. Three blankets, three pairs of pants, two axes, three hoes, and several strings of beads were needed for Kuskov to succeed in negotiations with the Indians. The Spaniards also laid claim to these lands, but fortune turned against them.

The main occupation of the population of Ross was agriculture (primarily the cultivation of wheat), but trade and cattle breeding soon became of great importance. The development of the colony proceeded under the close attention of its Spanish neighbors, and later the Mexicans (Mexico was formed in 1821). During the entire existence of the fortress, it was never threatened by enemies - neither the Spaniards nor the Indians. A protocol of the conversation that took place in 1817 was even signed with the Indian leaders. It was written that the leaders were “very pleased with the occupation of this place by the Russians.”

The first windmills, shipbuilding yards, and orchards in California appeared in Fort Ross. But, alas, the colony brought nothing but losses to the Russian-American Company. Harvests were not great, and due to the proximity of the Spaniards, the settlement could not grow. In 1839, the RAC decided to sell Fort Ross. However, the neighbors were not interested, hoping that the Russians would simply abandon the colony. Only in 1841 Ross was acquired by the Mexican John Sutter for 42,857 silver rubles. The fort went through several owners and became the property of the State of California in 1906.

Russian America, British America...

When it comes to America, we first of all imagine settlers from England and Ireland and the young state of the United States of America. How was their relationship with the Russian colonies?

American and British companies were also interested in the fur trade in Alaska and the development of trade. Therefore, a conflict of interests was inevitable, and the question of the border of possessions different countries became more and more relevant every year. Representatives of the companies tried to win over the Indians.

At the initiative of the Russian-American Company, negotiations began with the United States and Great Britain, whose possessions were called British Columbia and extended east of the Rocky Mountains, which were considered the natural border. The era still continued geographical discoveries, therefore, the boundaries were natural obstacles - rivers, mountain ranges. Now the region was better known, and its task arose economic development. At the same time, company representatives sought, first of all, to take advantage of its wealth - furs.

On September 4 (16), 1821, Emperor Alexander I issued a decree expanding Russian possessions in America to the 51st parallel and prohibiting foreign trade there. The USA and England were unhappy with this. Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Alexander I proposed holding trilateral negotiations. They began in 1823. And in 1824 the Russian-American Convention was signed, and the next year the Anglo-Russian Convention. Borders were established (up to the 54th parallel), trade relations were established.

Selling Alaska: how it happened

A check for US$7.2 million presented to pay for the purchase of Alaska. Today its amount corresponds to 119 million US dollars.

Russian America was very far from the capital St. Petersburg and the central part of the Russian Empire, sea ​​route was very difficult and is still dangerous and full of hardships. Despite the fact that all affairs were in charge of the Russian-American Company, the state did not receive income from this territory. On the contrary, it suffered losses.

In the middle of the 19th century, Russia took part in the Crimean War, which ended unsuccessfully for our country. There was an acute shortage of funds in the treasury, and expenses for a distant colony became burdensome. And in 1857, Finance Minister Reitern expressed the idea of ​​selling Russian America. Was it necessary to do this? The question still haunts our minds. But let's not forget - the people who made this difficult decision acted in the circumstances of their time, sometimes very difficult. Can you blame them for this?

The matter was finally resolved in December 1866, when preliminary negotiations were held with the United States government. Then a secret “special meeting” was held, which was attended by Emperor Alexander II and Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, Foreign Minister Alexei Mikhailovich Gorchakov, Finance Minister Reutern, Vice Admiral Nikolai Karlovich Krabbe, as well as the American envoy Steckl. It was these people who decided the fate of Russian America. All of them unanimously supported its sale to the United States.

Russian colonies in America were sold for 7.2 million dollars in gold. On October 6, 1867, the RAC tricolor was ceremonially lowered over the New Arkhangelsk Fortress in Sitka and the Stars and Stripes flag of the United States was raised. The era of Russian America is over.

Most of the Russian settlers left Alaska. But, of course, Russian rule did not pass without a trace for this region - Orthodox churches continued to operate, many Russian words settled forever in the languages ​​of the peoples of Alaska and in the names of local villages...

Alaska Gold

The gold rush - the thirst for gold - has happened at all times and on all continents. Some of its victims sought to escape poverty, others were driven by greed. When gold was discovered in Alaska at the end of the 19th century, thousands of miners flocked there. America was no longer Russian, but this is also a page in its history, so we will briefly talk about it.

In 1896, gold placers were discovered on the Klondike River. The Indian George Carmack was lucky. News of his discovery spread like lightning, and a real fever began. There was unemployment in America, and a few years before the opening, a financial crisis began...

The path of prospectors began in villages located along the banks of rivers and lakes. In mountainous areas the road became more difficult, weather conditions more severe. Finally, they reached the shores of the Yukon and Klondike, where they could occupy an area and conduct searches on it, washing the sand. At the same time, everyone dreamed of immediately finding a big nugget, because the work - washing - turned out to be hard and exhausting, and cold and hunger were eternal companions. The way back - for food or with washed-up gold sand, with nuggets found - was also difficult and dangerous. Few are lucky. The word “Klondike” has become a common noun to designate some valuable find. And we know about searches in Alaska from numerous documentary evidence - after all, most American newspapers sent their correspondents there, who wrote detailed reports and were not averse to finding some gold themselves. The author of the most famous stories about the gold rush in Alaska was Jack London, since he himself came here in search of gold in 1897.

Why did Jack London write about Alaska?

Jack London. Photographic portrait of the late 19th – early 20th centuries.

In 1897, young Jack was 21 years old. He worked from the age of ten and after the death of his stepfather supported his mother and two sisters. But working in San Francisco in a jute mill, as a newspaper salesman, or as a loader did not bring in more than a dollar a day. And Jack also loved to read, learn new things and travel. That's why he decided to leave everything and take a risk by going to Alaska in search of gold. His sister's husband kept him company, but at the very first mountain pass he realized that his health would not allow him to continue his journey...

Jack lived all winter in a forest hut in the upper reaches of the Yukon River. The prospectors' camp was small - a little more than 50 people lived in it. Everyone was visible - courageous or weak, noble or mean in relation to their comrades. And it was not easy to live here - you had to endure the cold, hunger, find your place among the same desperate adventurers and, finally, work - look for gold. Miners loved to come to Jack. His guests argued, made plans, told stories. Jack wrote them down - this is how the future heroes of his stories were born on the pages of notebooks - Kish, Smoke Belew, Baby, the dog White Fang...

Immediately after returning from the North, Jack London began to write, stories were born one after another. Publishers were in no hurry to publish them, but Jack was confident in his abilities - a year in Alaska had strengthened him and made him more persistent. Finally, the first story - “For those on the road” - was published in the magazine. Its author had to borrow 10 cents to buy this magazine! Thus a writer was born. He may not have found gold in Alaska, but he found himself and eventually became one of the most famous American writers.
Read his stories and stories about Alaska. His characters are as if they were alive. And Alaska is also the heroine of his stories - cold, frosty, silent, testing...

Crow and Wolf People

Coloshi. Drawing from the atlas of Gustav-Theodor Pauli “Ethnographic Description of the Peoples of the Russian Empire”, 1862.

