Toropova Ekaterina

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Municipal educational institution secondary school with in-depth study of individual subjects No. 52 in the city of Kirov.

Students of class 10A

Toropova Ekaterina

Supervisor:

English teacher

Klestova Irina Leonidovna.

Kirov, 2009

I. Introduction

II. Main part: “Phraseology and phraseological units of the English language”

2.2. Classification of phraseological units of the English language

2.3. Translation of phraseological units into Russian

2.4.Biblicalisms

2.5. Phraseologisms borrowed from the fiction of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

2.6. Phraseologisms borrowed from the works of Shakespeare

2.7. The meaning of phraseological units and their regional value

III.Conclusion

I.Introduction

Phraseologisms are widespread both in oral speech and in fiction. In the process of studying, I often come across literary texts; we often refer to them in English lessons, analyze excerpts from the works of various writers. In one of these texts I came across such a phrase asto spill the beans, which means to give away a secret. I had some questions: why the translation of the whole phrase differs from its literal translation, and why it was used as a single whole in the sentence. I decided to find answers to these questions. It turned out that such phrases are called phraseological units or phraseological units. I was interested in this topic because I have been studying English for nine years, this language is widely used at present, and its knowledge is necessary for my future profession. In the process of this work, I would like to find out whether English phraseological units have equivalents in the Russian language and how phraseological units are translated from one language to another.

II. Main part

Phraseology and phraseological units of the English language.

2.1. What is phraseology and phraseology

Phraseology (gr. phrasis - “expression”, logos - “science”) is a linguistic discipline that studies stable combinations words with a completely or partially rethought meaning - phraseological units (or phraseological units). Phraseology studies only such combinations of words existing in speech, general meaning which is not equal to the sum of the individual meanings of the words that make up the phraseological phrase (“give in the paw” - give a bribe, and not anything else.).

A phraseological unit, or phraseological unit, is a phrase that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexical unit. A phraseological unit is used as a whole, ready-made combination of words that is not subject to further decomposition and usually does not allow rearrangement of its parts within itself.

Phraseologisms include phrases of the following types:

idioms (drink till all "s blue (drink up to the green serpent), drink smb. under the table (drink someone), burn the candle at both ends (burn through life));
collocations (heavy rain, make a decision, grain of truth, pose a question);
proverbs (if you drive more quietly, you will go further, don’t get into the wrong sleigh); sayings (here’s Yuryev’s day for you, grandma; the ice has broken!);
grammatical phraseological units (almost; almost; whatever it may be);
phrase patterns (...he is in Africa...; to all...-am...;...like...).

Phraseology emerged relatively recently as an independent linguistic discipline. The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language. Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the systematic nature of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions. A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units from language to language, which requires considerable experience in the field of research in this discipline. Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods of studying them, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries. Phraseology uses various research methods, for example, component analysis of meaning. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods of their study.
The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, original forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources from all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the volume of phraseological composition and its systemic ordering in a particular historical era of language development.
Unfortunately, in the English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but even the most significant works available (A. McKay, W. Weinreich, L.P. Smith) do not pose such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units , the relationship between phraseological units and words, the systematic nature of phraseology, phraseological variability, phrase formation, the method of studying phraseology, etc. Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English.
Phraseologisms are an integral and specially highlighted component of the language, the brightest, most original, unusual, “individual”, culturally significant and nationally specific, capable of concentrated expression not only of the characteristics of a given language, but also of its speakers, their attitude, mindset, mentality, national character and style of thinking.

2.2 Classification of phraseological units of the English language.

As in any other language, in English phraseological units are a very important and valuable component. There is also a classification of phraseological units.They are divided into three types:

phraseological adjunctions,
phraseological unities,
phraseological combinations.

Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to modern English.

Phraseological adhesions

Phraseological units, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words:

Kick the bucket (colloquial) - to bend over, die; = stretch your legs; send smb. to Coventry - boycott someone, stop communicating with someone; at bay – driven, in a hopeless situation; be at smb.’s beck and call – to be always ready for services; = to be at your beck and call; to rain cats and dogs – pour like buckets (about rain); be all thumbs - to be awkward, clumsy; Kilkenny cats are mortal enemies.

Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language.
The imagery of phraseological fusions is revealed only historically. For example, the words “bay”, meaning “dead end”, and “beck” - “wave of the hand” are archaisms and are not used anywhere except the phraseological unit given above. Or, for example, the expression to be all thumbs historically developed from the expression one’s fingers are all thumbs. We see something similar in the phraseological units Kilkenny cats (which, apparently, goes back to the legend of a fierce struggle between the cities of Kilkenny and Irishtown in the 17th century, which led to their ruin).
Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.
Phraseological fusions have a number of characteristic features:

They may include so-called necrotisms - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion and are therefore incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language;

The adhesions may include archaisms;
- they are syntactically indecomposable;
- in most cases, it is impossible to rearrange the components;
- they are characterized by impenetrability - they do not allow additional words into their composition.

Phraseological unities

Phraseological unities are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, the signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved:

to spill the beans - give away a secret; to burn bridges - burn bridges; to have other fish to fry – to have more important things to do; to throw dust into smb.’s eyes – to speak one’s teeth; to burn one’s fingers – to get burned on something; to throw mud at smb. – throw mud; to be narrow in the shoulders - not to understand jokes; to paint the devil blacker than he is – to thicken the paint; to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel - insert spokes into the wheels; to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest – to keep something secret, not to disclose something, to keep quiet, ~ keep one’s mouth shut; to gild refined gold - to gild pure gold, try to improve, decorate something that is already quite good; to paint the lily - tint the color of a lily, try to improve or decorate something that does not need improvement.
Unlike phraseological fusions, portability is understood from the point of view of modern language.

Characteristic features of phraseological units:
1). vivid imagery and the resulting possibility of coincidence with parallel existing phrases (to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to be narrow in the shoulders, to burn one’s fingers, to burn bridges);
2). preserving the semantics of individual components (to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel);
3). the impossibility of replacing some components with others (to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest);
4). emotional and expressive coloring plays a decisive role (to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to paint the devil blacker than he is);
5). the ability to enter into synonymous relationships with individual words or other phraseological units (to gild refined gold = to paint the lily).

Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings:

A bosom friend - a bosom friend, a pitched battle - a fierce fight, (to have) a narrow escape - to be saved by a miracle, to frown one's eyebrows - to furrow one's eyebrows, Adam's apple - an Adam's apple, a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphean labor, rack one's brains - rack your brain (think hard, remember), to pay attention to smb. – pay attention to someone, etc.
Unlike phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability. In this respect, they come close to free phrases.
Characteristic features of phraseological combinations:
1). in them, variation of one of the components is allowed (a bosom friend - a bosom friend, a bosom buddy - a bosom buddy);
2). a synonymous replacement of the core word is possible (a pitched battle - a fierce fight, a fierce battle - a fierce fight);
3). it is possible to include definitions (he frowned his thick eyebrows, he frowned his thick eyebrows);
4). permissible rearrangement of components (a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphus's work, a labor of Sisyphus - the work of Sisyphus);
5). it is necessary to freely use one of the components and related usage another (a bosom friend - a bosom friend: a bosom cannot be an enemy or anyone else).

2.3. Translation of phraseological units into Russian.

Transmission of phraseological units into English is very difficult task. Imagery, conciseness, and integrity determine their significant role in language. Phraseologisms add originality and expressiveness to speech, which is why they are widely used in artistic and oral speech. Translating phraseological units from English into Russian is very difficult, because it is necessary to convey the meaning and display the imagery of the phraseological unit.

Phraseological equivalents can be complete or partial.
Full phraseological equivalents are those ready-made English equivalents that coincide with Russian ones in meaning, lexical composition, imagery, stylistic coloring and grammatical structure; for example: rest on one's laurels - rest on one's laurels, the salt of the earth, play with fire - to play with fire, the hour has come (struck) - one's hour has struck, there is no smoke without fire - there is no smoke without fire, hardworking like a bee - busy as a bee. With such a translation, the meanings of phraseological units in different languages may diverge slightly.

Partial phraseological equivalents can be divided into three groups.
The first group includes phraseological units that coincide in meaning, stylistic coloring and are similar in imagery, but diverge in lexical composition: promise mountains of gold - to promise wonders, to promise the moon; visiting is good, but home is better – East or West, home is the best; buy a pig in a poke – to buy pig in a poke; the first swallow – the first portent (sign); the game is not worth the candle. Some of these phrases are translated using antonymic translation, i.e. the negative meaning is conveyed by the translator using an affirmative construction or, vice versa (chickens are counted in the fall - don’t count your chickens before they are hatched).

The second group includes phraseological units that match in meaning, imagery, lexical composition and stylistic coloring; but they differ in such formal characteristics as the number and order of words, for example: to play into someone’s hands - to play into smb.’s hands (here there is a discrepancy in number); all is not gold that glitters (divergence in word order); not to see the forest for the trees - not to see the wood for the trees (divergence in word order).

The third group includes phraseological units that coincide in all respects, with the exception of imagery. In Russian we say - go to the side, while the English equivalent is the usual - to go to bed. In the Russian language there is a phrase - to be in full view, and in English in such cases it is customary to say - to spread before the eyes, to be an open book.

When translating, first of all it is necessary to establish what kind of phraseological unit it is: complete or partial. We should also not forget that phraseological units are also characterized by homonymy and polysemy. For example, the phrase to burn one’s fingers has the meaning 1. to burn one’s fingers and 2. to get burned on something, to make a mistake. “Don’t mention it” can mean: “Don’t remind me of this” and “No thanks, please.”

Particularly difficult for translation are the author’s transformations, which may include:

1. introduction of new components into phraseological circulation. For example, to put the cart before the horse (do the opposite) - “Let’s not put the cart too far ahead the horse” (E.S. Gardner).

2. updating the lexical and grammatical composition of a phraseological unit as a result of replacing its individual components with other words. For example, to have a millstone about one’s neck (wear a heavy stone on your heart) - have an albatross about one’s neck (literally – wear an albatross on your neck)

3. splitting a phraseological unit and using its component (or components) as part of a variable phrase.

bringing the phraseological unit incompletely, retaining only part of the components.

2.4 Biblicalisms

The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work has enriched not only the English language with phraseological units, but also many other languages of the world. She had a significant influence on the formation of worldview and linguistic consciousness different nations peace. The “Book of Books” became the source of an endless number of quotations and allusions, many lexical units and set expressions, as well as symbolic designations.

Recently, researchers have begun to show more interest and attention to biblicalisms. Dictionaries-reference books appear, which explain the origin of many biblical words, as well as works devoted to them, as in individual languages, and in several languages. However, a holistic multidimensional description of these phraseological units, as well as a comparative analysis of biblical units in such related but diverse languages as English, Spanish and Russian, has not yet been undertaken.
The study of phraseological units of biblical origin in several languages is of particular interest due to their specificity: on the one hand, biblical units have all the properties of phraseological units, and on the other, they represent a phraseological microsystem, the basis for unification into which is a common source - the Bible. For centuries, the Bible was the most widely read and quoted book in England. The number of biblical phrases and expressions that have entered the English language is so large that collecting and listing them would be a very difficult task. Among the expressions used in modern English speech and whose biblical origin is firmly established are the following:

The apple of Sodom is a beautiful but rotten fruit; deceptive success;

The beam (the mote) in one’s eye - “log” in one’s own eye; own big flaw;

The blind leading the blind - the blind leads the blind;

By the sweat of one’s brow - by the sweat of one’s brow;

The camel and the needle’s eye is an allusion to the Gospel saying, translated from Latin: It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.

Can the leopard change his spots? - the grave will correct the hunchback;

A crown of glory - crown of glory;

Daily bread - daily bread, livelihood;

A drop in the bucket - a drop in the ocean;

A fly in the ointment is a fly in the ointment;

Loaves and fishes - earthly goods (loaves and fishes with which Christ, according to the Gospel tradition, fed hundreds of people who gathered to listen to him);

No man can serve two masters - two masters are not served;

The prodigal son - prodigal son;

The promised land - the promised land;

A prophet is not without honor, save in his own country - there is no prophet in his own country.

