In modern science, the basis for ideas about the world is a systematic approach, according to which any object of the material world (atom, planet, organism or galaxy) can be considered as a complex formation, including component parts, organized into integrity. To indicate the integrity of objects in science, it was developed concept of a system.
A system is a set of elements and connections between them.
An element is a component within a system (minimal, then indivisible). An element is such only in relation to a given system, but in other respects it itself can represent a complex system.
In science, there are three levels of the structure of matter:
Macroworld– the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time – in seconds, minutes, hours, years.
Microworld – a world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the dimension of which ranges from 10 in –8 to 10 in –16 cm, and lifetime – from infinity to 10 in –24 s.
Megaworld – a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and time in millions and billions of years.
And although these levels have their own specific laws, the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds are closely interconnected.
14. The dual world of classical physics. Substance and field as types of matter.
In the history of the study of nature, two stages can be distinguished: 1. Pre-scientific (natural-philosophical)– covers the period from antiquity to the formation of experimental natural science in the 16th-17th centuries. Observed natural phenomena explained on the basis of speculative philosophical principles. The most significant for the development of natural sciences was ancient atomism- the doctrine according to which all bodies are composed of atoms - the smallest particles in the world. The initial principles were atoms and emptiness. The essence of natural processes was explained on the basis of the mechanical interaction of atoms, their attraction and repulsion. 2. Scientific stage– begins with the formation of classical mechanics. G. Galileo(16th century) substantiated the heleocentric system of N. Copernicus, discovered the law of inertia, and developed a methodology for a new way of describing nature - scientific and theoretical. Its essence was that only some physical and geometric characteristics stood out, which became the subject of research. This made it possible to build theoretical models and test them in scientific experiments. I. Newton- developed a strict scientific theory of mechanics, which describes the movement of celestial bodies and terrestrial objects using the same laws. Within the framework of the mechanical picture of the world developed by Newton, there was discrete (corpuscular) model reality. Matter was considered as a material substance consisting of individual particles - atoms or corpuscles. Atoms are absolutely strong, indivisible, impenetrable, characterized by the presence of mass and weight. Space is absolutely constant and always at rest. Time does not depend on space or matter. The result is a picture of the Universe as a gigantic and completely determined mechanism, where events and processes are a chain of interdependent causes and effects. But with the help of this theory, optical and electromagnetic phenomena cannot be completely explained. Huygens first formulated wave theory. it assumed the presence of an elastic medium filling all space - a luminiferous ether, the vibrations of which create the picture of a wave. After the discovery of the phenomenon of diffraction (weak areas of illumination in the form of alternating dark and light stripes at the boundaries of sharp shadows), which cannot be explained on the basis of Newton's theory, Huygens became an ardent supporter of the wave theory of light. In the 19th century K. Jung and O.J. Fresnel again put forward this theory. Jung gave an explanation for the phenomenon of interference (the appearance of dark stripes when light is superimposed on light). M. Faraday and J. C. Maxwell, with their work in the field of electromageticism, completely destroyed the ideas Newtonian physics as the only type of matter and laid the foundation for the electromagnetic picture of the world. Faraday in 1845 he came to the conclusion that the study of electricity and optics are interconnected and form a single field. Maxwell in 1862, using a purely mathematical method, he found a system of differential equations describing the electromagnetic field. This system provides a complete description of electromagnetic phenomena and represents the same perfect and logically coherent theory as the system of Newtonian mechanics. The single essence of light and electricity has been experimentally confirmed G. Hertz in 1888. After his experiments, the concept of a field as an objectively existing physical reality was finally established in physics. A qualitatively new, unique type of matter was discovered. By the end of the 19th century. physics has come to the conclusion that matter exists in two forms: discrete matter and continuous field. 1. Matter is discrete and consists of atoms, and the field is continuous. 2. The particles of the substance have rest mass, but the field does not. 3. B is slightly permeable, but the field is completely permeable. 4. The speed of propagation of the field is equal to the speed of light, and the speed of movement of particles in the substance is many orders of magnitude less than it.
MACROWORLD AND MICROWORLD- two main areas of the material world, radically different in the nature of their laws. The contrast between the macrocosm and the microcosm goes back to the most ancient natural philosophical concepts macrocosm and microcosm . Modern ideas about the macroworld and microworld developed during the formation of quantum theory and its comprehension: the objects of research of pre-quantum physics constitute the macroworld, and the objects on the basis of which quantum theory is developed constitute the microworld. Quantum theory was created as a theory of the structure and properties of the atom and atomic-scale processes; now it underlies physics elementary particles. From the point of view of the concepts of classical physics, the laws of quantum theory turned out to be very strange and paradoxical, which determined the formation of the concept of a special, unique physical world. It is argued that quantum theory represents “a fruit of human thought that, more than any other scientific achievement, has deepened and expanded our understanding of the world” ( Weiskopf W. Physics in the twentieth century. M., 1977, p. 34). The most important features of quantum concepts, which allow us to talk about a special world of physical phenomena, are wave-particle dualism, the fundamentally probabilistic nature of the processes of the microworld and the relativity of the properties of a microobject fixed at the macrolevel.
Historically, the penetration of science into the field of microprocesses has led to the development of scientific theories of a high degree of generality. Penetration into the structure of matter led to the development of classical statistical physics, and the analysis of deep structures of heredity led to the creation of gene theory. Knowledge of the atom gave rise to quantum theory - the most fundamental in modern physics. “Microphysics yesterday, today and, one must think, tomorrow,” as Russian physicist V. Ginzburg noted, “was, is and will be the leading edge of physics and all natural sciences” ( Ginzburg V. On the prospects for the development of physics and astrophysics at the end of the 20th century. – Physics 20th century. Development and prospects. M., 1984, p. 299). Ideas about the macrocosm and microcosm complement and mutually condition each other. Knowledge of the properties and laws of the microworld allows one to reveal the properties and structures of objects in the macroworld, and knowledge of the macroworld allows one to reveal the wealth of internal capabilities of objects in the microworld.
The development of microworld physics also transforms the basic forms of theoretical expression of knowledge. In particular, during the transition from classical physics to the physics of the microworld, changes occurred in our understanding of the elementary - a transition from ideas about structureless atoms (material points) to ideas about elementary events as some further indecomposable (structureless) acts of interaction. Both the theory of relativity and especially the quantum theory in their constructions proceed from the concept of an event, which is a structureless elementary object. As Russian physicist A.D. Aleksandrov said, referring to the structure of the theory of relativity: “The simplest element of the world is what is called an event. It is a “point” phenomenon, like the instantaneous flash of a point lamp, or, using visual concepts of space and time, a phenomenon whose extension in space and time can be neglected. In a word, an event is analogous to a point in geometry, and, imitating the definition of a point given by Euclid, we can say that an event is a phenomenon of which nothing is a part, it is an “atomic” phenomenon. Every phenomenon, every process is presented as some coherent set of events. From this point of view, the whole world is seen as a multitude of events" ( Alexandrov A.D. On the philosophical content of the theory of relativity. – Einstein and philosophical problems physics of the 20th century M., 1979, p. 113). B. Russell attached fundamental importance to the analysis of the transition from the language of objects to the language of events during the formation of modern physics (see: Russell B. Human cognition. M., 1957. p. 358 and 497). It can, therefore, be argued that the world of macrophysics is a world built from objects, and the world of microphysics is a world formed from events.
In modern physics, the problem of elementary essence (as a further indecomposable, structureless element) largely remains open. It can be assumed that with the further penetration of science into the deep levels of the structure of matter, the question of the simplest, structureless element will change its meaning. The initial phenomena of the physical world should be considered from the very beginning as something complex, i.e. in a systematic way; at the same time, the very concept of a system acts as primary, fundamental. This will also change the nature of theoretical constructions in fundamental areas of physics.
Introduction
1 Objects of the microworld
2 Concepts of the microworld and quantum mechanics
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The formation of the theory of the atomic-molecular structure of the world dates back to the beginning of the 19th century, although Democritus even assumed that the Universe is composed of the smallest indivisible particles However, it was possible to prove experimentally that each chemical element consists of identical atoms only in 1808. This was done by the English chemist and physicist J. Dalton, the creator of chemical atomism, and in 1811 the Italian physicist and chemist A. Avogadro put forward a hypothesis of the molecular structure of substances (in particular, simple gases).
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. physics has reached new level research. The concepts and principles of classical physics turned out to be inapplicable not only to the study of the properties of space and time, but even more so to the study of the physical properties of the smallest particles of matter or micro-objects, such as electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms and similar objects, which are often called atomic particles. They form a microcosm invisible to us.
At first, physicists were amazed by the unusual properties of the smallest particles of matter that they studied in the microcosm. Attempts to describe, let alone explain, the properties of microparticles using the concepts and principles of classical physics have clearly failed. The search for new concepts and methods of explanation ultimately led to the emergence of a new quantum mechanics, to the final construction and justification of which E. Schrödinger (1887 - 1961), W. Heisenberg (1901 - 1976), M. Born (1882 - 1970) made significant contributions. At the very beginning, this mechanic was called wave in contrast to ordinary mechanics, which regards its objects as consisting of corpuscles, or particles. Subsequently, the name for the mechanics of micro-objects was established quantum mechanics.
All of the above justifies the relevance of this topic.
Purpose of the work: a comprehensive study and analysis of the microworld and its objects.
The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The total volume of work is 14 pages.
