XVII century in the history of Russia. Lectures on Russian history

(“The Quietest”), Fyodor Alekseevich, princes Peter and Ivan during the regency of Princess Sophia.

The main sector of the Russian economy remained agriculture, and the main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Due to the development of new lands in the Volga region, Siberia, and southern Russia, more agricultural products were produced than in the last century, although the methods of cultivating the land remained the same, using a plow and harrow; the plow was introduced slowly.

In the 17th century, the first manufacture was born, trade developed, but very poorly, because... Russia had no access to the sea.

Russian culture of the 17th century was characterized by a gradual departure from church canons, the spread of secular knowledge, and the secularization of architecture, painting, and sculpture. This happened due to the weakening influence of the church and its subordination to the state.

At the end of the 16th century, after his death, his son Fyodor, who was weak-minded, and the young Tsarevich Dmitry were left behind. Fedor could not rule, because Because of his dementia, he “could not keep his facial expression,” so the boyars began to rule instead of him, among whom he stood out. He was very famous because... was Tatar Khan, brother-in-law of Fyodor and son-in-law of Malyuta Skuratov, i.e. had rich family connections.

Boris Godunov did everything quietly, but “meaningfully”, which is why he received the nickname “The Cunning Demon”. In a few years he destroyed all his opponents and became sole ruler under Fedor. When Tsarevich Dmitry died in Uglich in 1591 (according to official version he himself ran into a knife), and in 1598 Tsar Fedor died, Boris Godunov was crowned king. The people believed him and shouted: “Boris to the kingdom!” With the accession of Boris to the throne, the Rurik dynasty came to an end.

Many of the events carried out during his reign were reformist and reminiscent of government. The king’s positive transformations include the following:

1. He was the first to invite foreign specialists, and all foreigners began to be called Germans, not only because there were more Germans among them, but also because they did not speak Russian, i.e. were "dumb".
2. Tried to calm society by uniting ruling class. To do this, he stopped persecuting the boyars and exalting the nobles, thereby stopping civil war in Russia.
3. Installed outside world at the negotiating table, because practically did not fight wars.
4. He sent several hundred young nobles to study abroad and was the first to try to shave the beards of the boyars (although only Peter I succeeded).
5. He began the development of the Volga region, during his reign the cities of Samara, Tsaritsyn, and Saratov were built.

The negative thing was the tightening of serfdom - he introduced a five-year period for searching for runaway peasants. The plight of the people was aggravated by the famine of 1601-1603, which began due to the fact that in 1601 it rained all summer, and frost struck early, and in 1602 drought occurred. This undermined the Russian economy, people died of hunger, and cannibalism began in Moscow.

Vasily Shuisky photo

Boris Godunov is trying to suppress a social explosion. He began distributing bread for free from state reserves and established fixed prices for bread. But these measures were not successful, because bread distributors began to speculate on it; moreover, the reserves could not be enough for all the hungry, and the restriction on the price of bread led to the fact that they simply stopped selling it.

In Moscow, about 127 thousand people died during the famine; not everyone had time to bury them, and the bodies of the dead remained on the streets for a long time. The people decide that hunger is the curse of God, and Boris is Satan. Gradually rumors spread that he had ordered the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry, then they remembered that the Tsar was a Tatar. This environment was favorable for further developments that happened in .

In 1603, Grigory Otrepiev appears, a monk of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery, who declared that he was the “miraculously saved” Tsarevich Dmitry. People believed him, Boris Godunov nicknamed him, but he could not prove anything. Get to Russian throne helped the Polish king Sigismund III. False Dmitry made a deal with him, according to which Sigismund gave money and an army, and Gregory, after ascending the Russian throne, had to marry a Polish woman, Marina Mnishek. In addition, False Dmitry promised to give the Western Russian lands with Smolensk to the Poles and introduce Catholicism in Rus'.

False Dmitry's campaign against Moscow lasted two years, but in 1605 he was defeated near Dobrynichi. In June 1605, Boris Godunov died; his 16-year-old son Fyodor was thrown out of a fourth floor window. The entire family of Boris Godunov was killed, only Boris’s daughter, Ksenia, was left alive, but she was destined for the fate of False Dmitry’s mistress.