Phraseologisms of biblical origin often differ in meaning from their biblical prototypes. This could happen due to the fact that over time the biblical prototypes are reinterpreted, some words are replaced by others. For example, to kill the fatted calf in the parable of the prodigal son is used in the literal meaning of “slaying a fatted calf.” Later, this turn took on a new meaning of treating the best that is available at home.

2.5. Phraseologisms borrowed from the fiction of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

In addition to phraseological units taken from the Bible, in the English language, as well as in the languages of other European nations that are heirs of ancient culture, there are many proverbs, aphorisms and figurative expressions originated from the ancient Greeks and Romans. For example:

the golden age - golden age;

the apple of discord - apple of discord;

Pandora's box - Pandora's box;

Achilles' heel - Achilles heel;

the thread of Ariadne – Ariadne’s thread, a guiding thread, a way to help get out of a difficult situation;

a labor of Sisyphus - Sisyphus’s labor;

Homeric laughter - Homeric laughter (the turnover is associated with Homer’s description of the laughter of the gods);

to blow hot and cold - hesitate, do mutually exclusive things, take an ambivalent position.

Phraseological units that came into the English language from the literature of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome are endowed with extraordinary colorfulness and expressiveness, which explains their prevalence not only in English, but also in other languages of the world.

2.6. Phraseologisms borrowed from the works of Shakespeare.

In modern English there are many phraseological units, the main function of which is to enhance the aesthetic aspect of the language. Many phraseological units originated in connection with customs, realities, historical facts, but most The English phraseological fund one way or another arose thanks to artistic and literary works.
The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred. Examples of some of the most common Shakespeareanisms:

"Macbeth"
To make assurance double sure - that which fills life, everything in life;

The milk of human kindness - “balm of good nature” (ironically), compassion, humanity;

To win golden opinions - to earn a favorable, flattering opinion about yourself;

"Hamlet"
To be or not to be? - To be or not to be?;

To cudgel one’s brains - to puzzle over (something);

To be hoist with one’s own petard - fall into your own trap;

From whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned from (i.e. in the kingdom of death);

"Othello"
The green-eyed monster - “monster with green eyes”, jealousy;

To chronicle small beer - to note little things, insignificant events, to deal with trifles;

The seamy side - the unsightly side, the wrong side of something;

Curled darlings - rich suitors, “golden youth”, rich slackers;

"King Henry IV"

To eat one out of house and home - to ruin a person by living at his expense;

The wish is father to the thought - desire gives rise to thought; people willingly believe what they themselves desire;

The better part of value is discretion - one of the adornments of courage is modesty;

Midsummer madness - insanity;

"Romeo and Juliet"

A fool’s paradise - a fantasy world; illusory happiness;

Neither rhyme nor reason - neither in tune nor in harmony, without any meaning;

In modern English, Shakespearean words can be used with some modifications. For example, the expression to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve for days to peck at (“Othello”) - to flaunt one’s feelings (This phraseological unit is associated with the medieval knightly tradition of wearing the colors of one’s lady on the sleeve). In modern English it is usually used in abbreviated form: to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve. Also, instead of the preposition upon, another preposition can be used - on. Many Shakespearean expressions acquire lexical variants over time. In modern English speech, Shakespeareanisms are also used, which include obsolete words, i.e. archaisms that are not used anywhere other than this phraseological unit. For example, from whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned from (i.e. in the kingdom of death). The word bourne is an archaism and means a boundary or limit; it is used in modern English only within the framework of this phraseological unit.
A large number of phraseological units created by Shakespeare have come into general use, which testifies to both the linguistic genius of Shakespeare and his colossal popularity.

2.7. The meaning of phraseological units and their regional value

The regional value of English phraseological units is very great, because by getting acquainted with a foreign language, assimilating, studying it, a person simultaneously penetrates into a new national culture and receives enormous spiritual wealth stored in the language being studied. In particular, a Russian schoolchild, student, or ordinary person, by mastering a foreign language, in this case English, receives a highly effective opportunity to become familiar with the national culture and history of the people of Great Britain. Phraseology, as an integral part and a kind of treasury of any language in the world, can especially strongly contribute to this familiarization. Phraseologisms and phraseological combinations reflect the centuries-old history of the English people, the originality of their culture, way of life, and traditions. Therefore, phraseological units are highly informative units of the English language. Most idiomatic expressions were created by the people, so they are closely related to the interests and daily activities of ordinary people. Many phraseological units are associated with beliefs and legends. However, most English phraseological units arose in professional speech. All nations, all people should protect and will preserve phraseological units in their integrity, because they are a real treasure that helps to comprehend all the secrets and mysteries of language.

III.Conclusion

As a result of this work, I expanded my knowledge of the English language. I also answered all my questions about phraseology. I found out that in Russian there are equivalents of English phraseological units. Translating English phraseological units into Russian is a very complex process, since it is necessary to take into account the stylistic features of the phraseological unit and preserve its lexical meaning. English is a rich and beautiful language, which is filled with various phraseological units. They give the language figurativeness and expressiveness.