1 Objects of the microworld
The entire variety of objects known to mankind and the phenomena characteristic of them are usually divided into three qualitatively various areas- micro-, macro- and megaworlds (see table).
Concept "Microworld" covers fundamental and elementary particles, nuclei, atoms and molecules.
Elementary particles- these are particles that are part of a previously “indivisible” atom. These also include those particles that are produced using powerful particle accelerators. There are elementary particles that arise when passing through the atmosphere cosmic rays, they exist for millionths of a second, then decay, transform into other elementary particles, or emit energy in the form of radiation. The most well-known elementary particles include the electron, photon, pi-meson, muon, and neutrino. In the strict sense of the word, elementary particles should not contain any other particles. However, not all of the most well-known elementary particles satisfy this requirement. It was discovered that elementary particles can be mutually transformed, i.e. are not the “last building blocks” of the universe. Currently, hundreds of elementary particles are already known, although according to theory their number should not be particularly large. The latest research, in particular, confirms the previously put forward hypothesis about the existence of even “more elementary” particles – quarks.
The first elementary particle discovered in physics was the electron, which in 1897, while studying gas discharges discovered by the English physicist Joseph Thomson and measured the ratio of its charge to mass. Electron- one of the main structural elements of matter; electronic shells atoms determine the optical, electrical, magnetic and chemical properties of atoms and molecules, as well as most properties of solids.
In common usage, physicists call elementary particles those that are not atoms and atomic nuclei, with the exception of the proton and neutron. After establishing the complex structure of many elementary particles, it was necessary to introduce a new concept - fundamental particles, by which we mean microparticles whose internal structure cannot be represented as a combination of other free particles.
In all interactions, elementary particles behave as a single whole. The characteristics of elementary particles are, in addition to rest mass, electric charge, spin, also such specific characteristics (quantum numbers) as baryon charge, lepton charge, hypercharge, strangeness, etc.
Currently, quite a lot is known about the atomic structure of matter and elementary particles. Since elementary particles are capable of mutual transformations, this does not allow us to consider them, like the atom, as the simplest, unchanging “building blocks of the universe.” The number of elementary particles is very large. In total, more than 350 elementary particles have been discovered, of which only the photon, electron and muon neutrino, electron, proton and their antiparticles are stable (each elementary particle, with the exception of absolutely neutral ones, has its own antiparticle). The remaining elementary particles spontaneously decay in a time from 10 3 s (free neutron) to 10 -22 - 10 -24 s (resonances).
There are several groups of elementary particles that differ in their properties and the nature of their interaction, which are usually divided into two large groups: fermions and bosons (see figure).
Fermions make up the substance bosons tolerate interaction.
Leptons(from Greek light) - particles with spin 1/2 that do not participate in strong interactions and have a conserved internal characteristic- lepton charge, can be neutral. Charged leptons can, like electrons (which are among them), rotate around nuclei, forming atoms. Leptons that do not have a charge can pass unhindered through matter (even through the entire Earth) without interacting with it. Every particle has an antiparticle that differs only in charge.
Hadrons- elementary particles involved in all fundamental interactions, including strong; Strong interactions characteristic of hadrons are characterized by the maximum number of conserved quantities (conservation laws). Hadrons are divided into baryons and mesons. According to modern concepts, hadrons have a complex internal structure: baryons consist of three quarks; mesons - from quark and antiquark.
A separate “group” is the photon.
When elementary particles collide, all sorts of transformations occur between them (including the birth of many additional particles), which are not prohibited by conservation laws.
Atom(from the Greek atomos - indivisible) is a part of a substance of microscopic size and mass, the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains its properties. Atoms consist of elementary particles and have a complex internal structure, representing an integral nuclear-electronic system. At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus, in which almost the entire mass of the atom is concentrated; electrons move around, forming electron shells, the dimensions of which (~10-8 cm) determine the size of the atom. The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus (the charge of all electrons in an atom is equal to the charge of the nucleus), the number of protons is equal to the atomic number of the element in periodic table. Atoms can gain or lose electrons, becoming negatively or positively charged ions. The chemical properties of atoms are determined mainly by the number of electrons in the outer shell; When atoms combine chemically, they form molecules.
An important characteristic of an atom is its internal energy, which can take only certain (discrete) values corresponding to the stable states of the atom, and changes only abruptly through a quantum transition. By absorbing a certain portion of energy, the atom goes into an excited state (to a higher energy level). From an excited state, an atom, emitting a photon, can go to a state with lower energy (to a lower energy level). The level corresponding to the minimum energy of the atom is called the ground level, the rest are called excited. Quantum transitions determine atomic absorption and emission spectra, individual for atoms of all chemical elements.
Under the nucleus of an atom refers to its central part, in which almost the entire mass of the atom and its entire positive charge. The nucleus consists of nucleons - protons and neutrons (designated p and n). Proton mass mP= 1.673×10 -27 =1.836 m e , m n= 1.675×10 -27 = 1835.5 m e. The mass of the nucleus is not equal to the sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons included in it (the so-called “mass defect”). A proton carries an elementary positive charge, a neutron is an uncharged particle. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the atomic number Z element in the periodic table, and the number of protons, since the atom as a whole is neutral, is equal to the number of electrons. Then the number of neutrons in the nucleus is determined as follows: N P = A – Z, Where A– mass number, i.e. the integer closest to the atomic mass of the element in the periodic table, Z– charge number (number of protons). To designate nuclei, the notation is used Z X A, Where X– symbol of a chemical element in the periodic table. Nuclei with the same Z but different A are called isotopes. More than 300 stable and more than 1000 unstable isotopes are now known. Unstable isotopes are associated with the phenomenon of radioactivity - nuclear decay.
Microworld– these are molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial diversity of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 -24 s.
Macroworld- the world of stable forms and sizes commensurate with humans, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years.
Megaworld- these are planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies - a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years.
And although these levels have their own specific laws, the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds are closely interconnected.
At the microscopic level, physics today is studying processes that take place at lengths of the order of 10 to the minus eighteenth power of cm, over a time of the order of 10 to the minus twenty-second power of s. In the megaworld, scientists use instruments to record objects distant from us at a distance of about 9-12 billion light years.
Microworld. Democritus in antiquity put forward the atomic hypothesis of the structure of matter , later, in the 18th century. was revived by the chemist J. Dalton, who took the atomic weight of hydrogen as one and compared the atomic weights of other gases with it. Thanks to the works of J. Dalton, the physical and chemical properties of the atom began to be studied. In the 19th century D.I. Mendeleev built a system of chemical elements based on their atomic weight.
In physics, the idea of atoms as the last indivisible structural elements matter came from chemistry. Actually, physical studies of the atom begin at the end of the 19th century, when the French physicist A. A. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity, which consisted in the spontaneous transformation of atoms of some elements into atoms of other elements.
The history of research into the structure of the atom began in 1895 thanks to the discovery by J. Thomson of the electron, a negatively charged particle that is part of all atoms. Since electrons have negative charge, and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, it was assumed that in addition to the electron there is a positively charged particle. The mass of the electron was calculated to be 1/1836 of the mass of a positively charged particle.
There were several models of the structure of the atom.
In 1902, the English physicist W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proposed the first model of the atom - a positive charge distributed in a sufficiently large area, and electrons are interspersed into it, like “raisins in pudding.”
In 1911, E. Rutherford proposed a model of the atom that resembled the solar system: in the center there is an atomic nucleus, and electrons move around it in their orbits.
The nucleus has a positive charge and the electrons have a negative charge. Instead of the gravitational forces acting in the solar system, electrical forces act in the atom. The electric charge of the nucleus of an atom, numerically equal to the serial number in the periodic system of Mendeleev, is balanced by the sum of the charges of the electrons - the atom is electrically neutral.
Both of these models turned out to be contradictory.
In 1913, the great Danish physicist N. Bohr applied the principle of quantization to solve the problem of the structure of the atom and the characteristics of atomic spectra.
N. Bohr's model of the atom was based on planetary model E. Rutherford and on the quantum theory of atomic structure developed by him. N. Bohr put forward a hypothesis about the structure of the atom, based on two postulates that are completely incompatible with classical physics:
1) in each atom there are several stationary states (in the language of the planetary model, several stationary orbits) of electrons, moving along which an electron can exist without emitting ;
2) when an electron transitions from one stationary state to another, the atom emits or absorbs a portion of energy.
Ultimately, it is fundamentally impossible to accurately describe the structure of an atom based on the idea of the orbits of point electrons, since such orbits do not actually exist.
N. Bohr's theory represents, as it were, the borderline of the first stage in the development of modern physics. This is the latest effort to describe the structure of the atom based on classical physics, supplemented with only a small number of new assumptions.
It seemed that N. Bohr's postulates reflected some new, unknown properties of matter, but only partially. Answers to these questions were obtained as a result of the development of quantum mechanics. It turned out that N. Bohr's atomic model should not be taken literally, as it was at the beginning. Processes in the atom, in principle, cannot be visually represented in the form of mechanical models by analogy with events in the macrocosm. Even the concepts of space and time in the form existing in the macroworld turned out to be unsuitable for describing microphysical phenomena. The theoretical physicists' atom increasingly became an abstract, unobservable sum of equations.
Macroworld. In the history of the study of nature, two stages can be distinguished: pre-scientific And scientific
Pre-scientific, or natural philosophy, covers the period from antiquity to the formation of experimental natural science in the 16th-17th centuries. Observed natural phenomena were explained on the basis of speculative philosophical principles.