Alaska Native peoples belonged to several different language families(scientists combine languages ​​related to each other into such families), their culture and economy also differed - depending on living conditions. Eskimos and Aleuts settled on the coast and islands, living by hunting sea animals. In the interior of the continent lived caribou deer hunters - the Athapaskan Indians. The Athapaskan tribe known best to the Russian settlers was the Tanaina (the Russians called them “Kenaits”). Finally, on the southeastern coast of Alaska lived the most numerous and warlike people of this region - the Tlingit Indians, whom the Russians called “Koloshi”.

The Tlingit lifestyle was very different from the life of forest hunters. Like all Indians of the northwestern coast of North America, the Tlingits lived not so much by hunting as by fishing - the numerous rivers that flowed into the Pacific Ocean were rich in fish, which went up there in countless schools to spawn.

All Alaskan Indians revered the spirits of nature and believed in their origins from animals, in the hierarchy of which the raven occupied the first place. According to Tlingit beliefs, Elk the raven was the progenitor of all people. He could take on any form, usually helped people, but he could also get angry about something - then natural disasters occurred.

The intermediaries between the world of spirits and the world of people in Indian society were shamans, who in the eyes of their fellow tribesmen supernatural powers. By entering into a trance during the ritual, shamans could not only talk with spirits, but also control them - for example, expel the spirit of illness from the body of an ill person. In shamanic rituals, special musical instruments were used - tambourines and rattles, the sounds of which helped the shaman enter a state of trance.

The entire Tlingit tribe was divided into two large associations - phratries, whose patrons were considered the raven and the wolf. Marriages could only be concluded between representatives of different phratries: for example, a man from the Raven phratry could choose a wife only from the Wolf phratry. The phratries, in turn, were divided into many clans, each of which revered its own totem: deer, bear, killer whale, frog, salmon, etc.

Don't keep wealth for yourself!

Modern Tlingit Indian.

The tribes of the Northwestern coast, without engaging in either cattle breeding or agriculture, came quite close to the emergence of a state. In the society of these Indians there were noble leaders who boasted of their origin and treasures to each other, rich and poor relatives, and powerless slaves, who did all the menial work in the household.

The Coast tribes—Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Nootka, Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, and Coast Salish—waged continuous wars to capture slaves. But more often it was not tribes who fought, but individual clans within them. In addition to slaves, chilkat blankets and metal weapons were valued, and the Indian leaders considered large copper plates, which the inhabitants of the Coast exchanged with forest tribes, to be a real treasure. These plates had no practical meaning.

The Indian attitude towards material wealth was important feature– the leaders did not accumulate treasures for themselves! As a reaction to property inequality, the institution of potlatch arose in the society of the Tlingit and other coastal tribes. Potlatch is a big holiday that rich relatives organized for their fellow tribesmen. On it, the organizer expressed contempt for the accumulated values ​​- he gave them away or demonstratively destroyed them (for example, he threw copper plates into the sea or killed slaves). Keeping wealth for oneself was considered indecent among the Indians. However, having given away the treasures, the organizer of the potlatch did not remain at a loss - the invitees felt obliged to the host, and he could subsequently count on reciprocal gifts and help from the guests in various matters. The reason for the potlatch could be any important event- birth of a child, housewarming, successful military campaign, wedding or funeral.

Chilkat, canoe and totem pole

Festive Tlingit headdress decorated with mother-of-pearl and sea lion whiskers.

How do we imagine North American Indians? Half-naked warriors in war paint with tomahawk axes in their hands are Indians of the forest northeast. The horsemen, wearing lush feather headdresses and beaded buffalo skin clothing, are Great Plains Indians. The people of the Northwest Coast were very different from both.

The Tlingit and Athapaskans of the interior of Alaska did not grow fiber plants and made their clothing from leather (more precisely, suede) and fur. Flexible pine roots were used from plant materials. From such roots the Indians wove wide-brimmed conical hats, which they then painted with mineral paints. In general, in the Indian culture of the Coast there are many bright colors, and the main element of the ornament is masks of animals, real or fantastic. Such masks were used to decorate everything - clothes, homes, boats, weapons...

However, the coastal tribes knew spinning and weaving. From the wool of snow goats that lived in the Rocky Mountains, Tlingit women made ceremonial chilkat capes, striking in their meticulous execution. Chilkats throughout the area were decorated with masks of spirits and sacred animals, and the edges of the capes were embroidered with long fringes. Festive shirts were made in the same manner.
Like all Indian tribes, the Tlingit costume gave a complete picture of its owner. For example, the rank of a leader could be determined by his headdress. In the center of his hat were wooden rings fixed one above the other. The more noble and rich the Indian was, the higher the column of such rings was.

The Coast Indians achieved remarkable skill in woodworking. From cedar trunks they hollowed out large seaworthy canoes that could accommodate dozens of warriors. Indian villages were decorated with many totem poles, each of which represented a kind of family chronicle. At the very bottom of the pillar was carved the mythical ancestor of a clan or a specific family - for example, a raven. Then, from bottom to top, followed the images of subsequent generations of the ancestors of the living Indians of this clan. The height of such a chronicle pillar could exceed ten meters!

Invulnerable Warriors

Tlingit warrior wearing a wooden helmet, battle shirt and armor made of wood and sinew.

Alaskans managed to create a distinctive military culture. Not knowing metal, they made very durable defensive weapons from scrap materials. The Eskimos made shells from bone and leather plates. The Tlingit Indians made their armor from wood and sinew. In preparation for battle, the Tlingit warrior put on a shirt made of thick and durable elk skin under such armor, and on his head - a heavy wooden helmet with a terrifying mask. According to Russian colonists, even a rifle bullet often could not take such protection!

The weapons of the Indians were spears, bows and arrows, and over time they were supplemented by guns, which were considered valuable. In addition, each warrior had a large double-edged dagger. The sharpened oars of war canoes could also be used as weapons.

The Indians usually attacked at night, trying to take the enemy by surprise. In the pre-dawn darkness the terrifying effect of their equipment was especially great. “And in the dark they truly seemed worse than the most hellish devils to us...” wrote the ruler of Russian America, Alexander Baranov, about the first clash between Russian industrialists and the Tlingits in 1792. But the Indians could not withstand a long battle - all their tactics were focused on sudden raids. Having received a decisive rebuff, they, as a rule, retreated from the battlefield.

Kotlean vs Baranov

The Indians capture the Mikhailovsky Fortress.

“Kotlean and his family” (artist Mikhail Tikhanov, participant in Vasily Golovnin’s round-the-world expedition, 1817–1819).

The biggest uprising of Indians against Russian colonists occurred in 1802. The leader of the Sitka Tlingit, Skautlelt, and his nephew Kotlean organized a campaign against the Novo-Arkhangelsk fortress. It involved not only the Tlingits, but also the Tsimshians and Haidas who lived to the south. The Russian fortification was plundered and burned, and all its defenders and inhabitants were killed or taken into slavery. Both sides subsequently explained the reasons for the attack as the machinations of the enemy. The Russians accused the Tlingits of bloodthirstiness, and the Indians, in turn, were dissatisfied with the actions of Russian industrialists in their territorial waters. Perhaps it could not have happened without the instigation of the American sailors who were nearby at that time.