References:

Amosova N.N. Basics of English phraseology. - L., 1989.
Zakharova M.A. Strategy of speech use of figurative phraseological units of the English language. – M., 1999.
Komissarov V.N. Modern translation studies. – M., 2001.
Kunin A.V. English-Russian phraseological dictionary. 3rd ed., stereotype. – M.: Russian language, 2001.
Litvinov P.P. English-Russian phraseological dictionary with thematic classification. – M.: Yakhont, 2000.
Slide captions:
Phraseologisms of the English language The work was completed by a student of class 10A of Municipal Educational Institution Secondary School No. 52 Toropova Ekaterina Supervisor: Klestova Irina Leonidovna
What is phraseology and phraseological units Phraseology (gr. phrasis - “expression”, logos - “science”) is a linguistic discipline that studies stable combinations of words with a completely or partially rethought meaning - phraseological units (or phraseological units). A phraseological unit, or phraseological unit, is a phrase that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexical unit.
Phraseologisms include: idioms (burn the candle at both ends); collocations (heavy rain, make a decision); proverbs (if you drive more quietly, you will drive further); sayings (here’s St. George’s day for you, grandma); grammatical phraseological units (almost; almost; whatever it may be); phrase schemes (Y he and in Africa Y).
Classification of phraseological units of the English language Phraseological conjunctions; Phraseological unities; Phraseological combinations.
Translation of phraseological units into Russian Translating phraseological units from English into Russian is very difficult, because it is necessary to convey the meaning and display the imagery of the phraseological unit. When translating, first of all it is necessary to establish what kind of phraseological unit it is: complete or partial. We should also not forget that phraseological units are also characterized by homonymy and polysemy.
Biblicalisms The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work has enriched not only the English language with phraseological units, but also many other languages of the world. Phraseologisms of biblical origin often differ in meaning from their biblical prototypes. The blind leading the blind - the blind leads the blind; By the sweat of one’s brow - by the sweat of one’s brow;
Phraseological units borrowed from the fiction of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome Phraseological units that came into English from the literature of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome are endowed with extraordinary colorfulness and expressiveness, which explains their prevalence. the golden age - golden age; the apple of discord - apple of discord;
Phraseologisms borrowed from the works of Shakespeare. The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred.
Examples of some of the most common Shakespearean sayings: To make assurance double sure - that which fills life, everything in life; To be or not to be? - to be or not to be?; The seamy side - the unsightly side, the wrong side of something; To eat one out of house and home - to ruin a person by living at his expense; A fool’s paradise - a fantasy world; illusory happiness.
The significance of phraseological units and their regional value The regional value of English phraseological units is very great, because by getting acquainted with a foreign language, assimilating, studying it, a person simultaneously penetrates into a new national culture and receives enormous spiritual wealth stored in the language being studied. All nations, all people should protect and will preserve phraseological units in their integrity, because they are a real treasure that helps to comprehend all the secrets and mysteries of language.
Thank you for your attention

Introduction

The English language has a thousand-year history. During this time, it accumulated a large number of expressions that people found successful, apt and beautiful. This is how a special layer of language arose - phraseology, a set of stable expressions that have independent meaning.

Learning English is widespread in our country.
Good knowledge of a language, including English, is impossible without knowledge of its phraseology. Knowledge of phraseology greatly facilitates reading both journalistic and fiction literature. Reasonable use of phraseological units makes speech more idiomatic.

With the help of phraseological expressions, which are not translated literally, but are perceived re-interpreted, the aesthetic aspect of the language is enhanced. “With the help of idioms, as with the help of different shades of colors, the informational aspect of language is complemented by a sensory-intuitive description of our world, our life” (No. 3 p. 15).

The world of phraseology of modern English is large and diverse, and every aspect of its study certainly deserves due attention.

The purpose of this work is to study phraseological units of modern English, borrowed from artistic and literary sources. This aspect of the study of phraseology has special meaning, because Most of the phraseological units are borrowed from the fiction of both English and other languages, and some phraseological units have retained their original foreign language form.
Borrowings are one of the main sources of replenishment of English phraseology. Borrowings from English literature are especially numerous. There are individual borrowings from the literature of Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian and other languages.
“The etymological side of the study of phraseological units helps in many ways to understand the culture and life of the people from whom this or that phraseological expression was borrowed” (No. 26 p. 23).

For students of English as a foreign language, this layer of the language is difficult to master, but after mastering phraseological units, we begin to speak like the English, we understand them perfectly, our speech readiness increases sharply. We can briefly and very accurately express our thoughts, being confident in the correctness of its expression. In many cases, knowledge of English phraseology helps to avoid Russianisms, i.e. literal translations of sentences from Russian into English.

The work gives an attempt to present your view on borrowed phraseological units of the modern English language; examples are given for each type of borrowing studied. The material presented in this work is based on the study of etymological dictionaries, English-English and English-Russian phraseological dictionaries indicated in the bibliography.

1. Phraseology as an object of linguistic research

1. Subject and tasks of phraseology

Phraseology (Greek phrasis - “expression”, logos - “teaching”) is a branch of linguistics that studies stable combinations in language. Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, in the language of a separate work of art, etc.

Phraseology emerged relatively recently as an independent linguistic discipline. “The subject and tasks, scope and methods of studying it are not yet clearly defined and have not received full coverage” (No. 19 p.
37). Less developed than others are questions about the main features of phraseological units in comparison with free phrases, about the classification of phraseological units and their correlation with parts of speech, etc. Linguists have not formed a consensus on what a phraseological unit is, and therefore there is no unity of views on the composition of these units in the language. Some researchers (L.P. Smith, V.P. Zhukov, V.N. Telia,
N.M. Shansky, etc.) include its stable combinations in phraseology, others (N.N. Amosova, A.M. Babkin, A.I. Smirnitsky, etc.) - only certain groups. Thus, some linguists (including Academician V.V. Vinogradov) do not include proverbs, sayings and catchwords in the category of phraseological units, believing that they differ in their semantics and syntactic structure from phraseological units. V.V.
Vinogradov argued: “Proverbs and sayings have a sentence structure and are not semantic equivalents of words.” (No. 7 p. 243)

The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language.
Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the systematic nature of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions.
A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units, which requires considerable experience in the field of research in this discipline.

Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods of studying them, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries.
Phraseology uses various research methods, for example, component analysis of meaning. On the basis of research methods existing in linguistics, “the actual phraseological techniques of analysis and description” are being developed (No. 12 p. 49): 1. identification method - establishing the identities of words and syntactic structures that form phraseological units with their free analogues; 2. application method, which is a type of identification method, a method limited in the choice of variables, establishing different structural and semantic organizations of phraseological units from combinations formed in accordance with regular patterns of choice and combination, etc. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods of their study.