The most significant for the subsequent development of natural sciences was the concept of the discrete structure of matter, atomism, according to which all bodies consist of atoms - the smallest particles in the world.
From the beginning classical mechanics begins scientific stage of studying nature.
Since modern scientific ideas about the structural levels of the organization of matter were developed in the course of a critical rethinking of the concepts of classical science, applicable only to macro-level objects, then you need to start with the concepts of classical physics.
Formation scientific views on the structure of matter dates back to the 16th century, when G. Galileo laid the foundation for the first physical picture of the world in the history of science - the mechanical one. He not only justified heliocentric system N. Copernicus discovered the law of inertia, and developed a methodology for a new way of describing nature - scientific-theoretical. Its essence was that only certain physical and geometric characteristics were identified and became the subject of scientific research. Galileo wrote: “ I will never demand from external bodies anything other than size, figure, quantity and more or less rapid movement in order to explain the occurrence of taste, smell and sound" 1 .
I. Newton, relying on the works of Galileo, developed a strict scientific theory of mechanics, which describes both the movement of celestial bodies and the movement of earthly objects by the same laws. Nature was viewed as a complex mechanical system.
Within the framework of the mechanical picture of the world developed by I. Newton and his followers, a discrete (corpuscular) model of reality emerged. Matter was considered as a material substance consisting of individual particles - atoms or corpuscles. Atoms are absolutely strong, indivisible, impenetrable, characterized by the presence of mass and weight.
An essential characteristic of the Newtonian world was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, which is absolutely constant and always at rest. Time was presented as a quantity independent of either space or matter.
Movement was considered as movement in space along continuous trajectories in accordance with the laws of mechanics.
The result of Newton's picture of the world was the image of the Universe as a gigantic and completely determined mechanism, where events and processes are a chain of interdependent causes and effects.
The mechanistic approach to describing nature has proven to be extremely fruitful. Following Newtonian mechanics, hydrodynamics, the theory of elasticity, the mechanical theory of heat, molecular kinetic theory and a number of others were created, in line with which physics has achieved enormous success. However, there were two areas - optical and electromagnetic phenomena that could not be fully explained within the framework of a mechanistic picture of the world.
Along with mechanical corpuscular theory, attempts were made to explain optical phenomena in a fundamentally different way, namely, on the basis of the wave theory formulated by X. Huygens. The wave theory established an analogy between the propagation of light and the movement of waves on the surface of water or sound waves in the air. It assumed the presence of an elastic medium filling all space - a luminiferous ether. Based on the wave theory of X. Huygens successfully explained the reflection and refraction of light.
Another area of physics where mechanical models proved inadequate was the area of electromagnetic phenomena. Experiments of the English naturalist M. Faraday and theoretical work English physicist J.C. Maxwell finally destroyed the ideas of Newtonian physics about discrete matter as the only type of matter and laid the foundation for the electromagnetic picture of the world.
The phenomenon of electromagnetism was discovered by the Danish naturalist H. K. Oersted, who first noticed the magnetic effect of electric currents. Continuing research in this direction, M. Faraday discovered that a temporary change in magnetic fields creates an electric current.
M. Faraday came to the conclusion that the study of electricity and optics are interconnected and form a single field. His works became the starting point for the research of J. C. Maxwell, whose merit lies in the mathematical development of M. Faraday's ideas about magnetism and electricity. Maxwell “translated” Faraday's model of field lines into a mathematical formula. The concept of “field of forces” was originally developed as an auxiliary mathematical concept. J.C. Maxwell gave it a physical meaning and began to consider the field as an independent physical reality: “ An electromagnetic field is that part of space that contains and surrounds bodies that are in an electric or magnetic state» 2.
Based on his research, Maxwell was able to conclude that light waves are electromagnetic waves. The single essence of light and electricity, which M. Faraday suggested in 1845, and J. C. Maxwell theoretically substantiated in 1862, was experimentally confirmed by the German physicist G. Hertz in 1888.
After the experiments of G. Hertz, the concept of a field was finally established in physics, not as an auxiliary mathematical construction, but as an objectively existing physical reality. A qualitatively new, unique type of matter was discovered.
So, by the end of the 19th century. physics has come to the conclusion that matter exists in two forms: discrete matter and continuous field.
As a result of subsequent revolutionary discoveries in physics at the end of the last and beginning of this century, the ideas of classical physics about matter and field as two qualitatively unique types of matter were destroyed.
Megaworld. Megaworld or space, modern science considers as an interacting and developing system of all celestial bodies.
All existing galaxies are included in the system of the highest order - the Metagalaxy . The dimensions of the Metagalaxy are very large: the radius of the cosmological horizon is 15-20 billion light years.
Concepts "Universe" And "Metagalaxy"- very similar concepts: they characterize the same object, but in different aspects. Concept "Universe" denotes the entire existing material world; concept "Metagalaxy"- the same world, but from the point of view of its structure - as an ordered system of galaxies.
The structure and evolution of the Universe are studied by cosmology . Cosmology as a branch of natural science, it is located at a unique junction of science, religion and philosophy. Cosmological models of the Universe are based on certain ideological premises, and these models themselves have great ideological significance.
IN classical science there was the so-called steady state theory of the Universe, according to which the Universe has always been almost the same as it is now. Astronomy was static: the movements of planets and comets were studied, stars were described, their classifications were created, which was, of course, very important. But the question of the evolution of the Universe was not raised.
Modern cosmological models of the Universe are based on general theory relativity of A. Einstein, according to which the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in the Universe. Its properties as a whole are determined by the average density of matter and other specific physical factors.
Einstein's equation of gravity has not one, but many solutions, which explains the existence of many cosmological models of the Universe. The first model was developed by A. Einstein himself in 1917. He rejected the postulates of Newtonian cosmology about the absoluteness and infinity of space and time. In accordance with A. Einstein's cosmological model of the Universe, world space is homogeneous and isotropic, matter is distributed evenly in it on average, and the gravitational attraction of masses is compensated by the universal cosmological repulsion.
The existence of the Universe is infinite, i.e. has no beginning or end, and space is limitless, but finite.
The universe in A. Einstein’s cosmological model is stationary, infinite in time and limitless in space.
In 1922 Russian mathematician and geophysicist A.A Friedman rejected the postulate of classical cosmology about the stationary nature of the Universe and obtained a solution to the Einstein equation, which describes the Universe with “expanding” space.
Since the average density of matter in the Universe is unknown, today we do not know in which of these spaces of the Universe we live.
In 1927, the Belgian abbot and scientist J. Lemaitre connected the “expansion” of space with data from astronomical observations. Lemaitre introduced the concept of the beginning of the Universe as a singularity (i.e., a superdense state) and the birth of the Universe as big bang.
In 1929, American astronomer E.P. Hubble discovered the existence of a strange relationship between the distance and speed of galaxies: all galaxies are moving away from us, and with a speed that increases in proportion to the distance - the galaxy system is expanding.
The expansion of the Universe is considered a scientifically established fact. According to the theoretical calculations of J. Lemaître, the radius of the Universe in its original state was 10 -12 cm, which is close in size to the radius of an electron, and its density was 10 96 g/cm 3 . In a singular state, the Universe was a micro-object of negligible size. From the initial singular state, the Universe moved to expansion as a result of the Big Bang.
Retrospective calculations determine the age of the Universe at 13-20 billion years. G.A. Gamow suggested that the temperature of the substance was high and fell with the expansion of the Universe. His calculations showed that the Universe in its evolution goes through certain stages, during which the formation of chemical elements and structures occurs. In modern cosmology, for clarity, the initial stage of the evolution of the Universe is divided into “eras” 3
Hadron era. Heavy particles that enter into strong interactions.
The era of leptons. Light particles entering into electromagnetic interaction.
Photon era. Duration 1 million years. The bulk of the mass - the energy of the Universe - comes from photons.
Star era. Occurs 1 million years after the birth of the Universe. During the stellar era, the process of formation of protostars and protogalaxies begins.
Then a grandiose picture of the formation of the structure of the Metagalaxy unfolds.
In modern cosmology, along with the Big Bang hypothesis, the inflationary model of the Universe, which considers the creation of the Universe, is very popular. The idea of creation has a very complex justification and is associated with quantum cosmology. This model describes the evolution of the Universe starting from the moment 10 -45 s after the start of expansion.
Proponents of the inflationary model see a correspondence between the stages of cosmic evolution and the stages of the creation of the world described in the book of Genesis in the Bible 4.
According to the inflation hypothesis, cosmic evolution in early universe goes through a number of stages.
The beginning of the Universe is defined by theoretical physicists as a state of quantum supergravity with a radius of the Universe of 10 -50 cm
Inflation stage. As a result of a quantum leap, the Universe passed into a state of excited vacuum and, in the absence of matter and radiation in it, intensively expanded according to an exponential law. During this period, the space and time of the Universe itself was created. During the inflationary stage lasting 10 -34. The Universe inflated from an unimaginably small quantum size of 10 -33 to an unimaginably large 10 1000000 cm, which is many orders of magnitude greater than the size of the observable Universe - 10 28 cm. During this entire initial period there was no matter or radiation in the Universe.
Transition from the inflationary stage to the photon stage. The state of false vacuum disintegrated, the released energy went to the birth of heavy particles and antiparticles, which, having annihilated, gave a powerful flash of radiation (light) that illuminated space.