Alexander Baranov actively took up the restoration of Russian power in southeast Alaska, but was able to organize a full-fledged expedition only in 1804. A large canoe flotilla set out for Sitka. The sailors of the sloop Neva, one of the two ships of the first Russian round-the-world expedition, joined the operation. When Baranov’s squadron appeared, the Tlingits abandoned their main village on the shore and built a powerful wooden fortification nearby. The attempt to storm the Indian fortress failed - at the most important moment, the Kodiaks and part of the Russian industrialists could not withstand the fire of the Tlingits and fled. Kotlean immediately launched a counterattack, and the besiegers retreated under the cover of the Neva's guns. In this battle, three sailors from the sloop's crew were killed, and Baranov himself was wounded in the arm.

In the end, the Indians themselves left the fortress and went to the opposite side of the island. On next year peace was made. And Kotlean turned out to be one of the first Indians of the Coast, captured by European draftsmen - a portrait has been preserved in which he is depicted with his family.

How to talk to the leader?

Tlingit wearing a Chilkat and a carved ritual mask.

An Eskimo hunter took aim with a bow at a reindeer. The Aleut in Kamleika raised a deadly harpoon to throw. A shaman shakes a magic rattle over a sick Indian, driving away the evil spirit of illness. A Tlingit warrior in wooden armor flashes his eyes menacingly from under the visor of a carved helmet - now he will rush into battle...

In order to see all this with your own eyes, it is absolutely not necessary to go to America. In our city, the exhibitions of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (MAE) will fascinatingly tell about the life of the Eximos, Aleuts, Tlingits and Forest Athapascans.

MAE is the oldest museum in our country; its history begins with Peter’s Kunstkamera. The American collection of the museum was formed from collections of objects brought from Russian America by military sailors - Yu.F. Lisyansky, V.M. Golovnin. And materials on the ethnography of Indians in other areas of North America were obtained through exchange programs with museums in the United States.

In the museum exhibition you can see Aleut and Eskimo clothing, fishing tools, Aleut headdresses in the form of pointed wooden visors, Tlingit ritual masks, chilkat capes and a full Sitka warrior costume - with a combat shirt and a heavy wooden helmet! And also - made from deer antlers Athapaskan-Athena tomahawks and many other amazing things created by the peoples of Russian America.

Collections of Russian military sailors are stored not only in the MAE, but also in another oldest museum Petersburg - Central Naval. In the windows of the new exhibition of this museum you can see models of Aleutian kayaks with miniature figures of oarsmen.

Hunters in kayaks

Models of Aleutian kayaks.

On the coast of Alaska and nearby islands lived peoples whose lives were closely connected with the sea - the Eskimos and Aleuts. During the times of Russian America, they were the main producers of expensive furs - the basis of the prosperity of the Russian-American company.

Eskimos (Inuit) settled very widely - from Chukotka to Greenland, throughout the North American Arctic. The Aleuts lived on the Alaska Peninsula and on the Aleutian Islands, which border the Bering Sea to the south. After the sale of American possessions, a number of Aleuts remained within our country at the fishing posts of the Commander Islands.

Sea hunting was the main occupation of coastal residents. They caught walruses, seals, sea otters and even huge whales - gray and bowhead. The beast gave the Eskimos and Aleuts everything - food, clothing, light for their homes, and even furniture - seats were made from whale vertebrae. By the way, it was difficult with the rest of the furniture in the Eskimos' yarangas due to the lack of wood.

The most striking element of the hunting culture of the Eskimos and Aleuts were their boats made of animal skins - kayaks and canoes. The Aleutian kayak (from which modern sports kayaks and kayaks originate) had a wooden frame covered with skins and was completely sewn up on top, leaving only one or two round hatches for the rowers. Having settled down in such a hatch, the hunter, dressed in a waterproof hoodie made of seal intestines, pulled a leather apron around himself. Now even capsizing the boat was not dangerous for him. The short oars used in kayaks had blades at both ends.

The Eskimos hunted somewhat differently. In addition to kayaks, they used large paddle boats (not to be confused with kayaks!). The canoes were also made from skins, but were completely open at the top and could accommodate up to ten people. Such a boat could even have a small sail. The weapons of Eskimo and Aleut hunters were harpoons with detachable bone tips.

Sea prey was the basis of the diet of coastal peoples, and most often meat and fat were eaten raw or slightly decomposed. For long-term storage, meat and fish were dried in the wind. In the harsh conditions of the Arctic, a monotonous diet easily led to severe vitamin deficiency - scurvy; berries, algae and a number of tundra plants were salvation.

Native Americans and Orthodox missionaries

“Saint Tikhon and the Aleuts” (artist Philip Moskvitin).

The first Orthodox spiritual mission was sent to the American possessions of the Russian Empire in 1794 - to Kodiak Island. After 22 years, a church was established in Sitka, and by the middle of the 19th century there were nine churches and more than 12 thousand Christians in Russian America. “Have so many Russians really come here?” – you ask. No, Indians and Aleuts converted to Orthodoxy under the influence of Russian spiritual mentors and missionaries.

Let's talk about one such ascetic of faith. In 1823, a young priest from Irkutsk, Ioann Evseevich Popov-Veniaminov, arrived in Russian America. Initially, he served on Unalaska, thoroughly studied the Aleut language and translated a number of church books for them. Later, Father John lived in Sitka, where he studied the morals and customs of the Tlingit Indians (“Koloshi”), believing that such a study must necessarily precede any attempt to convert a warlike and wayward people.

The easiest people to convert to Orthodoxy were the Aleuts, who by the middle of the 19th century were almost completely baptized. The missionaries had the most difficulty working with the Tlingit people, although the Gospel was translated into their language. The Indians were reluctant to listen to sermons, and when converted new faith demanded gifts and treats. Among the property of noble Tlingit people, who loved all kinds of regalia, there were sometimes items of church use...

Russian missionaries not only preached among the indigenous people, but, if necessary, even treated them! In 1862, when there was a threat of a smallpox epidemic, clergy personally vaccinated smallpox in the villages of the Tlingit and Tanaina Indians.

It should be noted that it was the missionaries who worked with the indigenous people of Alaska who collected a lot of valuable information about the life and beliefs of the Eskimos, Aleuts and Indians. For example, ethnographers learned a lot from the book of Archimandrite Anatoly (Kamensky) “In the Land of Shamans,” written based on the author’s observations made in American Alaska.

"Alaska is bigger than you think"

A shaman treats a sick Indian. Despite the activities of missionaries, shamans firmly retained their authority in Tlingit society.

IN Soviet era several tens of kilometers of the Bering Strait separated two completely different political systems. The post-war world was divided. The times have come " cold war", military rivalry between the USSR and the USA. It was in the area of ​​Alaska and Chukotka that the two superpowers came into direct contact with each other. On both sides of the strait there is the same nature, peoples close in way of life, who have similar problems. How they live nearest neighbors? Are they different from us? Is it possible to communicate with them in a friendly way? – these questions worried concerned people on both sides of the border. At the same time, precisely because of their close proximity, the Soviet Far East and Alaska with their military bases were the most closed territories to foreigners.

By the end of the 1980s, the international situation had softened. The authorities of the USSR and the USA even arranged a meeting of Soviet and American Eskimos. And a little later, an employee of the Komsomolskaya Pravda newspaper, famous traveler Vasily Mikhailovich Peskov organized a trip for the Americans to Kamchatka, and he himself went to visit Alaska.