The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, original forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources from all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the volume of phraseological composition and its systemic ordering in a particular historical era of language development.

Unfortunately, in English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but in the existing most significant works (A. McKay (No. 37), W. Weinreich (No. 38), L.P.
Smith (No. 24)) do not raise such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units, the relationship of phraseological units and words, the systematic nature of phraseology, phraseological variability, phrase formation, the method of studying phraseology, etc.

Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English.

2. Theory of phraseology by S. Bally

Charles Bally (1865 - 1947) - a Swiss linguist of French origin, introduced the term “phraseologie” meaning “a branch of stylistics that studies related phrases” (No. 5 p. 58), but this term was not accepted by Western European and American linguists and was used in works in three other meanings: 1. choice of words, form of expression, formulation; 2. Language, syllable, style; 3. expressions, phrases.

S. Bally is considered the founder of the theory of phraseology, because first systematized combinations of words in his book “French Stylistics,” in which he included a chapter on phraseology. In his writings, he identified “four types of phrases” (No. 15 p. 8): 1. free phrases (les groupements libres), i.e. combinations lacking stability, disintegrating after their formation; 2. habitual combinations (les groupments usuels), i.e. phrases with a relatively loose connection of components, allowing some changes, for example, une grave maladie - a serious disease (une dangereuse, serieuse maladie - a dangerous, serious disease); 3. phraseological series (les series phraseologiques), i.e. groups of words in which two adjacent concepts merge almost into one.
The stability of these phrases is secured by the primary use of words, for example, remporter une victorie - to win, courir un danger - to be exposed to danger. These combinations allow for rearrangement of components; 4. Phraseological unities (les unites phraseologiques), i.e. combinations in which words have lost their meaning and express a single indecomposable concept. Such combinations do not allow rearrangement of components. Thus, “...the concept of Sh. Bally is based on the difference in word combinations according to the degree of stability: combinations in which there is freedom to group components, and combinations deprived of such freedom” (No. 2 p. 69).

Subsequently, the great linguist revised his concept, which we discussed above, and came to the conclusion that familiar combinations and phraseological series are only intermediate types of combinations.
Now S. Bally has identified only two main groups of combinations: 1. free combinations and 2. phraseological unities, i.e. phrases whose components, constantly used in given combinations to express the same thought, have lost all independent meaning.
The whole combination as a whole acquires a new meaning that is not equal to the sum of the values of the component parts. S. Bally points out that “such a turnover can be compared with a chemical compound” and emphasizes that “if unity is quite common, then, obviously, in this case the combination is equal to a simple word” (No. 5 p. 60). Sh. Bally spoke about the phraseology of a combination when there is a synonym for it - the so-called
“identifier words” (No. 5 p. 60). These thoughts of S. Bally later formed the basis for the identification of phraseological adhesions and the development of the theory of equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word. Since Bally's time, the study of phraseology has come a long way. But the work of the great scientist, written at the dawn of the study of phraseology, contributed to the further development of phraseological research.

1.3. Equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word

The development of phraseology as a linguistic science in recent years has posed a very difficult problem for researchers - the relationship of a phraseological unit with a word. In modern linguistics there are different points of view regarding the very formulation of this question. Some consider phraseological units to be equivalents of words, others point to their correlation with the word, replacing the theory of equivalence with the theory of correlation of phraseological combinations with the word.

The theory of equivalence of phraseological units to a word goes back to the concept of identification of expressive facts developed by S. Bally, who pointed out that the most general feature of a phraseological unit, replacing all others, is the possibility or impossibility of substituting one simple word instead of a given combination. Sh. Bally called this word
“an identifier word” (No. 5 p. 60). Bally considers the presence of such a synonym as an internal sign of the integrity of phraseological units.

With this concept, most linguists (N.N. Amosova (No. 2), N.M.
Babkin (No. 4), V.P. Zhukov (No. 9), A.V. Kunin (No. 15), A.I. Smirnitsky (No. 23),
N.M. Shansky (No. 32) and others) did not agree. “The semantic integrity of a phraseological unit cannot be established in this way,” wrote V.P. Zhukov in his work on phraseology (No. 9 p. 83), “since variable combinations of words can have synonymous words.” For example, look fixedly - to stare; sufferings of mind or body - pain, etc. (All examples of phraseological units
(the total number of which is 78), presented in the theoretical part of this work, are taken from the English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary by A.V. Kunina
(No. 16) and Longman Dictionary of English Idioms (No. 35)). Indeed, phraseological units are in many ways similar to words, however, as a rule, one cannot equate the meaning of phraseological units with the meaning of the words with which they are identified. An essential element of the semantics of a phraseological unit is the evaluative nature of the concept it expresses, its special modality, while the element of evaluation is characteristic of the semantic structure of a word to a lesser extent. In most cases, phraseological units and the words associated with them differ in stylistic coloring, and in relation to individual words, phraseological units act mainly as stylistic rather than ideographic synonyms.

It should also be borne in mind that proverbs and sayings, i.e. phraseological units with a sentence structure can only be identified using sentences, for example, birds of a feather flock together – people who have the same interests, ideas, etc. are attracted to each other and stay close together; the blind leading the blind – a situation in which the person who is leading or advising others knows a little as they do.(No. 35)

The semantic integrity of a phraseological unit can be established by comparing its meaning with the meaning of its components as individual words, as well as identifying the features of its use in context.

In the problem of “phraseologism and the word,” there are mainly two directions: a narrow, lexicological understanding of phraseology as an integral part of lexicology, phraseology as an equivalent to the word, and a broad understanding of phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline.

Some supporters of the theory of complete equivalence (N.N. Amosova
(No. 2), N.M. Babkin (No. 4), A.I. Smirnitsky (No. 23) and others) consider phraseological units as lexical units that do not need a special, specific classification peculiar only to them, and which should be classified in the same way as words are classified. A.I. Smirnitsky, for example, in this regard includes phraseology as part of lexicology. (No. 23)
Thus, all the specificity of phraseological units is negated. The word, no matter how complex it may be semantic structure, does not belong to the field of phraseology, it is an object of lexicography and lexicology.