The stage of separation of matter from radiation: the matter remaining after annihilation became transparent to radiation, the contact between matter and radiation disappeared. The radiation separated from matter constitutes the modern relict background, theoretically predicted by G. A. Gamov and experimentally discovered in 1965.
Subsequently, the development of the Universe went in the direction from the most simple homogeneous state to the creation of more and more complex structures- atoms (initially hydrogen atoms), galaxies, stars, planets, the synthesis of heavy elements in the bowels of stars, including those necessary for the creation of life, the emergence of life and, as the crown of creation, man.
The difference between the stages of the evolution of the Universe in the inflationary model and the Big Bang model concerns only the initial stage of the order of 10 -30 s, then there are no fundamental differences between these models in understanding the stages of cosmic evolution.
In the meantime, these models can be calculated on a computer with the help of knowledge and imagination, but the question remains open.
The most great difficulty for scientists arises when explaining the causes of cosmic evolution. If we put aside the particulars, we can distinguish two main concepts that explain the evolution of the Universe: the concept self-organization and concept creationism.
For concept self-organization the material Universe is the only reality, and no other reality exists besides it. The evolution of the Universe is described in terms of self-organization: there is a spontaneous ordering of systems in the direction of the formation of increasingly complex structures. Dynamic chaos creates order.
Within the framework of the concept creationism, i.e. creation, the evolution of the Universe is associated with the realization
programs , determined by a reality of a higher order than the material world. Proponents of creationism draw attention to the existence in the Universe of a directed nomogen - development from simple systems to increasingly complex and information-intensive ones, during which the conditions for the emergence of life and humans were created. The anthropic principle is used as an additional argument , formulated by the English astrophysicists B. Carr and Riess.
Among modern theoretical physicists there are supporters of both the concept of self-organization and the concept of creationism. The latter recognize that the development of fundamental theoretical physics makes it an urgent need to develop a unified scientific and technical picture of the world, synthesizing all achievements in the field of knowledge and faith.
The Universe at various levels, from conventionally elementary particles to giant superclusters of galaxies, is characterized by structure. The modern structure of the Universe is the result of cosmic evolution, during which galaxies were formed from protogalaxies, stars from protostars, and planets from protoplanetary clouds.
Metagalaxy- is a collection of star systems - galaxies, and its structure is determined by their distribution in space filled with extremely rarefied intergalactic gas and penetrated by intergalactic rays.
According to modern concepts, a metagalaxy is characterized by a cellular (mesh, porous) structure. There are huge volumes of space (on the order of a million cubic megaparsecs) in which galaxies have not yet been discovered.
The age of the Metagalaxy is close to the age of the Universe, since the formation of the structure occurs in the period following the separation of matter and radiation. According to modern data, the age of the Metagalaxy is estimated at 15 billion years.
Galaxy- a giant system consisting of clusters of stars and nebulae, forming a rather complex configuration in space.
Based on their shape, galaxies are conventionally divided into three types: elliptical, spiral, incorrect.
Elliptical galaxies– have the spatial shape of an ellipsoid with to varying degrees compression, they are the simplest in structure: the distribution of stars uniformly decreases from the center.
Spiral galaxies– presented in a spiral shape, including spiral branches. This is the most numerous type of galaxy, which includes our Galaxy - the Milky Way.
Irregular galaxies– do not have a distinct form, they lack a central core.
Some galaxies are characterized by exceptionally powerful radio emission, exceeding visible radiation. This radio galaxies.
The oldest stars, whose age approaches the age of the galaxy, are concentrated in the core of the galaxy. Middle-aged and young stars are located in the galactic disk.
Stars and nebulae within the galaxy move in a rather complex way, together with the galaxy they take part in the expansion of the Universe, in addition, they participate in the rotation of the galaxy around its axis.
Stars. At the present stage of the evolution of the Universe, the matter in it is predominantly in the stellar state. 97% of the matter in our Galaxy is concentrated in stars, which are giant plasma formations of various sizes, temperatures, and with different characteristics of motion. Many, if not most, other galaxies have "stellar matter" that makes up more than 99.9% of their mass.
The age of stars varies over a fairly wide range of values: from 15 billion years, corresponding to the age of the Universe, to hundreds of thousands - the youngest. There are stars that are currently being formed and are in the protostellar stage, i.e. they haven't become real stars yet.
The birth of stars occurs in gas-dust nebulae under the influence of gravitational, magnetic and other forces, due to which unstable homogeneities are formed and diffuse matter breaks up into a series of condensations. If such condensations persist long enough, then over time they turn into stars. The main evolution of matter in the Universe took place and is happening in the depths of stars. It is there that the “melting crucible” is located, which determined the chemical evolution of matter in the Universe.
At the final stage of evolution, stars turn into inert (“dead”) stars.
Stars do not exist in isolation, but form systems. The simplest star systems - the so-called multiple systems consist of two, three, four, five or more stars orbiting general center gravity.
Stars are also united into even larger groups - star clusters, which can have a “scattered” or “spherical” structure. Open star clusters contain several hundred individual stars, globular clusters- many hundreds of thousands.
Associations, or clusters of stars, are also not immutable and eternally existing. After a certain amount of time, estimated in millions of years, they are scattered by the forces of galactic rotation.
solar system is a group of celestial bodies, very different in size and physical structure. This group includes: the Sun, nine major planets, dozens of planetary satellites, thousands of small planets (asteroids), hundreds of comets and countless meteorite bodies, moving both in swarms and in the form of individual particles. By 1979, 34 satellites and 2000 asteroids were known. All these bodies are united into one system due to the gravitational force of the central body - the Sun. The solar system is an ordered system that has its own structural laws. The unified nature of the solar system is manifested in the fact that all the planets revolve around the sun in the same direction and in almost the same plane. Most of the planets' satellites (their moons) rotate in the same direction and in most cases in the equatorial plane of their planet. The sun, planets, satellites of planets rotate around their axes in the same direction in which they move along their trajectories. The structure of the solar system is also natural: each subsequent planet is approximately twice as far from the Sun as the previous one.
The solar system was formed approximately 5 billion years ago, and the Sun is a star of the second (or even later) generation. Thus, the Solar System arose from the waste products of stars of previous generations, which accumulated in gas and dust clouds. This circumstance gives grounds to call the solar system a small part of stardust. Science knows less about the origin of the Solar System and its historical evolution than is necessary to build a theory of planet formation.
The first theories of the origin of the solar system were put forward by the German philosopher I. Kant and the French mathematician P. S. Laplace. According to this hypothesis, the system of planets around the Sun was formed as a result of the forces of attraction and repulsion between particles of scattered matter (nebula) located in rotational movement around the Sun.
The beginning of the next stage in the development of views on the formation of the Solar system was the hypothesis of the English physicist and astrophysicist J. H. Jeans. He suggested that the Sun once collided with another star, as a result of which a stream of gas was torn out of it, which, condensing, transformed into planets.
Modern concepts of the origin of the planets of the solar system are based on the fact that it is necessary to take into account not only mechanical forces, but also others, in particular electromagnetic ones. This idea was put forward by the Swedish physicist and astrophysicist H. Alfvén and the English astrophysicist F. Hoyle. According to modern ideas, the original gas cloud from which the Sun and the planets were formed consisted of ionized gas subject to the influence of electromagnetic forces. After the Sun was formed from a huge gas cloud through concentration, small parts of this cloud remained at a very large distance from it. Gravitational force began to attract the remaining gas to the resulting star - the Sun, but its magnetic field stopped the falling gas at various distances - exactly where the planets are located. Gravitational and magnetic forces influenced the concentration and condensation of the falling gas, and as a result, planets were formed. When the largest planets arose, the same process was repeated on a smaller scale, thus creating satellite systems.
Theories of the origin of the Solar system are hypothetical in nature, and it is impossible to unambiguously resolve the issue of their reliability at the present stage of scientific development. In all existing theories There are contradictions and unclear areas.
Currently, in the field of fundamental theoretical physics, concepts are being developed according to which the objectively existing world is not limited to the material world perceived by our senses or physical instruments. The authors of these concepts came to the following conclusion: along with the material world, there is reality higher order, which has a fundamentally different nature compared to the reality of the material world.
The system nature-biosphere-human and its contradictions.
Man and society are inextricably linked with nature and are unable to exist and develop outside of it, primarily without the natural environment directly surrounding it. The connection between man and the environment is especially pronounced in the sphere material production. Natural resources serve as the natural basis for material production and the life of society as a whole. Man does not exist outside of nature and the use of objects created on its basis.
Man is most closely connected with such components of nature as the geographical and environment.
Geographic environment is that part of nature (flora and fauna, water, soil, atmosphere of the Earth) that is involved in the sphere of human life, primarily in the production process. Specific areas of human activity and the development of certain industries in various countries and continents depend on the characteristics of the geographic environment. Unfavorable natural conditions hampered social development. Therefore, ancient civilizations initially arose precisely on the banks of the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Ganges, Indus, etc.
If a person found all the means of subsistence he needed in nature in a ready-made form, there would be no incentive to improve production and for his own development. Not only the presence of certain natural conditions for production, but also their lack also had an accelerating effect on the development of society. It is the presence of diverse natural conditions that is the most favorable factor in the development of man and society.
The environment includes, in addition to the surface of the Earth and its interior, the part of the solar system that falls or may fall into the sphere human activity, and also the material world created by him. In the structure of the environment, natural and artificial habitats are distinguished.