The result of Peskov’s trip was the book “Alaska is More Than You Think” - a real encyclopedia of life in this region. Vasily Mikhailovich visited the Yukon and Sitka, in cities and Indian villages, talked with hunters, fishermen, pilots and even state governors! And in his book you will find detailed historical excursions - about Russian America, the sale of Alaska, the “gold rush” and another, more modern “rush” - the oil rush. The book also mentions emergency situations in which Soviet sailors came to the aid of the inhabitants of Alaska (for example, an oil spill after the accident of an American tanker in 1989) - no borders can interfere with the cause of help and rescue!

Peskov’s book is not at all outdated these days, because the main thing in it is the captured images of Alaskans with their stories, thoughts, joys and sorrows.

"North to the Future"

Alaska flag. It was invented by 13-year-old Benny Benson, whose mother was half Russian, half Aleut.

In 1959, Alaska became the 49th US state. The state motto is “North to the Future.” the Future"). And the future is promising: new mineral deposits, growth in polar shipping. It is Alaska that makes the United States an Arctic state and provides the opportunity to conduct a wide variety of activities in the Arctic - industrial, scientific and military.
Deposits are explored and developed here, and powerful military bases operate here. At the same time, Alaska is the most sparsely populated state with a population density of one person per 2.5 square kilometer. Its largest city is Anchorage, where about 300 thousand people live.

Alaska has the largest percentage of indigenous people in the United States. Eskimos, Aleuts and Indians make up 14.8% of the inhabitants here. And this is where the largest plots in the United States are located. wildlife– Arctic National Nature Reserve and the territory of the National Petroleum Reserve, where oil fields have been identified but not yet developed.

The most convenient and popular transport in Alaska is a small plane. But, although modern technology has firmly entered the life of Native Americans; Indians even today celebrate potlatches and firmly believe in the ancestor Raven. Even the radio station in Sitka is called Raven Radio!

Residents of Alaska also maintain connections with the descendants of Russian settlers who once left America. In 2004, descendants of A.A. visited Sitka. Baranova. A solemn ceremony was held to make peace with the leaders of the Tlingit clan Kiksadi, whose military leader was once Baranov’s opponent Kotlean...

The entire era of Russian America and the subsequent history of Alaska are not even three hundred years old. So Alaska, by historical standards, is very young.

We usually imagine Indians without beards and mustaches. Indeed, among most Indian tribes, men plucked their facial hair, and the inhabitants of the Northwest Coast also did this. But here this custom was not strict - the Tlingits, Haidas and other Indians of this region often wore mustaches and small beards.

The Tlingit family was counted through the female line. For example, the primary heirs of the leader were not the sons, but the children of his sisters, and they were supposed to avenge him if the leader was killed by enemies. Women managed the household and enjoyed significant rights, including the initiative for divorce.

Noble Indians considered only feasts and war suitable activities for themselves. When traveling, some leaders even used porters to move their person in a palanquin (or simply on their shoulders) from the home to the boat.

By the end of the 19th century, bloody inter-clan wars among Indians were a thing of the past. Conflicts between individual clans had not gone away, but now the parties appealed to the justice of the colonial administration and hired lawyers for good money.

At this time, visiting tourists became the main consumers of Tlingit handicrafts. The Indians themselves wore traditional Chilkat hats only for festive dances, and increasingly wore European clothing, such as suits with vests and bowler hats.

Thank you, friends, for being with us!

March 30, 1867 Russian Empire sold its remaining North American territories to the United States. Exactly 150 years ago, the Russians decided to leave American soil, and the history of Russian America ended. And although the “Alaska Purchase” caused a lot of controversy on both sides back in the 19th century, during the Cold War this event was forgotten about, and it comes up only occasionally, usually in very interesting circumstances.

The history of Russia's conquest of America

Russian colonization to the east dates back to the mid-17th century, when Ivan the Terrible gave the Stroganov merchants permission to conquer the Khanate of Kazan, one of the many fragments of the Golden Horde. Conquests continued throughout the century, and by 1647 the Russians reached the western borders of the Pacific Ocean - the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. This achievement laid the foundation for the first expeditions across the ocean. Some took place during the 18th century. The most famous of them were commanded Danish navigator Vitus Bering, whose achievements were given great importance, because it was he who proved the inconsistency of the idea of ​​​​the existence of connecting Asia and America land routes. Despite the scale of the missions, however, no permanent settlements were created on American soil at that time.

And only at the end of the century - namely in 1784 - the adventurer, merchant and navigator Grigory Shelikhov reached the islands of the Kodyakov archipelago and founded an outpost there, which later became the starting point for further colonization of new lands. Shelikhov is sometimes called the “Russian Columbus”. After establishing Russian rule in the new land, he established the Russian-American Company (hereinafter RAC), which played a decisive role in further relations between the empire and its colony. The headquarters of the RAC was located in Shelikhov’s hometown - Irkutsk.

The fact that Siberia became the birthplace of this influential organization is not accidental. Considering that serfdom is the curse of the European part of the empire, Far East and the north did not actually function, it encouraged many savvy settlers to move to east direction to create new cities. By doing this, they created classes of merchants, sailors and townspeople. And although the headquarters was soon moved to St. Petersburg, the role of Siberian cities and their citizens in Russian economy and trade remained very significant.

Russian America

The capital of Russian America (as the colony was officially called) was Novoarkhangelsk (now Sitka), also known as the “Paris of the Pacific”. Among the citizens were Russians and the indigenous inhabitants of these lands - the Aleut and Tlingit tribes. Although relations between the two groups were largely peaceful, conflicts did occur. Several Tlingit warriors did not accept Russian rules and in 1802 they captured Novoarkhangelsk. They slaughtered the population and seized control of the city's infrastructure. Russia managed to return it only two years later with the help of the Aleuts. The events of 1804 are known as the “Battle of Sitka” and became the largest military conflict between Russians and Alaska Natives in the history of Russian America.

Russian settlements in North America grew over time, reaching areas beyond Alaska. They covered the lands of the modern states of Washington, Oregon and California. The Russians could have reached Hawaii. They traded with local rulers starting in the late 18th century, and after the founding of the Kingdom of Hawaii, they began supporting various parties on the island. As a result, they were able to build three forts in the area. In 1815, Supreme Chief Kaumualii approached Tsar Alexander I with a request for Russia to establish a protectorate over the Hawaiian Islands and support in the fight against the rightful king Kamehameha I. Alexander I rejected the offer, and Hawaii remained independent.

In 1812, the Russians founded their southernmost settlement, Fort Ross, in close proximity to the Spanish colonies. This caused great concern to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which decided to create several new settlements in the north. The history of Russian-Spanish relations at that time became known to the general public thanks to the rock opera “Juno and Avos,” which gained popularity in the USSR in the 1980s. She was promoted abroad as “Russian Pocahontas.” The opera tells the story of Concepcion Arguello, the 15-year-old daughter of the colonial governor of Alta California, José Dario Arguello, and Nikolai Rezanov, a Russian nobleman, ambassador to Japan and one of the owners of the RAC. They fell in love near the Russian-Spanish border in California. To marry a Catholic, Rezanov needed permission from the tsar. He decided to go home through Alaska, but fell ill on the road and died in Krasnoyarsk in 1807, never reaching the capital of the empire. Concepcion, having learned about this, took a vow of silence and went to a monastery, where she later died. Although the story is based on historical events, the direction the opera took was predictably more melodramatic.