Words and phraseological units are introduced into speech in ready-made form. This fact is given as one of the arguments in favor of the theory of complete equivalence.
Introducing into speech in finished form is a shaky basis for the equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word, since reproduction in finished form is a characteristic feature of all units of language, and, as A.I. wrote in her work on phraseology.
Alekhina: “...it is inappropriate to consider them as equivalents of words, it is only important to take into account the characteristic features of reproducibility in finished form, depending on the structural and semantic features of various units of language” (No. 1 p. 15). And from a structural and semantic point of view, a phraseological unit is a separately formed unit of language, much more complex than a word, and this affects its actualization in a written or oral context.

A phraseological unit is not identical to a word and is not completely equivalent to it.
“It represents a lexical unit more complex type, since the semantic meaning represented by a phraseological phrase is expressed not by one word, but by a combination of two or more words” (No. 15 p. 12). A phraseological unit differs from a word in its structure: a word consists of morphemes, and any phraseological unit is, first of all, a combination of words united according to the laws of the grammar of a particular language (separately formed phraseme and integrally formed word). The components of a phraseological phrase are not free in their connections; the circle of their compatibility with other words is closed.
Phraseologisms are characterized by lexical stability and generally retain a constant composition.

It seems that “...the equivalence of phraseological units to a word can be recognized only in terms of their relationship to language and speech: both phraseological units and words are units of language, normally used in speech as units of nomination” (No. 1 p. 8).

The problem of “phraseological unit and word” is a close and complex interweaving of various linguistic connections and relationships, and the aspects of their consideration in this work are not exhaustive and the only possible ones. At the same time, the disagreements that exist in theoretical and practical issues of phraseology should be eliminated by the development of general problems that connect phraseology with lexicology. As the analysis shows, the problem of “phraseological unit and word” is one of the general problems and is currently the most important and least developed, complicating the theoretical justification of the phraseological system of the language.

1.4. Types of phraseological units from the point of view of semantic stability
(fusion) of their components

The classification of phraseological units from the point of view of the semantic unity of their components belongs to academician V.V. Vinogradov (No. 7). As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which are used in a figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased, how strong the figurative meaning is in them, V.V. Vinogradov divides them into three types: “phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations” (No. 7 p. 89) . Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to modern English.

1.4.1. Phraseological adhesions

Phraseological combinations, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words: kick the bucket (colloquial) - to bend, to die; = stretch your legs; send smb. to Coventry – boycott someone, stop communicating with someone; at bay – driven, in a hopeless situation; be at smb.’s beck and call – to be always ready for services; = to be at your beck and call; to rain cats and dogs – pour like buckets (about rain); be all thumbs - to be awkward, clumsy; Kilkenny cats are mortal enemies. Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language. “The imagery of phraseological fusions is revealed only historically” (No. 21 p. 35). For example, the words “bay”, meaning “dead end”, and “beck” - “wave of the hand” are archaisms and are not used anywhere except the phraseological unit given above. Or, for example, the expression to be all thumbs historically developed from the expression one’s fingers are all thumbs. We see something similar in the phraseological units Kilkenny cats (which, apparently, goes back to the legend of a fierce struggle between the cities of Kilkenny and Irishtown in the 17th century, which led to their ruin (No. 16)) and send smb. to Coventry (Clarendon’s book “The History of the Great Rebellion and Civil Wars in England” says that during the English Revolution in the city of Coventry there was a prison in which exiled royalists were kept (No. 16)).

Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.

Phraseological fusions have a number of characteristic features:
1. they may include so-called necrotisms - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion and are therefore incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language;
2. adhesions may include archaisms;
3. they are syntactically indecomposable;
4. in most cases, it is impossible to rearrange the components;
5. they are characterized by impenetrability - they do not allow additional words into their composition.

Losing their independent lexical meaning, “...words included in the structure of a phraseological fusion turn into components of a complex lexical unit, which approaches the meaning of a separate word” (No. 32 p. 73). Therefore, many phraseological combinations are synonymous with the words: kick the bucket - to die; ; send smb. to
Coventry – to ignore, etc. But we should not forget that, as stated in the chapter on the equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word, from the point of view of stylistics
Phenomena and the word are far from each other.

1.4.2. Phraseological unities

Phraseological unities are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, the signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved: to spill the beans - give away a secret; to burn bridges - burn bridges; to have other fish to fry
- have more important things to do; to throw dust into smb.’s eyes – to speak one’s teeth; to burn one’s fingers – to get burned on something; to throw mud at smb.
– throw mud; to be narrow in the shoulders - not to understand jokes; to paint the devil blacker than he is – to thicken the paint; to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel - insert spokes into the wheels; to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest – to keep something secret, not to disclose something, to keep quiet, ~ keep one’s mouth shut; to gild refined gold - to gild pure gold, try to improve, decorate something that is already quite good; to paint the lily - tint the color of a lily, try to improve or decorate something that does not need improvement.

“Phraseological unities are somewhat closer to phraseological adhesions in their imagery and metaphor” (No. 25, p. 50). But unlike phraseological fusions, where figurative content is revealed only diachronically, in phraseological unities, figurativeness and portability are realized from the point of view of modern language.
No wonder Academician V.V. Vinogradov considers imagery characteristic feature only phraseological unities.

“The connection between the components of phraseological unity is motivated, metaphorization is clearly felt” (No. 25, p. 51). To understand phraseological unity, it is necessary to perceive its components in a figurative meaning. For example, the meaning of the expression make a mountain out of a molehill is to make a mountain out of a mountain, i.e. to greatly exaggerate something
(literally, to make a mountain out of the mound of a mole hole), is revealed only if the word molehill is considered to mean “something insignificant, small,” and the word mountain is “something very large.” There are no words in the phraseological units that are not understandable from the point of view of modern language.