Alexey Mikhailovich photo

Tsarevich False Dmitry was elected to the throne by all the people, and in June 1605 the tsar solemnly entered Moscow and Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich. False Dmitry was very independent, he was not going to fulfill the promises made to the Polish king (except for his marriage to Marina Mniszech). He tried to introduce fork etiquette into Russian canteens and used it very skillfully at dinner.

Observing this, his entourage decided that he was False Dmitry, because Russian tsars did not know how to use a fork. In May 1606, during an uprising that broke out in Moscow, False Dmitry was killed.

At the Zemsky Sobor of 1606, a boyar was elected tsar. It was during his reign that a Polish mercenary appeared, who gathered an army of peasants and moved towards Moscow. At the same time, he said that he was leading Dmitry to the throne. In 1607, the uprising was suppressed, but soon a new impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. Marina Mnishek (for 3 thousand rubles) even “recognized” him as her husband, but he failed to ascend the throne, and in 1610 he was killed in Kaluga.

Discontent with Shuisky grew in the country. The nobles, led by Prokopiy Lyapunov, overthrew Shuisky, and he was tonsured a monk. Power passed to the oligarchy of seven boyars, called "". The boyars, led by Fyodor Mstislavsky, began to rule Russia, but they did not have the people's trust and could not decide which of them would rule.

Patriarch Nikon photo

As a result, the Polish prince Vladislav, son of Sigismund III, was called to the throne. Vladislav needed to convert to Orthodoxy, but he was a Catholic and had no intention of changing his faith. The boyars begged him to come "to look", but accompanied him Polish army, which captured Moscow. It was possible to preserve the independence of the Russian state only by relying on the people. In the fall of 1611, the first militia, which was headed by Prokopiy Lyapunov. But he failed to come to an agreement with the Cossacks and was killed in the Cossack circle.

At the end of 1611 in Kuzma, Minin donated money for the creation. It was headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In October 1612 Polish garrison fell in Moscow.

At the beginning of 1613 there took place Zemsky Sobor, where they were supposed to elect a king. All social classes were represented there, there were even Cossacks. He was elected to the kingdom thanks to the loud cry of the Cossacks. The Cossacks thought that the king could be easily manipulated, because... he was only 16 years old and did not know a single letter. Mikhail's father, Metropolitan Filaret, was in Polish captivity, his mother was in a monastery. The first wife of Ivan the Terrible was Romanova, and besides, the Romanovs were not “covered up” by the oprichnina, which also played an important role in the election of Mikhail as Tsar.

After his accession to the throne, a struggle begins between the boyars. They decided who to marry the young monarch. However, when the bride was selected, she died. Mikhail married only 13 years later to Evdokia Streshneva, and the boyars were able to gain influence over him.

In 1619, Mikhail’s father returned from captivity, as a result of which dual power was established in the country. Formally, Mikhail ruled, officially - Filaret, and this continued until Filaret’s death in 1633. Mikhail’s reign was fair and wise. Taxes were reduced, the Russian people paid the so-called “fifth money” to the treasury, and kept 4/5 for themselves. Foreigners were granted the rights to build factories in Russia, and the development of the metallurgical and metalworking industries began.

Peter 1 photo

Mikhail Fedorovich fought almost no wars; calm came in Russia. In 1645, he died quietly, and his son, Alexei, ascended the throne. For his kindness and gentleness he was nicknamed "The Quietest". He had two wives, from the first, Maria Miloslavskaya, a son, Fyodor, was born, from the second, Natalya Naryshkina, sons Peter and Ivan, and a daughter, Sophia.

During his reign, Alexey Mikhailovich carried out moderate reforms, and also carried out church reform and urban reform. An important act was the publication of the Council Code of 1649. It was a set of laws on all issues from economy to government system(autocracy).