The natural habitat includes the inanimate and living parts of nature - the geosphere and the biosphere. It exists and develops without human intervention, in a natural way. However, in the course of evolution, man gradually masters his natural habitat more and more. Initially it was just simple consumption of natural resources. Then man began to use natural sources of livelihood, transforming them in the course of his practical activities.
As a result, an artificial habitat was created - everything that was specially made by man: a variety of objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed landscapes, as well as plants and animals bred through the process of selection and domestication. With the development of society, the role and importance of the artificial habitat for humans is continuously increasing.
As a result of man's transformation of the natural habitat, we can talk about the existence of a new state of it - the technosphere.
Technosphere is a set of technical devices and systems together with the field of human technical activity. Its structure is quite complex, it includes man-made substances, technical systems, living matter, upper part of the earth's crust, atmosphere, hydrosphere. With the beginning of the era of space flights, the technosphere has gone far beyond the biosphere and already covers near-Earth space.
Noosphere: concept and main components.
The term “noosphere” (from the Greek Noos - mind) is translated as the sphere of dominance of the mind. This term was first introduced by Leroy in 1927, together with Teilhard de Chardin, he considered the noosphere as a kind of ideal formation, a non-biosphere shell of thought surrounding the Earth.
The doctrine of the noosphere does not yet have a complete canonical character.
Vernadsky began to develop the doctrine of the noosphere from the early 30s. after a detailed development of the doctrine of the biosphere. He uses the concept of noosphere in different senses: - as a state of the planet when a person becomes the largest transformative geological force; -as an area of active manifestation of scientific thought; -as the main factor in the restructuring and change of the biosphere.
He first realized and tried to carry out a synthesis of natural and social sciences when studying the problems of global human activity, actively restructuring the environment.
What is common in Chardin’s and Vernadsky’s understanding of the noosphere is: 1) the emergence of the human mind leads to a change in the biosphere itself; 2) human thought and activity become a geological factor; they transform the entire surface layer of the Earth. 3) the transformation of the biosphere is inevitable and irreversible. They came to these conclusions independently of each other in the early 30s.
Differences in the concepts of Vernadsky and Chardin: For Chardin, 1) the driving force of evolution is reason, consciousness independent of the individual; 2) the noosphere is the thinking layer of the Earth, which is formed on top of the biosphere. For Vernadsky, 1) the driving force of evolution is nature itself, and thought, reason is the result of the evolution of nature. 2) the noosphere does not rise above the biosphere, but the biosphere transforms into the noosphere, which leads to an improvement in the biosphere.
Currently The noosphere is understood as the sphere of interaction between man and nature, within which intelligent human activity becomes the main determining factor of development. In the structure of the noosphere, humanity, social systems, the totality of scientific knowledge, the sum of technology and technology in unity with the biosphere can be distinguished as components. The harmonious interrelation of all components of the structure is the basis for the sustainable existence and development of the noosphere.
Their main characteristics are as follows. 1) Microworld. Its objects (real and virtual elementary particles, individual atoms and molecules) have microscopic dimensions, i.e. in general, disproportionately less than a person and social systems, living organisms on the planet and their community systems.
2) Macroworld. Its objects are represented by the biotic and social systems of the Earth, ranging from individual microbial organisms,
plants, animals, humans, etc. and up to the most complex systems- biosphere and sociosphere. 3) Megaworld. Includes objects disproportionately larger than biotic and social systems. These are planets, stars, galaxies, their various clusters, as well as the entire observable (to date) Universe, or Metagalaxy. This typology of the World-System is quite widespread in the scientific and philosophical literature on NCM and philosophy. In addition, in a number of cases, some other forms of Worlds are distinguished on a similar basis, for example, Midimir, Mesoworld (which will be discussed below). It should be emphasized that the metric forms of the World differ from each other not just in size, but also in characteristic metric, i.e., spatio-temporal parameters and related properties. This, for example, is well shown in the monograph by A.M. Moste-panenko “Space and arema in the macro-, mega- and microworld”.
At first glance, the objects that can be known by science today are not comparable. With his inquisitive gaze, a person penetrates into the worlds of molecules, atoms, and elementary particles, the sizes of which, compared to a person, are 10 IS -10 IS times smaller. On the other hand, he studies outer space and objects of the Cosmos - planets, stars, galaxies, their clusters, the observable Universe, which is approximately 10 2 S -1Q 26 times larger than the researcher himself and society. Comparing cognitive abilities modern science, the famous astronomer B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov writes in his book “Essays on the Universe” (M., 1980, p. 598). “Studying systems, man reached the atomic nucleus, which has a diameter of 10~13 cm, i.e. about 10 IS times smaller than himself. Studying the systems of which he himself is a part, he encounters 10 15 times big system already in the form of the Solar System (the currently known diameter of our Solar System, strictly speaking... is only 10 15 cm). The diameter of the part of the Metagalaxy known to us now is about 10 28 cm. In the region of Space, we have penetrated, in other words, 100 million times further than in the region of the Microworld of the smallest particles. However, the properties of the world's greatest systems are made available to astronomers only through the study of the smallest particles studied by physics. But even in the study of this Microworld, observation of processes in the Cosmos, replacing experiments that are not feasible in the laboratory, brings great help. The great and the small are fused in the unity of nature.”
The spatial scales of the Universe and the sizes of the main cognizable systems of the World can be represented by a table, where the sizes are given in meters, using approximate numbers within the same order (Karpen-kov S.Kh. Concepts modern natural science. M., 1997, p. 65 and other sources):
The radius of the Universe visible to us,
or cosmological horizon 10 26
The diameter of our Galaxy is 10 21
Distance from Earth to Sun 10 11
Diameter of the Sun 10 9
Diameter of the Earth 10 7
Person size 10 0
Cell diameter 10 -4 -10 -5
Wavelength of visible light 10 -6 -10 -7
Virus size 10 -6 -10 -8
Diameter of a hydrogen atom 10 -10
Diameter of the atomic nucleus 10 -15
Minimum distance available
today our measurements are 10 -18
Thus, the ratio of the largest to the smallest size available to scientific observation today is 44 orders of magnitude. From the noted spatial positions, the Macroworld as a world of objects commensurate with humans - biotic and social systems - is a very heterogeneous, broad formation. It includes biosystems from cells to biocenoses and the biosphere as the surface sphere of the entire Earth, as well as social systems from humans to states and the sociosphere. Consequently, only in the Macrocosm the distances turn out to be comparable, on the one hand, with the sizes of cells or even viruses (living organic crystals), and on the other, with the diameter of the Earth (biosphere and sociosphere), and extend from 10" -10" 6 to 10 7 m, i.e. include approximately 12 orders. For the Microworld, the ratios of the largest (starting from 1 (G 5 m, i.e., cell size) and the smallest (10 ~ 18) are 13 orders of magnitude, and in the Mega World, respectively, from 10 to 10 26 m - 19 orders!
For such different micro-, macro- and mega-distances, corresponding measures of length are used. Thus, in the world of microobjects, millimeters, microns, and angstroms are used. If a millimeter is 0.001 m, then a micron is 0.001 mm or Iff* m. An angstrom is 10""° m. In the Macroworld, millimeters, meters and kilometers are mainly used. And in the world of space objects, distance units such as the astronomical unit, light year and parsec are used. The astronomical unit (AU), used more often in the study of the solar system, is the distance from the Earth to the Sun equal to 149,600,000 km, or approximately 1.5 10 1 "m. A light year is the distance that a light ray , moving at a speed of 300,000 km/sec, passes in a year, which corresponds to 9.46 10 17 km, or approximately 10,000 billion km, or 10 16 m. Parsec (ps) - a unit of cosmological measurements equal to 3.26 light of the year (Fizika Kosmosa. M., 1986).
For example, the diameter of our Galaxy, called the Milky Way, is about 100,000 light years, and its thickness is 10-15 times less. It contains about 150 billion stars. On these scales, our Solar system appears as only the smallest cell of such a cosmic supersystem. The number of stars in the Galaxy as a whole is comparable to the number of cells in multicellular organism, for example, a person. Therefore, from these positions, the Galaxy can be considered as a huge cosmic superorganism,
and various clusters of galaxies - as populations and cosmocenoses (communities) of such superorganisms. In a well-explored region of space, at distances up to 1500 Mpc, there are several billion galaxies (for comparison, humanity in terms of the number of people at the end of the 20th century is approaching 6 billion people)
Time ranges vary widely in the systems under study, which can be measured in seconds, minutes, hours, years, centuries, millions and billions of years. If the lifespan of a person is measured in several tens of years, of a microbe - in tens of minutes, then the age of the observable Universe is determined to be approximately 20 billion years, and the lifetime of many elementary particles is approximately 10 -6 - 10 - "° sec. On the other hand, in the Microworld, times The lives of different elementary particles have enormous differences. Among them there are very short-lived particles, for example, a group of resonant elementary particles. Their lifetime is 10 - 3 seconds. During this time they manage to fly a distance of the order of 10 - 13 cm (which corresponds to the size of a proton). , and then die. The lifetime of a neutron is several minutes (about %0 s). A proton is considered a long-lived stable particle, its lifetime is more than 10 31 years. And a photon, a stable particle, travels vast distances in Space and allows astronomers to obtain information about it. cosmic objects that existed billions of years ago As a rule, the lifetime of a particle “is determined by the nature of the forces causing the decay, and depends on the amount of energy released in the decay. The weaker the interaction causing the decay, the longer the lifetime of the particle. Thus, mesons and baryons. decaying due to strong interaction processes, have an anomalously short lifetime - 10 -22 -10 -23 s. The lifetime of particles decaying due to electromagnetic interaction is 10-16 -10-20 s. The lifetime of particles decaying by weak interaction is even longer - 10-"° - 10- 8 s, the muon 2" 10 6 s, and the neutron - 10 3 s" (Space Physics, p. 186).