Characteristic features of phraseological units:
1. vivid imagery and the resulting possibility of coincidence with parallel existing phrases (cf.: to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to be narrow in the shoulders, to burn one’s fingers, to burn bridges);
2. preserving the semantics of individual components (to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel);
3. the impossibility of replacing some components with others (to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest);
4. emotional and expressive coloring plays a decisive role (to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to paint the devil blacker than he is);
5. the ability to enter into synonymous relationships with individual words or other phraseological units (to gild refined gold = to paint the lily).

1.4.3. Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a bosom friend - a bosom friend, a pitched battle - a fierce fight,
(to have) a narrow escape - to be saved by a miracle, to frown one's eyebrows - to frown, Adam's apple - Adam's apple, a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphean labor, rack one's brains - to rack your brains (think hard, remember), to pay attention to smb . – pay attention to someone, etc.

In contrast to phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, “phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability” (No. 32, p. 75). In this respect, they come close to free phrases.

Characteristic features of phraseological combinations:
1. in them, variation of one of the components is allowed (a bosom friend - a bosom friend, a bosom buddy - a bosom buddy);
2. a synonymous replacement of the core word is possible (a pitched battle - a fierce fight, a fierce battle - a fierce fight);
3. it is possible to include definitions (he frowned his thick eyebrows, he frowned his thick eyebrows);
4. permutation of components is permissible (a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphus’s work, a labor of Sisyphus - the work of Sisyphus);
5. the free use of one of the components and the associated use of the other is mandatory (a bosom friend - a bosom friend: a bosom cannot be an enemy or anyone else).

The promotion of reproducibility as the main feature of phraseological units allowed Professor N.M. Shansky to further develop the classification of Academician V.V. Vinogradov and identify the fourth type of phraseological units - the so-called “phraseological expressions”
(No. 32 p. 76).

1.4.4. Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions include phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which consist entirely of words with “a free nominative meaning and are semantically divisible” (No. 32, p. 76). Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Phraseological expressions are only phrases with the literal meaning of the components. Phraseological expressions include numerous English proverbs and sayings that are used in their literal meaning and do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: live and learn - live forever, learn forever; better untaught than ill taught - it is better to be unlearned than to be incorrectly taught; many men, many minds - how many heads, so many minds; easier said then done - easier said than done; nothing is impossible to a willing heart – whoever wants will achieve it (No. 16).

1.5. Translation of phraseological units

Transmitting phraseological units into English is a very difficult task. “Due to its semantic richness, imagery, brevity and brightness, phraseology plays a very important role in the language. important role"(No. 9 p. 19). It gives speech expressiveness and originality. Phraseologisms are used especially widely in oral speech, fiction and political literature.

When translating a phraseological unit, the translator needs to convey its meaning and reflect its imagery, finding a similar expression in the English language and without losing sight of the stylistic function of the phraseological unit. In the absence of an identical image in English, the translator is forced to resort to searching for an “approximate match” (No. 11 p. 51).

Phraseological equivalents can be complete or partial.

Full phraseological equivalents are those ready-made English equivalents that coincide with Russian ones in meaning, lexical composition, imagery, stylistic coloring and grammatical structure; for example: rest on one's laurels - rest on one's laurels, the salt of the earth, play with fire - to play with fire, the hour has come (struck) - one's hour has struck, there is no smoke without fire - there is no smoke without fire, hardworking like a bee – busy as a bee.

Translation based on partial phraseological equivalents does not mean that the meaning and imagery of a phraseological unit is not fully conveyed in translation; By this term it should be borne in mind that the equivalent proposed in English may contain some discrepancies with the Russian one. In other words, for the translator “when translating a phraseological unit, it is important, first of all, to convey the image of the phraseological unit, and not its linguistic structure” (No. 21 p. 28). Partial phraseological equivalents can be divided into three groups.

The first group includes phraseological units that coincide in meaning, stylistic coloring and are similar in imagery, but diverge in lexical composition: promise mountains of gold - to promise wonders, to promise the moon, visiting is good, but home is better - East or West, home is the best, buy a pig in a poke - to buy pig in a poke, the first swallow - the first portent (sign), the game is not worth the candle, the talk of the town - the talk of the town.

Some of these phrases are translated using antonymic translation, i.e. a negative meaning is conveyed by the translator using an affirmative construction, or, conversely, a positive meaning is conveyed using a negative construction: chickens are counted in the fall - don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.

The second group includes phraseological units that match in meaning, imagery, lexical composition and stylistic coloring; but they differ in such formal characteristics as the number and order of words, for example: to play into someone’s hands - to play into smb.’s hands (here there is a discrepancy in number); all is not gold that glitters
(divergence in word order); not to see the forest for the trees - not to see the wood for the trees (divergence in word order).

The third group includes phraseological units that coincide in all respects, with the exception of imagery. In Russian we say - go to the side, while the English equivalent is the usual - to go to bed. In Russian there is a phrase - to be in full view, and in English in such cases it is customary to say - to spread before the eyes, to be an open book. In Russian we say - as old as the hills, and in English the same idea is conveyed by the phrase - as old as the hills.

Sometimes the distinctive feature of phraseological units is the frequency of use in speech of one or another idiomatic expression, if violated, the phraseology used can give the speaker’s speech an unusual or even old-fashioned character. The translator should always remember this.

When translating phraseological units, the translator must be able to determine whether he is dealing with a variable or fixed phrase. To do this, you need to have a large “receptive stock of phraseological units” (No. 31 p. 15). It should be borne in mind that phrases, like words, are characterized by polysemy and homonymy, and one of the meanings can be phraseological and one of the homonyms can be a phraseological unit. For example, the phrase to burn one’s fingers has the meaning 1. to burn one’s fingers and 2. to get burned on something, to make a mistake; to be narrow in the shoulders can have a direct meaning (to be narrow-shouldered) and a phraseological meaning (not to understand humor). “Don’t mention it” can mean: “Don’t remind me of this” and “No thanks, please.” Phraseologism “to throw the book at smb.” means “to sentence someone to the maximum term of imprisonment.” But it is theoretically possible to have a context in which this phrase is used as a variable. A phraseological unit can sometimes differ from a variable phrase only by the article, which in this case is a formal differentiating feature. For example: to go to the sea - go to the sea, to go to sea - become a sailor; to draw a line - to draw a line, to draw the line - to set the limit of what is permitted.