The most important part was the articles “On the Honor of the Sovereign”. No one could encroach on the power of the tsar, but the tsar had to consult with the boyars. The punishment for an attempt on the life of the sovereign “by word and deed” was established - the death penalty.

Chapters dedicated to peasant question- "The Trial of the Peasants." Serfdom was formalized; peasants were the property of the owner and could be bought and sold. The judge of the serfs was their landowner. The serf peasant had only one right to complain to the sovereign.

According to the chapter “On Estates”, estates were allowed to be inherited; they could not deprive a nobleman of his estate, i.e. the role of the nobility increased.

Church reform

Before Alexei Mikhailovich, the church was independent of the state. The king subordinated the church to the state through the following measures:

• the church began to pay taxes to the state, i.e. was deprived of financial privileges;
• the king became the judge over the church;
• monasteries were deprived of the right to buy land.

He proposed his own reform: to cross yourself not with two fingers, but with three; bow from the waist in church. This caused discontent among part of the clergy and secular nobility. Happened church schism, a movement of Old Believers appeared, headed by Archpriest Avaakum.

Alexei Mikhailovich managed to break the church and subjugate it to himself. In 1666, Patriarch Nikon was deprived of his rank and imprisoned in a monastery prison, and Archpriest Avaakum was defrocked and cursed at a church council. After this, brutal persecution of the Old Believers began.

Urban reform

The townspeople were recognized as a special, independent class, but they were attached to the cities. The rights of townspeople to trade were protected: the peasant had to sell his products wholesale to the townspeople, and the townspeople could sell at retail.

At the end of the 17th century, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, a leapfrog began on the throne, because. he had three sons and a daughter. In 1676, his eldest son, 14-year-old Fyodor, ascended the throne, but he was sick, could not walk independently, and power was in the hands of his relatives on his mother’s side. In 1682, Fyodor died, and during the childhood of Ivan and Peter, Princess Sophia began to rule. She ruled until 1689 and managed to accomplish a lot of useful things:

• gave freedom to cities;
• realized the need for a breakthrough to the sea to develop trade; for this, two (admittedly unsuccessful) attempts were made Crimean campaign, in 1687 and 1689.

Sophia tried to seize all power, but the 17-year-old king was already ready to take power over himself.

Results

So, the 17th century is not only "", troubled age, but also a century of contradictions. In the Russian economy, the feudal structure occupied a dominant position, and at the same time, the capitalist structure of the economy emerged. Despite the fact that the situation of the people was extremely difficult, serfdom was formalized, nevertheless, it was the people who could help one or another contender to the Russian throne become king, believe him and follow him.

Russia in the 17th century

Significant processes and phenomena of the 17th century - the beginning of modernization, enslavement, church schism.

Beginning of modernization

Term modernization has two meanings in modern humanitarian knowledge. It is noticed that humanity develops unevenly. Maximum number of inventions and various kinds innovations arises in a certain era within a certain culture. At dawn civilization "leaders" progress was Egypt and Sumer, then Greece and Rome, then Byzantium and arab caliphate. Approximately 500 years ago rapid changes have begun in countries Western Europe. As a result of these changes, a different type of society- not agricultural, but industrial, urban. Ta model, which was developed at this time, turned out to be extremely effective, and gave the best standard of living relatively large masses people. After great eras geographical discoveries, other countries of the world began to get acquainted with this model, and many of them began to adopt European achievements and way of life. These processes are called modernization.

(1)Modernization is transition from agricultural to industrial society . (In Western Europe it began in and ended in).

(2)Modernization is the process of perception by other countries of the elements of the economic, political and cultural model of Western European society (perception of Western European traditions).

We can conditionally highlight three ways modernization (in reality they never appear in their pure form, they are intertwined)

(1)Under Western pressure European countries (colonization). For example, India in - centuries.

(2)In the course of reforms carried out by the government of a given country . For example, Türkiye began - Ataturk's successful reforms

(3)In the course of assimilation of the Western European model of life by broad layers of society . For example, Japanese firms began to rebuild their work along the lines of European and American ones after the World War. own initiative, without pressure from the government

In Russia, at least until the middle of the 20th century, prevailed Type 2 modernization. Reforms based on Western European models were carried out by the government. For Russian modernization characterized by movement "in leaps and bounds".