Our sense organs, without the help of instruments, are capable of perceiving only a very small part of the World-System, mainly in the form of the surrounding substances of the Earth and radiation from the visible part of the solar spectrum. So, A.V. Svetlov writes: “The successes of sciences such as quantum physics and elementary particle physics in the study of the Microworld give scientists grounds to declare with full confidence that the most compact of all atoms of matter is the hydrogen atom. In order to imagine the ratio of the sizes of this structure, let’s increase it by 1,000 billion times! Then in the center there will be a hypothetical ball with a diameter of 16 mm, and the second “ball”, identifying an electron (the central dense part of the electron cloud - E.U.), will have a diameter of 5.6 mm and “fly around” the nucleus in an orbit with a radius of 53 meters. It turns out that it is 99.999. % atom consists of emptiness. And this is the most “dense,” so to speak, atom. Consequently, the density and impenetrability of the objects surrounding us is nothing more than an illusion (Maya), created by the special structure of our sense organs." Differentiated sense organs are arranged in such a way that each of them is tuned to
vibration of the environment of a certain frequency, working on the principle of a tuning fork. Science knows very well that there are a large number of vibrations (fluctuations) above and below these groups of waves, frequencies, etc.
Consequently, there is a lot of light that we cannot see, a lot of sounds that our ears do not perceive, as well as many other signals and world entities of different orders that are not perceived by our senses. “Thus we begin to understand that the vibrations by which we see and hear are like two small groups of a small number of strings taken from a huge harp, the size of which is infinite: and when we consider how much we have been able to learn and how much we have accomplished deductions from these small passages, we will dimly imagine what possibilities might lie before us if we were able to make use of the vast and wonderful whole. . Experiments with X-rays give us examples of the amazing results that are obtained when even very few of these additional vibrations become available to a person. Learn to see with the help of X-rays in addition to those that we usually use enough to enable everyone to do magic a trick of this kind” [ibid., p. 25] Or, for example, the presence in a person of the property of echolocation inherent bats, or the sense of infrared vision found in a number of reptiles, would allow it to navigate freely and actively operate in complete darkness.
When comprehending new possibilities of penetration into yet unexplored areas of the Universe, amazing worlds open up before the human gaze, called by researchers differently (including “parallel”, virtual, “anti-worlds”, etc.) But, as Ch. Leadbeater notes. “We should not, when thinking about them, imagine some new and strange kind of matter, but should simply imagine ordinary physical matter, which is so discharged and acts so quickly that it introduces us to completely new conditions and properties” [ cited from 254, p. 25].
As a general specificity of the Micro-, Macro- and Mega-World, it should be noted that they study different parts and states of the World-System, and therefore, if the problems of each such World are considered “from the inside”, from a narrow position, then obvious inconsistency comes to the fore, incommensurability of conclusions about the properties of different metric Worlds, the absolute impossibility of integrating, at first glance, incomparable material. As noted by A.V. Svetlov, as an illustration of this idea, one can cite the well-known parable of three blind men who tried to describe what an elephant is by approaching it from three different sides. The first one approached the animal’s leg and, feeling it, said: “An elephant is something massive, like a column! » The second one approached the trunk and remarked: “An elephant is something flexible and mobile, like a snake!” And the third, touching the tail, exclaimed: “Friends, you are both wrong. An elephant is a string." If we consider the problem as a whole, from a systemic-synthetic position, then it turns out that in different sciences, from different sides, individual parts, sections of the United World-System were cognized. A
The main task today is the philosophical and scientific integration of disparate parts into the Whole.
It should be emphasized that the specificity of the Microworld and Macroworld is as follows. Knowledge about the Microworld has come mainly into the field of knowledge of the World of energies, or Scattered Matter, Incorporeal Substance (in objective and subjective terms). The laws of the World of Energy apply here. On the contrary, in the Macroworld the World of substances was initially studied (and, initially, in a passive version, in the form of mechanism) in its own ways and methods, which left a natural imprint on all the knowledge obtained in this way. But based on the recognition of the continuity and integrity of the Universe, it should be recognized that between the different sides of the One there are numerous mutual transitions of the Active World Substance, the interaction of parts. Science is increasingly penetrating these borderline, interface areas and identifying invariant forms in the transformation of knowledge. It is these border areas that turn out to be the most heuristic and form the basis for universal integration in ONCM and in Synthetic CM.
The specificity of the Megaworld lies in the fact that here, in an almost static (by our earthly standards) state, huge parts of the observable Universe are known. But if we accept that the One is cognized in big and small, this specificity turns out to be not an obstacle, but another fruitful step in the revelation of the Great Secrets of the Cosmos. At the same time, the possible dynamics of the superstructure of the Megaworld are suggested by the Macroworld, and the Microworld in its smallest vacuum (proto-energy) structures, in their totality, again “comes out” to the Megaworld and determines part of the properties of the huge Universe, showing how “pure” energy naturally turns into “ pure" substance and vice versa. Therefore, it is not the study of the “struggle” of directions “to a victorious (i.e. disastrous in its one-sidedness) end,” but cognitive synthetic directions that are becoming more and more heuristic and fruitful. The latter are initially humane and tolerant. Here, researchers do not stoop to mutual abuse even when creatively analyzing opposing views; they take into account the cognitive value of the precious grains of anomalous facts, from which, as we know, the birth of new knowledge is most likely. Let us briefly note the features of the selected Worlds.
In the Microworld, the spaces of existence of individual systems (micro-objects) have extremely small, microscopic dimensions. The speed of their propagation is extremely high and comparable to the speed of light -300,000 km/sec, and according to some scientific hypotheses, there may also be movements with even greater speeds (the so-called superluminal movements of tachyons and other particles, including superluminal speeds of movement in the global energy environment - the physical vacuum). The classical laws of physics (mechanics, etc.) of the Macroworld do not apply here, and the existence of micro-objects - energy waves, individual elementary particles, atoms, molecules is described by the laws of relativistic physics, quantum physics, elementary particle physics and nuclear physics. In Microworld,
Unlike the Macroworld and Megaworld, the Heisenberg principle applies, according to which for a microobject it is impossible to immediately accurately determine its main parameters - momentum, speed, coordinates. The more precisely one of the two parameters is determined, the more uncertain the other becomes and vice versa. Apparently, this paradox is determined by the fact that in micro-objects integral matter, much more than in the Macro- and Mega-Worlds, represents an inextricable unity, on the one hand, of the mass part (bodily substance, or concentrated matter with a pronounced rest mass), but in vanishingly small quantities, and on the other hand, the energetic massless part (incorporeal substance, scattered matter with absent or almost absent rest mass). The specified dynamic unity (with near-light speeds of change of states and parameters) leads to the fact that in “point” areas of the Microworld the mass continuously transforms into the massless and vice versa. That is why it is impossible to use “purely mass” (for example, momentum) or “purely massless” (for example, spatial - vacuum characteristics) characteristics in research. Here, these characteristics constantly transform into each other, mutually changing the extreme polar “classical” parameters.
Therefore, in such studied points of the Microworld, apparently, it is impossible to clearly define space and time separately, since they partly merge in dynamic interaction. The very space of a microparticle (the corresponding section of physical vacuum) can so smoothly, without a clearly defined boundary, pass into the space of the surrounding energetic environment (physical vacuum) that it becomes very problematic to determine the interface between the phases “microparticle - energetic environment” And where it is possible to relatively To definitely calculate the momentum of a particle, spatial certainty loses its meaning, and vice versa. Part of space (massless energy of the physical vacuum) is concentrated, passes from a virtual state into a real one and is included by microquanta in potential energy microparticles, i.e. into the mass, bodily part, and reverse processes also occur. Therefore, of necessity, the laws of “purely” concentrated (mass, matter) and “purely” scattered (massless, energy) matter are violated. For example, a mass part of a substance suddenly “out of nowhere” receives additional energy. It seems that “out of nothing something is born.” In fact, the total energy of integral matter does not disappear or appear from anywhere. It simply passes from one qualitative form to another alternative form (the incorporeal passes into the corporeal and vice versa). At the macroscopic level this is expressed universal formula E = mс 2.
Thus, the apparent violation of conservation laws at the micro level is explained by the inconsistency of the corresponding epistemological approach to the phenomena of the Microworld. Namely, the study takes into account only one side of the existence of the objective world - mass matter, but implicitly postulates the absence of the other (massless matter). The latter is completely wrongfully (explicitly or implicitly) equated mainly with “empty
toge" or to zero, which leads to illogical results. Apparently, this gap is beginning to be bridged in modern concepts physical vacuum.
In addition, the wave-particle duality of objects is of fundamental importance. To understand microobjects, sciences such as quantum and wave physics. Elementary particles are difficult to distinguish or not distinguishable at all (using modern techniques) a system and environment where there is no clear phase separation, as in the Macroworld. For example, only in some models (Bohr, etc.) is the electron represented as a clearly demarcated particle. In fact, it exists in the form of a constantly moving (even on electron orbits atom) of an electron cloud, with different degrees of density of its parts, where highest density and generally characterizes the location of a given microobject. Moreover, it is almost impossible to fix the exact coordinates of micro-objects in the radiation. Therefore, in order to understand them, physics mainly uses not dynamic methods (as in most cases in the Macroworld or Megaworld), but probabilistic-statistical ones.