Big deal

Fort Ross was eventually sold to the United States in 1841 as the colony became increasingly difficult to maintain. The costs of transferring goods and people to and from the heart of the empire—European Russia—were higher than the income from the sale of colonial goods, the most valuable of which was fur. Obviously, no one then expected that huge reserves of gold and oil would someday be discovered in Alaska. The entire remainder of the colony was thus sold to the Americans in 1867 for $7.2 million.

Context

Was the Russian Tsar stupid by selling Alaska to the Americans?

Russians regret selling Alaska

Meanwhile, the US House of Representatives voted against the purchase, causing a delay in payment. Some members were angry at President Andrew Johnson's decision to buy the territory. $7.2 million (about $123 million today) seemed like a lot of money spent on a useless, empty space—a “polar bear garden,” as it was then called. But there were also many who praised the deal as another step toward American development.

Development of Alaska

The story could have ended there if not for good old irredentism on the part of the Russian conspirators. There is an interesting theory in Russian political discourse that has a surprisingly large following among “true Russian patriots.” According to them, Alaska was not sold, but leased for 90 years. Consequently, it should have been returned to Russia in 1957.

Russian patriotic discourse views colonization as a peaceful process with the good purpose of development and enlightenment. In contrast, of course, to the imperialism of others European empires, where colonization was associated with cruelty, greed and lack of respect for the natives. This fits into the concept that the unique Russian civilization is morally superior to the rotten Western one. One of the most popular works expressing this opinion was published in 2005 by Sergei Kremlev under the title: “Russian America: discover and sell!”

Question about Russian domination periodically emerges over Alaska for various reasons. For example, in 2005, American journalist Stephen Pearlstein published an article entitled: “Alaska would like it better in Russia.” He joked that the "corporate culture" of nepotism and economic problems Alaska would fit into Russian realities much better than American ones. And some took this joke seriously. Alexander Dugin, one of the founding fathers of the Doctrine of Eurasian Civilization, stated the need to review the deal.

The most ardent supporters of Russia's return of its territories began to raise the issue of Alaska after the annexation of Crimea in 2014. There were plenty of jokes and memes on this topic on the Internet. As well as articles and posts regarding the petition for the separation of Alaska from the United States and return to the Russian Federation. The petition was created on the White House website allegedly by citizens largest city Alaska, Anchorage. The online media coverage that followed was mostly sensational, with headlines filled with phrases like: “America is in a panic! Alaska wants to follow Crimea's example and join Russia." And despite serious mobilization and more than 42,000 signatures collected, the petition was removed from the site because it did not receive the stated 100,000 votes in time. The “panic” is over, but whether it’s finally over is unknown.

"Island of Tomorrow"

Today the Russian-American border passes through the Diomede Islands. Big Diomede belongs to Russia, and Little Diomede belongs to the USA. The distance between them is 3.8 km. In addition to the territorial border, the International Date Line also runs here. It is located exactly between these two islands and, therefore, the difference between them is 21 hours. For this reason, Big Diomede is sometimes called the "Island of Tomorrow" and Little Diomede the "Island of Yesterday." And since border crossing no, there were cases of violation of border crossing rules. Recognized Russian writer Viktor Erofeev once arrived on an American island by plane, and before Russian side decided to get there by boat. He was arrested for trespassing and sent back to the United States. Along the way, he noted that the natives living on the Russian island were dressed in traditional Russian winter clothes, and the residents of the American side - in the American summer, although they lived in the same climatic zone. Therefore, it seemed that the authorities of each island needed to decide what season they had, Erofeev concluded. This is all that remains of Russian America.

Kacper Dziekan is a specialist in European projects at the European Solidarity Center and a PhD student in the Department of History at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.

InoSMI materials contain assessments exclusively from foreign media and do not reflect the position of the InoSMI editorial staff.

On October 18, 1867, in the capital of Russian America, in common parlance - Alaska, the city of Novoarkhangelsk, an official ceremony was held to transfer Russian possessions on the American continent to the ownership of the United States of America. Thus ended the history of Russian discoveries and economic development of the northwestern part of America.

Since then, Alaska has been a US state. True, Russian America was geographically somewhat more territory modern state, since it excluded some territories of California, Hawaii, the Canadian provinces of Yukon and British Columbia. . However, the state of Alaska is already huge - 1,518 thousand km2 (17% of the US territory).

Alaska includes the Aleutian Islands, the Alexander Archipelago, St. Lawrence Island, the Pribilof Islands, Kodiak Island, and a huge continental portion. Alaska is washed by the Arctic and Pacific oceans. The Alaskan islands extend for almost 1,740 kilometers. The Aleutian Islands stretch from the southern tip of the peninsula to the west. The islands are home to many volcanoes, both dormant and extinct, and active.

The continental part of Alaska is a peninsula of the same name, approximately 700 km long, which later gave its name to the entire country. The Alaska Peninsula has more volcanoes than any other US state. In general, Alaska is a mountainous country. The highest peak in North America - Mount McKinley (6,193 m in height) is also located in Alaska.

The world's largest tide also occurs in Alaska. Tsunamis periodically hit the Alaskan coast.

Another feature of Alaska is the huge number of lakes (their number exceeds 3 million!). Swamps and permafrost covers approximately 487,747 square kilometers (more than Sweden). Glaciers cover about 41,440 square kilometers (which corresponds to the territory of the whole of Holland!). Particularly notable is the Bering Glacier, which covers 5,827 square kilometers. The tidal zone is occupied - 3,110 km2.

The name of the country is translated from Aleutian “a-la-as-ka” meaning “Big Land”.

Alaska in the USA is considered an icy desert, a country of “white silence” and an incredibly harsh climate. Indeed, in most areas of Alaska the climate is arctic and subarctic continental, with harsh winters, with frosts down to minus 50 degrees. But in this world everything is relative, and in general the climate of Alaska, especially the island part and the Pacific coast, is incomparably better than, for example, in Chukotka. On the Pacific coast of Alaska, the climate is maritime, relatively mild and humid. The warm stream of the Alaska Current turns here from the south and washes Alaska from the south. The mountains block northern cold winds. As a result, winters in coastal and island Alaska are quite mild. Sub-zero temperatures in winter are very rare. The sea in southern Alaska does not freeze in winter

This is precisely why Russian industrialists sought to move to Alaska with its favorable natural conditions and richer fauna than in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. Alaska was rich in fish: salmon, flounder, cod, herring, edible species of shellfish and marine mammals were found in abundance in coastal waters. On the fertile soil of these lands, thousands of species of plants suitable for food grew, and in the forests there were many animals, especially fur-bearing animals.

Alaska was inhabited during the Ice Age. Scientists have found objects from human everyday life that were used in his household 12 thousand years ago. It was through Alaska, passing along the isthmus that connected Eurasia with America and subsequently sank to the bottom, which now became the Bering Strait. By the 18th century, when the Russians penetrated into Alaska, it was inhabited by various ethnic groups belonging to a variety of linguistic families and at the tribal stage of development. To simplify somewhat, the native inhabitants of Alaska at the time of the arrival of the Russians were divided into Aleuts, related Eskimos and Indians belonging to the Athabascan group.