The government is planning reforms are being carried out at an accelerated pace ----------- they are being carried out V short terms due to overvoltage strength of the country ------ followed by a long decline or "stagnation"

In the field of economics, modernization "spurts" took place

1 - in the Petrine era

2 - at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries (Witte/Stolypin reforms)

3 - at the end of the 1920s-1930s (forced industrialization, collectivization and cultural revolution or Stalinist modernization)

But first steps modernizations are necessary onXVII century Origins modernization of the 17th century - acquaintance of the ruling layer with the life and achievements of Western Europe. In what ways acquaintance took place, and who were the people, on whose initiative modernization began ?

During the Time of Troubles there was an acquaintance between a Russian nobility with life in Poland and Sweden. For example, the patriarch Filaret was in Polish captivity and returned to Russia a staunch supporter of perestroika armies according to European samples. It is he who will lead the government under his son, the king, and will begin transformations in the appropriate direction.

Filaret's successor was boyar Morozov. He got acquainted with the life of Europe in to a greater extent through reading. Morozov knew Latin, which allowed him to read not only newspapers in everyday life, but also scientific and technical literature.

Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676), unlike his father, governed independently. He earned the nickname "The Quietest", because he didn’t like it when people quarreled or made noise in front of him, although he himself was angry. He wore traditional clothes turned around sedately(whole body) when addressed. But at the same time, he was interested in various innovations - the first theater and the first portraits appeared with him. Unlike his predecessors, he cared extremely about education their children.

Children Alexei Mikhailovich Fyodor (1676-1682) and Sophia (1682-1687) already received systematic education according to European canons.

Acquaintance with European life was facilitated by activities Ambassadorial order, which wrote out approximately 50 newspapers. They arrived several months late, but nevertheless they painted a picture of European life

Main samples served as imitation Holland and Sweden. In the 17th century, Holland served as a model for all of Europe - within Europe it was like your "hearth" modernization, its center, from which circles diverged. In Holland formation of a market economy has begun earlier than in other countries (except Italy). In particular, in Saardem ocean sailing ships were developed - flutes, which could transport large loads. It was now possible to trade on a scale never before seen. Holland belonged 15 thousand ships- 2 times more than the rest of Europe. Dutch merchants organized buying up goods from local producers and sold far- there, Where They were valued. They not only bought, but also organized production. The first founders of manufactories in a number of European countries were Dutch entrepreneurs. As a result, Holland became the richest country in Europe with the largest percentage of urban population. (Remember the paintings "little Dutch" in the Hermitage - this is not the life of the elite, but of ordinary burghers - townspeople)

The first country to undertake reforms following the Dutch model was France. (In Holland - natural modernization - without any organization from above) Reforms were carried out on the initiative of the Minister of Finance Colbert: factories and ships were built. Kolberovskaya France, in turn, began to imitate swedish king GustavII. The example of neighboring Sweden served in many ways a model for Russia.

Were and straight contacts with Gollan diy. Some Dutch merchants reached Russia in the 17th century. They bought bread(sales in Europe gave up to 1000% income), proposed to the government to expand the acreage by clearing the forest and burning it potash(fertilizer that was exported).

Modernization affected not only the economic sphere, but also politics and culture.

Reforms and innovations17th century

The author of the Academy's "Charter" was Simeon Polotsk. This learned monk arrived at the court of Alexei Mikhailovich and became the teacher of his children. He was the first to write poetry in Russian using rhymes, he wrote the first plays in Russian - so he was also the first playwright, it was he who developed the regulations according to which the first university operated.

At the first stage reforms were aimed mainly at modernization army. Funds were taken from peasants and townspeople by creating inflationary budget. For example, the government introduced state monopoly for sale salt, A inflated the price- thereby collecting an indirect tax. Salt was a basic necessity much more than it is now - it was a preservative for preparing food for the winter ( instead of a refrigerator). Another means of withdrawing money for reforms was interest rate reduction precious metals in coins - issue of "copper money". Taxes were going to full-fledged coin, and the salary was given in copper - the result was inflation. These innovations have at times caused urban uprisings(“salt” and “copper” riots in Moscow). Then the previous measures were canceled and new ones were introduced instead.