The problem of observability of phenomena appears in a completely different way. Even with the help of advanced techniques used in the Microworld, it seems very difficult not only to directly observe, but even to detect individual particles (for example, an all-penetrating neutrino or resonant particles). Most often, the detection and study of microobjects occurs using indirect methods (for example, in the form of prints in photographs). Therefore, the observation technique, the equipment used and the research actions of the observer himself have a very strong influence in the experiment, which can radically change the objective characteristics of natural microobjects and significantly divert knowledge from the truth. A specific Microworld problem arises: the purity of observation and experiment, the ability to identify the true, undistorted characteristics of the observed object.
In addition, in our usual “macroscopic” understanding of reality, the Microworld is a world of paradoxes. On the one hand, it is characterized by micro-objects of colossal density, such as the neutron and proton, as well as the nuclei of atoms consisting of them. On the other hand, this is an extremely dispersed substance - a physical vacuum, which was discussed above and the properties of which are still largely unclear. On the one hand, in the Microworld there are extremely small objects - atoms, elementary particles, and on the other hand, its scattered matter spreads in the form of the World Energy Environment throughout the Universe, filling it and thus connecting with the Megaworld.
But precisely in this world paradoxes, the opportunity arose to unite what seemed to be “not united.” Quantum relativistic concepts have shown classic example synthesis of polar corpuscular and wave theories of light in the concept of corpuscular-wave dualism.
It is with the Microworld that a number of modern synthetic directions of combining once incomparable interactions are associated - volume-
the integration of electromagnetic and weak interactions into the concept of electroweak interactions, then - the creative search for the Great Unification with gravitational and strong interactions, and in the most recent years - the Great Synthesis of all interactions in the theories of the Physical Vacuum,
Unlike the Microworld, the Macroworld, due to the fact that it is commensurate with the cognizing subject - man, has been most fully studied by science. It includes natural and social objects, the sizes of which range from the size of pre-cellular forms (for example, viruses), living cells and single cell organism to the biosphere and sociosphere as integral planetary formations. Most objects of the Macroworld can be reflected through direct observations (with the exception of unicellular and subcellular structures). These are areas of predominance of concentrated mother matter on the planet, or the World of Substances. Therefore, the basis here is the material structure of objects, and specific energies are also associated with a certain qualitative state of matter. The region of the Macroworld is the region of organic nature on the surface of the Earth, the sphere of biotic and social life.
Although all organic substances are characterized by an atomic-molecular structure (as a manifestation of a single physical and chemical basis of the Microworld), a specific molecular basis is formed here from organic substances, non-metals - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc. Due to the property of carbon atoms to form various, straight or branched chains, ring structures, etc., organic molecules reach gigantic (on the scale of the Microworld) sizes, some of them (for example, the length of the “strand” of the DNA life molecule) turn out to be commensurate with subcellular structures - organelles, for example, cell nucleus, especially during periods of greatest activity (for example, during the phase of cell division). As a result, biotic (biological) molecules become specific carriers of biotic and social activity- organic life.
Possessing high activity, biomolecules acquire the ability to accumulate solar cosmic energy in various forms and convert it into special types of energy of various living organisms, as well as into the biotic energy of DNA and RNA molecules, which determines cell division, reproduction of biotic and social organisms, and in general - biotic and social life. The progressive development of mechanisms for the absorption of free types of energy from the external environment in animals, and then social organisms, forms a special energy exchange of living organisms with the environment, determines the appearance of energy-rich structures in the form nerve cells and the nervous system of animals and humans, and due to this, the active movement of biological systems in space. The most complex types of energy are formed in the nervous system - mental (in animals) and mental and spiritual (in humans). The mental and spiritual energy of a person determines conscious and practical activity in society [ibid., pp. 230-275] and, in general, new qualities of social matter.
Organic systems biospheres (and then sociospheres) play a special cosmic role on the planet, since, along with other surface geospheres, they transform various cosmic energies surrounding outer space(space environment) into “earthly” material and energy forms and represent special perceiving subsystems of the Earth. The time parameters of the Macroworld systems are also generally commensurate with human life; they can be measured in years (more broadly - centuries, millennia, millions of years) or, on the contrary, in shorter intervals - days, minutes, seconds.
The study of evolutionary phylogenetic processes in organic nature in the form evolutionary doctrine has been carried out in science for about two centuries. During this time, different conceptual views were formed, which generally proceeded from two various positions. On the one side, important in evolution, the interaction of organisms with the environment was considered primary (starting with the teachings of Lamarck, and in modern concepts - ecological ideas). On the other side, the main role was given to the internal factors of organisms - their variability and heredity (starting with the teachings of Darwin, and in modern conditions - genetic ideas). In general, it should be noted that both directions suffered from one-sidedness, each of them moved towards an understanding of the whole - the evolutionary process - mainly from its own side, denying the other. This was the subject of many years of discussion, which sometimes turned into a “fierce struggle,” especially when political interests, rather than scientific ones, prevailed. A very extensive literature is devoted to these issues both in our country and abroad. In particular, analysis this phenomenon in our country was carried out by the American researcher L.R. Graham. The theoretical aspects of different approaches and their systemic analysis are given by us in.
Biological science at the turn of the 21st century. Extensive material has been accumulated in both directions - genetic and environmental, as well as important results of a systemic synthetic nature. Therefore, apparently, the time is coming not for confrontation and conflict genesis, but for a broad system synthesis the best achievements of evolutionary-genetic, evolutionary-ecological directions and systemic biological concepts (structural organization, systematicity, self-organization of biosystems, etc.) into a single systemic-synthetic ecogenetic concept of phylogenesis. The prerequisites and main guidelines for such a synthesis are shown, for example, in the monograph by G.A. Yugaya “General Theory of Life” (Moscow, 1985). An important feature of the Macroworld is also that the metric characteristics of its objects allow us to study in detail the structure of systems, the functions of their parts, general dynamics and ontogenetic cycles of systems. These results play an invaluable role in the development of general system concepts, and also allow us to extrapolate, using the method of analogies, some of the most important results to other areas of knowledge.
Unlike the first two Worlds, Megyamir is a World of huge space objects, where their own metrics apply. Distances are measured by
rows of ~ 10 7 ~10 M meters, and time - millions and billions of years. Just as in the Microworld, the metric properties of the Megaworld, unusual from the standpoint of everyday concepts, reveal the special laws of the Cosmos, of the entire observable Universe. The first subjective ideas about the objects of the Megaworld gave conclusions about their immobility and the absence of differences in distances to different stars and galaxies (for example, the constellations identified by ancient observers, from modern positions, include luminous objects located at enormous distances from each other, from different stellar or galactic associations). What is usually called cosmic evolution in the Megaworld is, in general, not phylogeny (in comparison with biology or sociology, in the form of multiple changes in species of similar systems - over hundreds of thousands and millions of years), but ontogenesis, i.e. mainly a description of the cycles of self-development and self-disintegration of individual cosmic systems - stars, planets, galaxies. It is the ontogenetic cycles of space systems and their individual phases that last millions and billions of years, and phylogeny different types The development of such systems takes many billions of years and becomes the subject of a special area of cosmogony - the evolution of the Metagalaxy, the observable Universe. Thus, if we draw broad scientific and philosophical analogies in the knowledge of the Macroworld and Megaworld systems, then the cosmic evolution of stars and planets appears here as the ontogeny of space systems and is comparable to the ontogenetic cycles of biotic and social systems, and not to phylogeny. Consequently, it is the ontogenesis of the system (its self-organization, self-development, self-polarization and self-disintegration, followed by secondary self-organization and new cycles) that becomes the basis for scientific and philosophical comparison and identification of universal systemic patterns in various Worlds and in the Universe as a whole.
Incomparable - (in the first forms scientific knowledge) the metrics of the Macroworld and Megaworld led to different ways of understanding them and to fundamentally incomparable first scientific conclusions. Thus, even in modern times, the ideas of classical mechanics were extended to the Cosmos: the only form of movement seemed to be mechanical, and the force was gravitational (“non-living” mechanical forces of attraction and repulsion). These ideas formed the basis of a mechanistic cosmological picture of the World, where Space was presented as inanimate nature, in contrast to living organic nature - Biota, as well as Society. This fundamental difference formed the basis of cosmogenesis, where the main (initial) forces of cosmic evolution turned out to be “passive, lifeless” gravitational interactions, i.e. not internal, own forces of the space system, characterizing its own activity, but forces external to it, the interaction of the system with the surrounding spatial environment. Such cosmogonic ideas about the Inanimate Cosmos formed the basis of all traditional cosmological concepts and have existed until the present day. They also served as the basis for the popular idea of the division of all nature into “non-living” (Space, Earth) and living (Biota, Society).