Russian explorers, having reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean in 1648, under the leadership of Semyon Dezhnev, rounded the strait separating Asia and America. At the same time, some of the ships were carried to the American coast. It is quite possible that individual Russian industrialists penetrated into Alaska as early as the 17th century. Considering the poor preservation of archival information (even “skasks,” that is, Dezhnev’s own reports were miraculously preserved), the names of these pioneers are unlikely to become known to science. However, the fact that the Jesuit Philippe Avril in 1686, with reference to the Siberian governor Musin-Pushkin, reported that opposite the mouth of the Kolyma there is a certain Big Land, where the natives hunt... hippopotamuses (that is, walruses or sea cows), testifies that the Russians already had some knowledge economic importance future Russian America.

In 1697, the conqueror of Kamchatka Vladimir Atlasov reported to Moscow that opposite the “Necessary Nose” there was a large island in the sea, from where in winter “foreigners come across the ice, speak their own language and bring sables...”. The experienced industrialist Atlasov immediately determined that these sables differ from the Yakut ones, and for the worse: “the sables are thin, and those sables have striped tails the size of a quarter of an arshin.” It was, of course, not about a sable, but about a raccoon - an animal unknown in Russia at that time.

In 1710-11 Serviceman Pyotr Popov, opposite the “Nose” (Cape Dezhnev), met American Eskimos, who differed from the Chukchi, already well known to the Russians.

Russian industrialists began to be attracted to new lands as fur reserves in eastern Siberia were depleted. True, for all eastern Siberia V late XVII century there were only about 700 Russians of both sexes, of whom fishermen constituted a minority. In Russia, Peter’s transformations began, as a result of which the state had no time for the discovery of new lands for a long time. This explains a certain pause in the further advance of the Russians to the east.

Peter I immediately, as soon as circumstances allowed, began organizing scientific expeditions in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. In 1716, Colonel Yelchin was ordered to look for Big Earth, but the trip did not take place. Three years later, Lieutenant I. Evreinov and F. Luzhin received a decree with a proposal to find out: “whether America has come together with Asia,” but these navigators explored the Kuril Islands, far from Alaska.

In 1725, shortly before his death, Peter the Great sent Captain Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator on the Siberian coast, to explore the seashores of Siberia. Russian service. Peter sent Bering on an expedition to study and describe the northeastern coast of Siberia. In 1728, the Bering expedition rediscovered the strait, which was first seen by Semyon Dezhnev. However, due to fog, Bering was unable to see the outlines of the North American continent on the horizon.

In 1732, navigator Ivan Fedorov and surveyor Mikhail Gvozdev, who reached the “Great Land” on the ship “Gabriel” - the very Western Cape on the American coast (now Cape Prince of Wales). Fedorov was the first to mark both banks of the Bering Strait on the map. But, having returned to his homeland, Fedorov soon dies, and Gvozdev ends up in Bironov’s dungeons, and the great discovery of the Russian pioneers remains unknown for a long time.

The second expedition of Vitus Bering, who by this time had been promoted to captain-commander, set off to the shores of America from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on June 8, 1741 on two ships: “St. Peter” (under the command of Bering) and “St. Paul” (under the command of Alexei Chirikov) . Each ship had its own team of scientists and researchers on board.

On July 15, land was spotted on Chirikov’s ship. And the ship under the control of Bering, which was moving north, reached the shores of Kayak Island the next day. Bering saw the top of the mountain from the sea, which he called Mount St. Elijah. The ship's doctor, Georg Wilhelm Steller, went ashore and collected samples of shells and herbs, discovered new species of birds and animals, from which the researchers concluded that their ship had reached a new continent.

Chirikov's ship returned to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on October 8, but Bering's ship was carried by the current and wind to the east of the Kamchatka Peninsula - to the Commander Islands. The ship was wrecked near one of the islands and washed ashore. The travelers were forced to spend the winter on the island, which now bears the name Bering Island. On this island, the captain-commander died without surviving the harsh winter. In the spring, the surviving crew members built a boat from the wreckage of the broken "St. Peter" and returned to Kamchatka only in September. Thus ended the first Russian expedition to discover the northwestern coast of the North American continent.

However, in St. Petersburg the authorities reacted to the discovery of Bering's expedition with indifference. The initiative in developing new lands beyond the Bering Strait was taken by fishermen, who (unlike St. Petersburg) immediately appreciated the reports of members of the Bering expedition about the vast rookeries of sea animals. Beginning in 1743, fishing expeditions explored and commercially developed the Aleutian archipelago. During 1743-1755, 22 fishing expeditions known to historians took place, fishing on the Commander and Near Aleutian Islands. In 1756-1780 48 expeditions fished throughout the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island and the southern coast of modern Alaska. Finally, after 1780, Russian industrialists penetrated far along the Pacific coast of North America. Sooner or later, the Russians would begin to penetrate deep into the mainland of the open lands of America.

In 1773, the Spanish ambassador in St. Petersburg F. Lacy reported to Madrid (where they were seriously concerned about the approach of the Russians to Spain's possessions in California), based on a conversation with one Russian who came from Kamchatka, that there were already six Russian settlements in North America. It is unlikely that the simple-minded fur trader from Kamchatka sought to misinform the Spanish ambassador. Probably, they were talking about temporary fishing villages. What was important, however, was the fact that the Russians already felt at home in America.

In 1778 he found himself in these places English navigator James Cook. According to him, the total number of Russian industrialists located in the Aleutians and in the waters of Alaska was about 500 people.

Fishing expeditions were organized and financed by various private companies of Siberian merchants. Sloops with a displacement of 30-60 tons were sent from Okhotsk and Kamchatka to the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. The remoteness of fishing areas meant that expeditions lasted up to 6-10 years. Shipwrecks, famine, scurvy, skirmishes with the aborigines, and sometimes with the crews of ships of a competing company - all this was the everyday work of the “Russian Columbuses”.

The real discoverer and creator of Russian America was Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov (Shelikhov). A merchant, a native of the city of Rylsk in the Kursk province, Shelekhov moved to Siberia, where he became rich in the fur trade. Beginning in 1773, 26-year-old Shelekhov began independently sending ships to sea fishing.

In August 1784, during his main expedition on three ships, he reached Kodiak Island, where he began to build a settlement. It was thanks to Shelekhov’s energy and foresight that the foundation of Russian possessions was laid in these new lands. in 1784-86 G.I. Shelekhov also began to build two more fortified settlements in America. The settlement plans he drew up included smooth streets, schools, libraries, and parks. Returning to European Russia, Shelekhov put forward a proposal to begin the mass resettlement of Russians to new lands.

At the same time, Shelekhov was not a member of public service. He remained a merchant, industrialist, and entrepreneur operating with the permission of the government. Shelekhov himself, however, was distinguished by his remarkable state mind, fully understanding Russia's capabilities in this region. No less important was the fact that Shelekhov had a great understanding of people and assembled a team of like-minded people who created Russian America.

Until 1786, Shelekhov was a successful fur trader in the Aleutian lands, but his fur empire needed other capable leaders. He saw one such assistant in Alexander Andreevich Baranov, a merchant from the ancient city of Kargopol, who moved to Siberia for business purposes. In 1791, he, as it turned out, arrived in Alaska for good. 43-year-old (that is, no longer young at that time) Alexander Baranov was appointed chief manager on Kodiak Island. Baranov was on the verge of bankruptcy when Shelekhov took him as his assistant, recognizing exceptional qualities in him: will, enterprise, perseverance, firmness, organizational skills. Baranov also possessed selflessness that was surprising for an entrepreneur - managing Russian America for more than two decades, controlling multimillion-dollar sums, ensuring high profits for the shareholders of the Russian-American company, which we will talk about below, he did not leave any fortune for himself!