In the second half century, the government's attention is shifting away from wars and their technical support for education and enlightenment. That's when they appear first university, city schools, theater and so on. To a large extent, this turn is connected with the names of the children of Alexei Mikhailovich - Fedora and Sophia who were in power in late XVII century. Both of them were students of Simeon of Polotsk, owned many languages, and Sophia even wrote plays following the example of her teacher. Interesting personality was Fedor. The first of Russian rulers he spoke about the "common good" as about the purpose of his reign - not about expansion territories, not about security nobles, namely about the “common good”.

In addition to steps aimed at the growth of education, under Fyodor and Sophia measures were taken that can be called " humanization". So, under Fedor the execution was abolished quartering, and under Sophia - by burying into the ground. And Sophia's favorite Vasily Golitsin, who largely directed the activities of the government, thought about the harm of a serf rights and in his letters argued the need for its abolition - for the first time in Russian history. However, all these positive trends not destined was develop: Fyodor was given little time by fate, he lived until 21 year And Sophia was removed from the throne younger brother. Peter's time has arrived time.

Split

Special phenomenon in life Russia XVII century - schism. This phenomenon began as a church phenomenon, but very quickly went beyond the church and acquired nature of social movements. By number of people participating in the movement, the split surpassed both the peasant uprisings and urban uprisings combined.

The history of the Schism is connected with the name of the patriarch Nikon. (WITH late XVI head of the Russian Orthodox Church wore patriarchal title, and not the metropolitan.) Nikon’s life story is the story of dizzying ups and downs. Head of the church, in the hierarchy of that time second person in the country after the king, Nikon took place from Volga black sow peasants. His name was Nikita, Nikon is a monastic name. His childhood was not happy. Stepmother She didn’t love Nikita, and one day he barely managed to jump out of the stove, which his stepmother tried to light by closing the damper behind him. (Stoves performed many functions, including serving as bathhouses: when the stove cooled down, they washed in it. A difficult childhood shaped reserved and ambitious character. Nikita entered the monastery early and, thanks to his unusual abilities, quickly passed through steps monastic careers, and was ultimately elected patriarch (1562).

Having become the head of the church, Nikon conceived two things

Put spiritual patriarchal power higher than secular the power of the king (he said: “The king is the moon, the patriarch is the sun)

- Centralize the church on the model of the state and unify church rituals , strengthen the unity of the church and, at the same time, subordinate it to your influence

The main reform carried out by Nikon was unification - bringing rituals to a single model. The question of unification arose because for 6.5 centuries existence of the Orthodox Church in Rus' has accumulated many discrepancies in the procedure of worship and in rituals. In different churches and monasteries, priests used different liturgical books, performed rituals differently, and, in addition, discrepancies accumulated during correspondence. The question arose about sample selection for a uniform order of worship. Nikon suggested taking as a model Greek liturgical books XV centuries - last centuries of existence Byzantine empires. In these books too there was no complete uniformity. However, Nikon chose certain ones among them and presented his proposals to the church council. At the cathedral flared up discussion. Nikon's party prevailed. And the reform of the church began according to the regulations of the patriarch and his supporters.

Reform did not touch upon religious doctrine, innovations concerned only rituals and texts pronounced by the priest. WITH modern point sight they may seem insignificant. For example,

Was introduced tripartite baptism instead of two fingers;

When reading one of the prayers, the number bows changed from 12 to 4.

Despite the seemingly minor changes, they disagreed a lot the number of people, and as the reform progresses, the number of those who disagree increased. Those who adhered to the old rituals, began to be called Old Believers or schismatics ( last name used by the official church)

The archpriest stood at the head of the opponents of the reform Habakkuk. At first he opposed Nikon's reforms at a church council. Then he became the author of messages to believers against Nikon’s reforms. By the power of passion and imagery language these messages refer to best essays XVII century. After the final ascendancy of Nikon’s reforms, Avvakum was exiled to a monastery and 15 years spent in the hole, from where he addressed the believers again and again. It is interesting that Avvakum came from a village neighboring Nikon, and even knew him in childhood.