Another, brilliant intuitive idea of the ancient sages about the Active World-System with uniform laws of self-motion (concentration and dispersion) of the world integral matter, including the Active Living Cosmos, in principle contradicted the mechanistic “traditional” physicalist ideas and therefore was rejected by physics. However, in the 20th century, already on the basis of the new accumulated empirical and theoretical material, a number of ideas arose again, which were essentially built on a new scientific paradigm, which in general, as research in recent years shows, is closest to the views about the Active Cosmos (Active inorganic nature). The results obtained within the framework of the new scientific paradigm, the basis of which in astronomy was laid by the Byurakan concept, were generally opposite to traditional cosmogonic ideas (Ambartsumyan, Markaryan, Dzhvdzhyan, Kazyutinsky, Dmitriev, etc.). This (Byurakan) concept in astronomy was designated by V.A. Ambartsumyan as an unconventional cosmogonic concept. And indeed, even more in-depth studies show that many of the conclusions of non-traditional cosmological views correlate with traditional ones exactly the opposite. Therefore, in most sources of scientific, educational and popular science astronomical literature, as a rule, only traditional views are described, and the opposite ones are either not mentioned at all, or are given very briefly, mainly only in terms of criticism.
Thus, the universal ideas about Active (living) cosmic, biotic and social matter, with the universal world laws of self-organization, self-development, self-disintegration (with “reproduction”, i.e. the emergence of new generations of similar systems) and new ontogenetic cycles did not fit into the traditional cosmogonic ideas. And only new scientific achievements in the 20th century. allowed us to take a new look at the dynamics of the Cosmos. First of all, these are general scientific achievements showing the universal unity of the structural-dynamic organization of matter, its various structural levels(cosmic, biotic and social systems of the Microworld, Macroworld and Megaworld). These are the results of a general scientific synergetic direction that have shown the universality of natural and social processes of self-organization of cosmic, biotic and social systems and, consequently, the unity of the laws of their self-motion. In addition, a large amount of factual material has accumulated in observational astronomy, starting with basic research school of Pulkovo astronomers (St. Petersburg), then the school of Ambartsumyan and other astronomer-researchers in different countries, which turned out to be directly opposite to the conclusions of traditional cosmogonic constructions (birth star clusters, activity of galactic nuclei, exploding and retreating galaxies, movements of matter currents in the arms of galaxies in directions opposite to the predictions of traditional theories, etc.). In more detail, from a scientific and philosophical point of view this problem reviewed by us in .
Thus, on the new modern scientific basis of the achievements of the 20th century. ideas about the self-motion of the World substance and about the Active Cosmos, about the Active (living) inorganic nature of the Megaworld and Microworld were revived. Non-traditional cosmogonic views are being formed, which, apparently, in comparison with traditional constructions, are more adequate to modern scientific and philosophical ideas. But this does not mean at all that, in the event of the greatest recognition of the concepts of Active Space, all the scientific baggage of traditional views will be “subjected to devastating criticism” and discarded. On the contrary, it should be emphasized that within the framework of “traditional” astronomy and astrophysics, a wealth of empirical and theoretical material has been accumulated. A significant part of it, in the case of using another, broader methodological approach, works great in a non-traditional paradigm. Therefore, most likely in the near future there will be a dialectical synthesis of alternative views on the nature and dynamics of the Cosmos and the Megaworld on a new, wider methodological basis. As has been noted more than once, science is aware of a number of once alternative views, which then turned out to be complementary parts of a broader conceptual integrity. Let us recall, for example, Laplacean determinism and the probabilistic concepts synthesized in modern deterministic views; alternative ideas about the corpuscular and wave essence of micro-objects, integrated into the concepts of corpuscular-aolin dualism; the confrontation between genetic and ecological views on biological evolution, which are increasingly integrated into new ecogenetic concepts, etc.
In general, we can say that despite the cardinal difference in the metric characteristics of the Microworld, Macroworld and Megaworld, they most likely obey the same laws of self-motion of the Universe.
In addition to the noted and generally accepted typology of Worlds, we can note, as it seems to us, the fruitful and very relevant ideas of some authors about somewhat more differentiated approach To this issue. For example, B.M. Kedrov, as well as other scientists following in line with these ideas, when describing the main forms of motion of matter, proposed to highlight geological form movement associated with the overall movement of our planet. In complex studies of biologists, ecologists, geologists and geographers, system-structural complexes are identified that reflect not only the characteristics of biosystems, but also different parts geosystems (for example, biogeocenoses, sociobiogeocoenoses; levels of organization of geosystems; surface and internal concentric layers of the planet, or geosphere - core, mantle, litho-, hydro-, bio-, socio-, atmosphere, etc., generally reflecting it structurally -functional organization, etc.) - Real studies of the processes and mechanisms of evolution of biotic and social systems are possible only taking into account the fact that the biotic and social life known to us appeared and developed on a special cosmic system - the planet Gaia or Earth, due to the life-giving solar energy in process
solar-terrestrial interactions In addition, scientific results of recent years show the possibility of studying planets and stars as open systems of the Cosmos, in which the mechanisms of cosmic evolution and cosmic life are actively manifested (on appropriate spatiotemporal scales)
On the basis of the noted ideas, the theoretical and practical significance of the knowledge of special (mother for Biota and Society) cosmic systems - cosmic megasystems of planets and stars, primarily the Earth and the Sun, A N Dmitrievsky, I A. Volodin and G I Shipov highlight an additional gradation when studying the Universe. Namely, differentiate not only the maxi-Universe (as the totality of all observable cosmic mega-objects), the mini-Universe (chikro-objects of the Cosmos), but also the mndi-Universe, first of all, our planet. The authors substantiate this differentiation by the development of a new evolutionary approach, in which the planet can play the role of not passive, but active space object, systemically transforming in accordance with the laws of cosmic evolution and the laws of systemic motion of matter (SDM, as their authors designate).
Thus, the authors write that in ideas about changes in the Earth as an integral cosmic body, two theories developed in modern physics were traditionally used - astrophysics and quantum field theory. “Indeed, from the point of view of astrophysics, the Earth was an uninteresting object, since, according to traditional ideas, its mass small for the occurrence of significant relativistic effects general theory of relativity underlying astrophysical models” [ibid., p. 124]. “However, in recent years, a number of new synergetic effects have been obtained, allowing us to consider geodynamics and geodynamics in a new way, taking into account quantum relativistic processes. structural transformations Earth In modern physics, there are sections that study the maxi-Universe (cosmology and astrophysics) and the mini-Universe (microworld, quantum field theory). Here we are trying to formulate some of the foundations of the future branch of physics that studies the “midi-Universe,” including planetology (in particular, structure and dynamics of the Earth)" [ibid., p. 124]
“It should be noted that in the geosciences they began to widely use physical theories The main problem for their use is the lack of fundamental physical foundations and, in particular, the absence of a model of the Earth as a whole based on modern nonlinear field theory. This would open the way to the application of a systematic approach to the study of the Earth (our italics - E U) at a deeper theoretical level. An attempt to construct such a model (see) required the formulation of a number of fundamentally new provisions. At the same time, the conclusions from them are in good agreement with experimental data and create a fairly harmonious picture that can be used as the basis for systemic ideas about geodynamics” [ibid., p. 125] We believe that a whole layer of various special scientific research about the Earth and the Solar System (Volodin, Dmitriev, Dmit-
Rievsky, Kaznacheev, Shipov, etc.) in recent years confirms the legitimacy of such statements about the need to highlight a special form of reality, subject to deep comprehensive study
Based on the above, in the general gradation of Worlds one more can be distinguished - Midimnr, reflecting the world of individual cosmic megasystems of stars and planets, and among them - the Earth (Gaia) and the Sun, which have the most important theoretical and practical significance in human life. Knowledge of Midimr as systemic education(Gaia as an integrity and the Solar system as a whole) is dealt with by a large group of geological and geographical sciences, astronomical sciences (planetology, planetary cosmogony, helioastronomy), environmental sciences (the study of solar-terrestrial connections, geo-ecological problems, etc.), as well as a whole a range of applied knowledge (search, development and extraction of mineral resources - mineral, organic resources, various practical use sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks, use of resources and energy of water, wind, sun, etc.)
Taking into account what has been described, the general typology of Worlds can be presented as follows: Microworld - Mndimir - Macromir - Megamnr (or the same in approximately the reverse order, depending on the goals of knowledge Mega-world - Midimir Macromir - Microworld)
The significance of the presented typologies of parts of the World lies in the fact that, firstly, they help to a certain extent to systematize the infinite number of objects of society and nature. Secondly, to identify certain relationships of the Micro-, Macro- and Mega-World (or in more detail, Micro-, Midi -, Macro- and Megaworlds). In this case, the Microworld, in relation to the Macroworld, reveals the deep structural content of the latter. The Mega-world represents, in the broadest sense, the geological and cosmic environment (near and deep space) the existence of living organisms, humans and society, And Midnchir allows us to more substantively understand the immediate cosmic basis on which the biotic and social life of the Earth and the Solar system was formed. Thirdly, already in these metric relationships one can see not only infinite diversity, but connection and interaction , seemingly, at first glance, incomparable objects of the World.
In addition, in a number of systemic studies, the Meso-world is also highlighted (Kagan, Clear, Kuzmin, Malinovsky, Rapoport, Sadovsky, Urmantsev, etc.) It is considered as intermediate between the Microworld (elementary particles, atoms, etc.) and the Macroworld surrounding a person and comparable with it in terms of the size of biotic and social systems. That is, the Mesoworld, as a rule, is considered large molecules, for example, biopolymers of proteins, nucleic acids, cell organelles, microscopic (unicellular) forms and organisms. But the greatest heuristic is the consideration of world parts - Microworld, Macroworld and Megaworld, as well as Midimir or Mesoworld, not only in itself, but in interaction with hierarchical parts of the World and with the corresponding structural organization The world, in the form of structural levels of organization
matter. Therefore, a special, next section of the chapter is devoted to the issue of the general hierarchy of the World-System.