Baranov moved the company's representative office to the new city of Pavlovskaya Gavan, which he founded in the north of Kodiak Island. Now Pavlovsk is the main city of Kodiak Island.

Meanwhile, Shelekhov's company drove out other competitors from the region. G.I. Shelekhov himself died in 1795, in the midst of his endeavors. True, his proposals for the further development of American territories with the help of a commercial company, thanks to his like-minded people and associates, were further developed. In 1799, the Russian-American Company (RAC) was created, which became the main owner of all Russian possessions in America (as well as in the Kuril Islands). The creation of the RAC was based on the proposals of G.I. Shelekhov to create a commercial company of a special kind, capable of carrying out, along with commercial activities, also engaging in the colonization of lands, the construction of forts and cities. At the same time, formally, the RAC was not a completely state institution, and therefore its activities should not have caused international complications. It received from Paul I monopoly rights to fur fishing, trade and the discovery of new lands in the northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean, designed to represent and protect with its own means the interests of Russia in the Pacific Ocean.

Shelekhov’s son-in-law M. Buldakov became the director of the RAC. In Russian America, all powers were in the hands of A. A. Baranov, officially called the Chief Ruler.

Alexander Baranov faced many problems. Most food and almost all goods for exchange had to be imported from Russia, and there were not enough ships. The colony was constantly short of people to build ships, protect the colony, and organize everyday life. Local Aleuts came to the rescue. They constituted the main labor force of the colony. The Aleuts guarded the forts and kept guard.

During Baranov's tenure as Ruler of Russian America, Russia's possessions expanded to the south and east. Baranov founded and built Russian settlements. The largest of them is Novoarkhangelsk, founded in 1799.

In 1802, the village was destroyed by the Tlingits. But in 1804 Baranov defeated the Tlingits. After the victory, Novoarkhangelsk was rebuilt. A number of other settlements were founded, and only the lack of people limited the scale of colonization.

There were really few Russians. However, throughout the entire vast territory of the then Pacific possessions of Russia (Okhotsk-Kamchatka Territory) with an area of ​​2 million km2 and an even larger water area at the beginning of the 19th century, only about 5 thousand Russians lived, of which only 1.5 thousand lived in Kamchatka - the land most close to Russian America. In the town of Okhotsk there were only 1,300 inhabitants, in Gizhiginsk - 657, in Petropavlovs-Kamchatkoy - 180 inhabitants, including 25 women. At the same time, this handful of people had to defend state interests in the region. But the pacification of Chukotka is not over yet. Only in 1806, the Chukchi ravaged a Russian trading post and killed 14 Russians. Under these conditions, there simply weren’t enough people physically to explore Russian America.

One cannot help but admire the fact that only about 400-800 Russian people managed to develop such vast territories and waters, making their way to California and Hawaii. However, it was the lack of people that played a fatal role in the history of Russian America. The desire to attract new settlers was a constant and almost impossible desire of all Russian administrators in Alaska.

G.I. Shelekhov also proposed organizing the resettlement of serfs to America, who in this case would receive their freedom. It is clear that this proposal caused discontent among the serf owners, who feared being left without their “souls.” Then G.I. Shelekhov made a request to provide him with a certain number of Siberian exiles who knew the crafts necessary for the colony, as well as cultivators. This time the government agreed, and in 1794 Shelekhov sent “settlers” from among Russian plowmen and artisans to Russian America. But there were very few of them, and subsequently official St. Petersburg did not show any interest in Russian America (except for receiving dividends on purchased shares). The number of Russian settlers arriving in Alaska was only a few.

Later, in 1808, the Senate prohibited serfs and even those previously freed from serfdom from settling in Alaska. Under these conditions, one could not expect an increase in the Russian population of Alaska. Many Russian hunters, merchants, and officials, having completed their business in Alaska, left for Siberia, and more often further, to European Russia. In order to consolidate the Russian population in Alaska, in 1809 the concept of “colonial citizens” was introduced, meaning Russian subjects permanently residing in Russian America, who could not be classified as one of the classes.

Baranov, even in such desolation, worked tirelessly to explore Alaska and adjacent lands. With incredible scarcity of funds and a small number of employees, Baranov equipped trade and research expeditions along the coast of the Bering Sea and the Pacific coast of North America up to and including Upper California, as well as Hawaiian Islands. Russian America traded with Canton (China), New York, Boston, California and Hawaii. Ivan Kuskov penetrated the deserted rocky coast just north of San Francisco Bay and founded a Russian fortress, Fort Ross, on the banks of the river, which he named Slavyanka. Baranov established schools, a library, a museum, shipyards in Russian America, founded fortresses, launched Russian ships

In 1818, returning to Russia by ship, the tireless ruler of Russian America, Alexander Baranov, died near Java. After him, the rulers of Russian America were, in principle, smart administrators, providing profits to the holders of RAC shares, successfully maintaining order in the possessions entrusted to them. But none of them were either Shelekhov or Baranov to understand the full significance of the American settlements for Russia. It is not surprising that in 1824 an agreement was signed with Great Britain on the delimitation of North America, according to which the border between Russian America and British Canada ran along 24 longitudes. In 1839-40. Russia abandoned Fort Ross in California.

Another problem characteristic of Russian America was the tyranny of space. The journey by land took three years! First, it was necessary to sail from Novarkhangelsk to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, or to Okhotsk, from where they had to travel about 10 thousand kilometers on horses. Oddly enough, a circumnavigation from St. Petersburg across three oceans to Russian America was faster, more convenient and cheaper. It was there that the ships of Krusenstern, Kotzebue, Hagemeister and other Russian circumnavigators, paid for by RAC, went.

Climatic conditions also influenced the development of Russian America. Shelekhov also tried to breed turnips, potatoes and rutabaga in Alaska. Attempts to breed rye and wheat in the colonies were unsuccessful - the growing season was too short.

The lack of food for Russian America prompted the Russian authorities to create Fort Ross and try to create a base in Hawaii. But the lack of people and the remoteness of the new possessions led to the abandonment of the expansion of Russian America.

The colony more or less developed. RAC shareholders constantly received their dividends. Russia has become quite firmly established on the American continent. Small but active Russians became a permanent ethnic element of these lands.

Changes also occurred among the native population of Alaska. The Aleuts in the 50-70s of the 18th century experienced the consequences of epidemic diseases from which they had no immunity. Their numbers have decreased sharply. Subsequently, the number of Aleuts grew slowly, periodically as a result of epidemics and natural disasters, their number decreased again. In 1834 there were only 2,247 of them left, in 1848 there were already 1,400 people. In 1864, the number of Aleuts jumped to 2,005 people. Many Aleuts moved to the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka. Thus, the decline in the number of Aleuts in the Aleutian Islands was partly explained by the resettlement of the Aleuts outside their former ethnic territory.

The relationship with the Tlingit Indians was very complex. In 1805, 1809, 1813 and 1818. The Tlingits attacked Russian settlements, and Russian military expeditions followed in response.