Among the priests rejection of Nikon's reforms was relatively rare phenomenon. Apart from Habakkuk, he did not accept the reforms Solovetsky monastery, which for 8 years didn't let me in official representatives of the government and the church to their territory, long time existed under siege - he was besieged royal troops. The Solovetsky uprising was suppressed only in 1676

But the bulk of the Old Believers are laymen. Townspeople, sometimes boyars, How famous Morozova, and in the vast majority - peasants. Many villages in the North became Old Believers. In other areas people were leaving into the woods, cleared virgin lands and formed secluded settlements - hermitages, in which they adhered to the old faith. Priests in such settlements there were rarity Therefore, the Old Believers conducted the services themselves; for this they had to read books and be literate. That's why they trained their children, and literacy among the Old Believers was significantly higher than among the rest.

Your maximum the schismatic movement acquired to Petrovskaya era, at the beginning of the 18th century. Then the idea spread that the reformed, official church sinful. Therefore, if a person was baptized within such a church, his soul will not be saved for eternal life. This is why it is necessary to go through the procedure again cleansing baptism. This is baptism fire. And entire monasteries and villages, and not just individuals, self-immolated themselves along with their children. Peter I began sending troops to areas of mass schismatic settlements. And often villages set themselves on fire when approaching troops. (This plot formed the basis of Mussorgsky’s opera “Khovanshchina”)

Regarding the fate of the initiator Nikon's reforms - his claims to become higher than the tsar irritated Alexei Mikhailovich. And not without the influence of the latter on church cathedral 1666-1667 years was adopted paradoxical solution

- Reforms, started by Nikon, supported and should have be implemented everywhere.

Myself Nikon was deprived of the post of patriarch and went to link(at Ferapontov Monastery).

Linked at the same time and opponents Nikon, including Avvakum.

Subsequently, Alexey Mikhailovich, together with the church hierarchs, repeatedly made decisions about burning schismatics in log cabins- the Old Believers responded by cursing both the church and the tsar.

Why did the split become widespread? , although the changes concerned only the ritual side ? Besides periodic changes happened before- This did not cause any protests.

The 17th century was called by contemporaries " rebellious". Troubles, city uprisings - the most famous of which are Solyanaya and Copper Riot s, "Solovetsky sitting", peasant wars of Bolotnikov and Razin - by the number of protests movements of the 17th century had no analogues in previous history. Split should also be put in this row.

Why did the people of the 17th century “revolt”? - This one was reaction to enslavement and tax increases. State the impact intensified pressure- the people responded with protests. This was not a conscious and purposeful protest. Just psychological stress and dissatisfaction with the new conditions should have find a way out. For the vast masses, this solution, essentially a hidden protest, was a split.

Man of the traditional society values ​​stability. That's why attempt to reform church resonated with already accumulated irritation about the sudden impossibility of escaping from the owner or tax oppression in the cities.

So the split is form social protest aimed not only at church reform, but also at changing social status

Subsequently, the schismatic environment played prominent role in the history of the country. Firstly, in Old Believer families there was traditionally high level literacy, therefore books were preserved- many unique sources from the 17th-18th centuries came from Old Believer villages (for example copy of "Chimes")

Secondly, over time, a special ethics and education system, similar to a similar system in Protestantism. Hard work, successful activity began to be considered fundamental advantages. That is why many famous scientists, politicians, and entrepreneurs emerged from the schismatic environment in the 19th century. Famous entrepreneurs such as Guchkovs, Ryabushinskys, Morozovs- from the Old Believers.

Troubled times. The 17th century brought numerous trials to Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, the weak and sickly Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598) became his heir and tsar.

A struggle for power within the country began. This situation not only caused internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts external forces to eliminate the state independence of Russia. For almost the entire century, it had to fight off the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and raids Crimean Tatars– vassals Ottoman Empire, to resist the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy.

At the beginning of the 17th century. Russia went through a period called Time of Troubles. XVII century marked the beginning of the peasant wars; This century saw the revolts of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the schism of the Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.O. Klyuchevsky called it rebellious.

The Time of Troubles covers 1598-1613. Over the years, the Tsar's brother-in-law Boris Godunov (1598-1605), Fyodor Godunov (from April to June 1605), False Dmitry I (June 1605 - May 1606), Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), False Dmitry II ( 1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).

Boris Godunov won the difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian Tsar to receive the throne not by inheritance, but by election at the Zemsky Sobor. For my short reign he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, deciding for 20 years controversial issues with Poland and Sweden; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe.

Under him, Russia advanced into Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603 Russia was hit by a “great famine” caused by crop failures. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed slaves to leave their masters, distributed bread from state storehouses to the hungry.

However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George's Day, which meant the strengthening of serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, which was led by Cotton Crookedfoot. Many historians consider this uprising to be the beginning of the Peasant War.

The highest stage of the Peasant War early XVII V. (1606-1607) there was an uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov, in which serfs, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, and the nobles who joined them took part. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga regions. The rebels defeated the troops of Vasily Shuisky (the new Russian Tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the Ugra and Lopasnya rivers, etc.

In October-December 1606, the rebels laid siege to Moscow, but due to disagreements and betrayal of the nobles, they were defeated and retreated to Kaluga, and then to Tula. In the summer and autumn of 1607, together with the detachments of the slave Ilya Gorchakov (Ileika Muromets, ?–ca. 1608), the rebels fought near Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered and the uprising was suppressed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.

At such a critical moment an attempt was made Polish intervention. The ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II.

Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars.

The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and was inclined to call for the Russian throne Polish king young Vladislav, a Catholic, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610 it began Swedish intervention with the aim of separating Pskov, Novgorod, the northwestern and northern Russian regions from Russia.

• End of the intervention. The fight for Smolensk
• Cathedral Code 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy
• Foreign policy
• Domestic political situation
• Economy of Russia in the 17th century.

Historians call the 17th century “rebellious” because of the many popular performances and the riots that occurred during this century. Popular uprisings covered huge masses of the tax-paying population. In addition, the performances were not limited to the capital, but took place throughout Russia.

Salt riot in Moscow in 1648

The Posad and the Streltsy were dissatisfied with financial reform government of boyar B.I. Morozov, associated with the introduction of an indirect tax on salt. The uprising took place in the capital of the state and ended with the satisfaction of the demands made by the participants in the movement. Another feature of the performance in Moscow was the participation in it of heterogeneous segments of the capital's population: townspeople, archers and nobles.

Bread riots in Pskov and Novgorod in 1550

As a result active actions rebels in both cities, the governors were removed, and power passed to the city elders - representatives of the citizens. If the unrest in Novgorod was suppressed with the help of government troops under the command of Prince Ivan Khovansky, then to resolve the issue of Pskov an emergency Zemsky Sobor was convened in Moscow, which approved the composition of the delegation to persuade the Pskovites. They stopped resisting only after they achieved forgiveness for all participants in the protest, including the “breeders” led by Gavriil Demidov, who led the Zemskaya Izba.

Copper riot in Moscow in 1662

To a certain extent, what happened during the Salt Riot of 1648 was repeated. Its participants - the capital's townspeople and part of the archers, soldiers and reiters of the Moscow garrison - presented their demands to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, accusing “ powerful of the world this” in treason, secret collusion with the Poles, ruin of the country. But the situation had changed significantly by that time, so both the course of the uprising and its ending were significantly different from what it was at the beginning of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.

Cossack-peasant uprising led by Stepan Razin in 1667 - 1671

In terms of the composition of the participants, Razinism was a complex phenomenon. There is still debate among historians about whether it was a peasant or Cossack war. In the Soviet historical science it was customary to call the uprising led by Stepan Timofeevich Razin peasant war. There is no doubt that it was a war: two armies fought, and as a result of the fighting, a number of areas came under the control of the rebels.