In 1822, 488 Russians, 5,334 Aleuts, Kenai (Tanaina Indians living on the Kenai Peninsula) - 1,432, Chugach (Eskimos) - 479 lived in Russian America. Taking into account the “others,” the total population was 8,286 people. The colony's population growth was negligible.

This number, however, did not include the so-called. “wild”, that is, local tribes that do not obey the Russian authorities. In addition, there were also categories of “semi-dependent” population, that is, tribes that, in principle, recognized dependence on the Russian Tsar, trading with Russian settlers, but did not want to pay the poll tax, and for this reason were not taken into account official statisticians Russian America. In general, the total number of inhabitants of Alaska in the mid-19th century numbered at least 40 thousand people, most of whom were classified as “wild”.

In 1839, the Russian population of Alaska was 823 people, which was the maximum in the entire history of Russian America. Usually there were slightly fewer Russians.

In Russian America, the development of a new ethnic group began - the Creoles. Usually in the countries of the New World, Europeans born here were called creoles. But in the Russian possessions of North America, children from mixed marriages of Russians with local women were called creoles. Russian settlers in Alaska were represented mainly by men. There were few Russian women, about one for every 10 (sometimes for 16) men. At the same time, Shelekhov and Baranov, as well as the leadership of the local Orthodox Church, believed that mixed marriages of Orthodox Russians with local women would contribute to the spread of Orthodoxy. A. Baranov himself, who married an Indian, gave an example to the settlers.

As a result of marital and extramarital affairs of Russians with Aleut, Eskimo and Indian women in Alaska, the ethnic and socio-cultural community of Alaskan Creoles began to take shape. The growth of the Creole population was rapid: 553 people in 1822 and 1,989 people (an increase of 3.6 times) in 1863. Russian America gradually began to resemble Latin American society in the snow with its large number of mestizos and the originality of the local culture. A number of Alaskan explorers came from among the Creoles - Alexander Kashevarov, Ruf Serebryanikov and other travelers who penetrated deep into the North American continent. There was no racial discrimination. Many Creoles received an education in St. Petersburg at the expense of the RAC, and immediately after receiving it they joined the ranks of the local elite. In St. Petersburg there were even special gymnasiums where, along with other children, Creoles and children of RAC employees studied at government expense. For boys, this was the First Provincial Gymnasium, and for girls, admission to the Mariinsky Gymnasium was open. In principle, Alaskan Creoles could well become the basis of a new nation, Russian-speaking and Orthodox.

Finally, in Russian America the Russian Orthodox Church. Back in 1794, the Valaam monk German began missionary work. By the mid-19th century, most Alaska Natives were baptized. The Aleuts and, to a lesser extent, the Alaska Indians are still Orthodox believers. In 1841, an episcopal see was created in Alaska. By the time of the sale of Alaska, the Russian Orthodox Church had 13 thousand flocks here. In terms of the number of Orthodox Christians, Alaska still ranks first in the United States. Church ministers made a huge contribution to the spread of literacy among the Alaskan natives. Literacy among the Aleuts was at high level- on the island of St. Paul, the entire adult population could read in their native language.

Despite all the difficulties, industry began to develop in the colonies. In 1857, mines were founded in Ugolnaya Bay, in the Kenai Bay, and the first Alaskan miners began mining there. coal. By the mid-50s of the 19th century, coal production in Alaska exceeded 20 thousand poods per month. Mica and clay were mined in Alaska for brick production. Alaskan oil, copper in the Mednaya River basin, amber on the Alaska Peninsula, graphite on Atha Island, obsidian and porphyry on Umnak Island were discovered. Contrary to popular belief, the Russians were well aware of the presence of gold in Alaska. In the 1840s. its deposits on the islands of Kodiak and Sitkha, the shores of the Kenai Bay were explored by mining engineer Pyotr Doroshin. The Russian administration, which had before its eyes the example of the “gold rush” in California, fearing the invasion of thousands of American gold miners, chose to classify this information.

Shipwrights have been building ships since 1793. For 1799-1821 15 ships were built in Novoarkhangelsk. In 1853, the first steam ship on the Pacific Ocean was launched in Novoarkhangelsk, and not a single part was imported: everything was manufactured in Alaska.

The basis of the economic life of Russian America remained the production of marine mammals. Average for 1840-60s. up to 18 thousand fur seals were caught per year. River beavers, otters, foxes, arctic foxes, bears, sables, and walrus tusks were also hunted.

Novoarkhangelsk in the 50-60s. XIX century resembled an average provincial town in outlying Russia. It had a ruler's palace, a theater, a club, a cathedral, a bishop's house, a seminary, a Lutheran prayer house, an observatory, a music school, a museum and a library, a nautical school, two hospitals and a pharmacy, several schools, a spiritual consistory, a drawing room, an admiralty, and port facilities. buildings, an arsenal, several industrial enterprises, shops, stores and warehouses. Houses in Novoarkhangelsk were built on stone foundations and the roofs were made of iron. The holdings of the Russian-American Company were divided into six “divisions,” each of which was many times larger than any Russian district. The most populous was the Kodiak department, followed by Unalashkinsky and Novoarkhangelsk in terms of population. The most sparsely populated was the Northern, or Mikhailovsky, department, where only one hundred and thirty people lived on the lands gravitating towards the mouths of the Yukon, including thirty Russians and up to forty Creoles.

But in 1867, Alaska was sold to the United States for $7.2 million. They advocated the sale of Russian America (and not disinterestedly!) Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich. Let us note that Russia never received any money for Alaska, since part of this money was appropriated by the Russian Ambassador in Washington, Baron Stekl, and part went to bribe American senators. Finally, the ship, which had precious cargo on board, sank on July 16, 1868 on the approach to St. Petersburg. As a result, Russia never gained anything from giving up some of its possessions.

The Russian-American company was liquidated. When the affairs of the Russian-American Company were liquidated in 1868, some Russians were taken from Alaska to their homeland. The last group of Russians, numbering 309 people, left Novoarkhangelsk on November 30, 1868. The other part - about 200 people - was left in Novoarkhangelsk due to a lack of ships. They were simply FORGOTTEN by the St. Petersburg authorities (as we see, Russian liberals, prone to ranting about “rights,” are in fact not interested in ordinary people from whom it is impossible to get dollars). Most of the Creoles also remained in Alaska. However, Russian America disappeared, the ethnic territory of the Russian nation shrank, and the potential nation of Alaskan Creoles did not materialize.

For the United States, Alaska became the site of the “gold rush” of the 90s of the 19th century, glorified by Jack London, and then the “oil rush” of the 70s. XX century. Today, Alaska is the largest US state by territory and ranks first in proven reserves of oil, coal, platinum, tin, antimony and many other elements of the periodic table.

The second sale of Alaska, or more precisely, the waters of Alaska, took place in 1990, when the then Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR E. Shevardnadze signed an agreement between the USSR and the USA on the delimitation of economic zones and continental shelves in the Chukchi and Bering Seas. As a result of this agreement, the USSR recognized for the American side a vast, more than 50 thousand km2, water area of ​​​​these seas, fabulously rich not only in biological resources, but also possessing vast oil deposits. Shevardnadze, understanding how “perestroika” would end in the USSR, hastened to demonstrate his loyalty to Uncle Sam. As a result, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, he became the dictator of Georgia until he was overthrown as a result of the next “velvet revolution”.