1598-1613 - a period in Russian history called the Time of Troubles.

At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, Russia was experiencing a political and socio-economic crisis. Livonian War and the Tatar invasion, as well as the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible, contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

17. Why was the 17th century called “rebellious”

main reasons

The enslavement of peasants and the growth of feudal duties

Increasing tax oppression and waging almost continuous wars (which affected the well-being of the population)

Increased administrative red tape

Attempts to limit Cossack freedom

Church schism and reprisals against Old Believers

because in the 17th century there were many riots and uprisings

Cotton's Rebellion 1602-1604

Bolotnikov's revolt of 1606-1607

Salt riot 1648

Uprisings in Pskov and Novgorod 1650

Copper Riot of 1662

Movement led by S. Razin

Streletsky riot of 1682 or Khovanshchina

The 17th century is called “rebellious” by historians because of the many popular uprisings and riots that took place during this century. Popular uprisings swept across huge masses of the tax-paying population. In addition, the performances were not limited to the capital, but took place throughout Russia.

The most mass uprisings 17th century is:

1. Salt riot in Moscow in 1648;

2. Bread riots in Pskov and Novgorod in 1550;

3. Copper riot in Moskai in 1662;

4. Cossack-peasant uprising led by Stepan Razin in 1667 - 1671.

The reasons for the popular uprisings were the enslavement of peasants and the increase in their duties, increased tax oppression, an attempt to limit Cossack liberties, church schism and persecution of Old Believers.

The urban unrest was complex and ambiguous. The main force of the uprisings were the “black people” - the lower and middle strata of the urban population. Inside the posads there was a struggle against the privileged commercial and industrial strata (guests, trading people of the living room and cloth hundreds), as well as the “best people” (the rich), who shifted the burden of taxes onto the “middle” and “younger” people. The Posad poor were often joined by the Streltsy, who by origin and type of economic occupation were closely connected with them. Cossacks, dissatisfied with the government’s attack on their liberties, also took an active part in popular movements. With Nikon's church reform, the army of those dissatisfied and ready to fight the authorities was replenished by schismatics who suffered severe persecution.

18. When did manufactories appear in Russia, what were their characteristics?

Manufactory is a large enterprise where manual labor of hired workers was mainly used and division of labor was widely used.

In Russia, the first forms of manufacturing production appeared in the 17th century, but they received widespread development in the 18th century, from the time of Peter I. Manufacture in Russia was entangled with elements of serfdom. It was closely connected not with urban craft, which was relatively poorly developed in Russia, but with peasant industry, which had long been widespread in the countryside and was a necessary part of natural serf farming. Along with capitalist manufactories, there were state-owned, possessional and patrimonial manufactories in Russia. Merchant manufactory, working on civilian labor, up to early XIX centuries did not gain dominance.

Early XVIII centuries and Peter's reforms in the economic history of Russia

are the most important moment in industrial development. It's from this

time begins the “manufacturing” period in the history of Russian industry,

which, under the conditions of serfdom, lasted until half of the 19th century centuries,

when did this “serf” manufactory completely turn into

capitalist manufacture, and then into a capitalist factory.

The background to this manufacturing period in industrial development Russia

is, on the one hand, the development of the serf patrimonial industry in

Russian state XVII century, and on the other – handicraft and handicraft small

industry. The beginning of the 18th century can be considered the first facet of the manufacturing period

in the industrial development of Russia. The first beginnings of manufactures arose in

large patrimonial farms in the form of various working for a wide market

industrial production (Morozov's enterprises, etc.) or appear in

form of foreign enterprises created primarily for

meeting military and other needs of the state. But still, these rudiments and peculiar forms of “large-scale” industry did not yet mark the beginning of the manufacturing period in Russian industry in the 17th century. This beginning should be attributed specifically to Peter’s

transformations, since individual elements that were already present before and

which were necessary prerequisites for the emergence of manufacture, during

Peter I resulted in a complete system.