Good receptive knowledge of phraseology is necessary both in order to distinguish between usual and occasional phraseological units, as well as in order to be able to restore phraseological units that have undergone “the author’s transformation” (No. 8 pp. 74 – 78), and convey the effect achieved by it during translation. Among the author's transformations, as a result of which the associative meaning of phraseological units is emphasized (almost not perceived otherwise), include, in particular, the following stylistic devices:
1. Introduction to phraseological circulation of new components, semantically correlated with direct meaning, i.e. with the meaning of the original variable phrase. For example, the phraseological unit to put the cart before the horse - to do the opposite (literally - to harness the horse behind the cart), has undergone the following transformations: “Let’s not put the cart too far ahead of the horse” (E.S. Gardner).
2. Updating the lexical and grammatical composition of a phraseological unit as a result of replacing its individual components with other words. A peculiar deformation of phraseological units occurs, the text of which is easily restored. For example, the phraseology borrowed from the Bible to have a millstone about one’s neck (carrying a heavy stone on the heart) was modified by S.T. Coleridge and looked like this: have an albatross about one’s neck (literally - wear an albatross on your neck); in the poem by S.T. Coleridge's "The
Ancient Mariner” is about a sailor who, by killing an albatross, brings disaster to his ship and is forced to wear the dead albatross around his neck as punishment.
3. Splitting a phraseological unit and using its component (or components) as part of a variable phrase. Single component
(or components) in this case are the bearer of the associative meaning of the entire phraseological unit, on which the entire meaning of the statement is built. The full form of the phraseological unit seems to pass in the background, but without restoration its understanding is impossible. For example:

— “I’ve got a cold.”

— “It’s in your feet.” (B. Manning)

In this dialogue, one of the speakers complains about illness, and the other interlocutor says that this is not an illness, but cowardice. The phraseological unit is represented here by only one component - to get cold feet - to be a coward, to show cowardice.
4. The phraseological unit may not be given in full, retaining only part of the components: “He complained to Fleur that the book dealt with nothing but birds in the bush.” (J. Galsworthy) Part of a proverb is used here:
“A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.” (A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush). A bird in the bush in this example means empty promises.

To achieve maximum adequacy when translating phraseological units from English into Russian, the translator must be able to use various “types of translation” (No. 8 p. 80):

1. Equivalent, i.e. an adequate phraseological expression available in the Russian language that coincides with the English turnover in meaning and figurative basis, for example: as cold as ice - cold as ice, Augean stable(s) - Augean stables, the salt of the earth - salt of the earth, swallow the pill – swallow a (bitter) pill.

2. Analogue, i.e. such a Russian stable phrase, which in meaning is adequate to English, but in its figurative basis differs from it completely or partially. For example: a drop in the bucket - a drop in the ocean, a fly in the ointment - a fly in the ointment, it is raining cats and dogs - it pours like a bucket.

3. Descriptive translation, i.e. translation by conveying the meaning of an English phrase in a free phrase. Descriptive translation is used when there are no equivalents and analogues in the Russian language, for example: to rob Peter to pay Paul - pay off some debts by making new ones (take from one to give to another), to burn the candle on both ends - work with early morning and until late evening.

4. Antonymic translation, i.e. conveying a negative meaning using an affirmative construction or vice versa, for example: to keep one’s head - don’t lose your head, to keep one’s head above water - don’t get into debt, to keep one’s pecker up - don’t lose heart.

5. Tracing. The tracing method is used in cases where the translator wants to highlight the figurative basis of a phraseological unit, or when the English phrase cannot be translated using other types of translation, for example: the moon is not seen when the sun shines (proverb)
– when the sun is shining, the moon is not visible.

6. Combined translation. In cases where the Russian analogue does not fully convey the meaning of the English phraseological unit or has a different specific flavor of place and time, a tracing translation is given, and then there is a descriptive translation and a Russian analogue for comparison, for example: carry coals to Newcastle - “carry coal to Newcastle ”, i.e. to carry something to a place where there is already enough of it (cf. go to Tula with your samovar).

By allowing full or partial tracing in some cases, the translator excludes any possibility of using literalisms, i.e. unjustified literal translations that distort the meaning of English phraseological units or do not correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language.

Phraseological units are widely used in literature of all styles. And a competent translator should not allow inaccuracies in the translation of this or that phraseological unit. Without knowledge of phraseology, it is impossible to appreciate the brightness and expressiveness of speech, to understand a joke, a play on words, and sometimes simply the meaning of the entire statement.

2. Phraseological units borrowed from artistic and literary sources

2.1.Biblicalisms

The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work has enriched not only the English language with phraseological units, but also many other languages of the world. “Much has been said and written about the colossal influence that Bible translations have had on the English language” (No. 24 p. 110). For centuries, the Bible was the most widely read and quoted book in England; “...not only individual words, but also entire idiomatic expressions (...) entered the English language from the pages of the Bible” (No. 24 p. 111). The number of biblical phrases and expressions that have entered the English language is so large that collecting and listing them would be a very difficult task. Among the expressions used in modern English speech and whose biblical origin is firmly established are the following (a complete list of biblical words is given in the appendix):

In addition to the above expressions, which include entire sentences-sayings and various nominal (with the main word noun), attributive and adverbial phrases, many more verb phrases have entered the English language from the Bible:

“Phraseological units of biblical origin often diverge in many ways from their biblical prototypes” (No. 28 p. 49). This is due in some cases to the fact that the biblical prototype was reinterpreted over time; the order of words could also be changed or archaic forms of words could be discarded.
For example, the phrase to kill the fatted calf in the parable of the prodigal son is used in the literal meaning of “slaying a fatted calf.” Later, this turn took on a new meaning of treating the best that is available at home. In the phraseological unit gall and wormwood - something hateful, disgusting, the word order has been changed compared to the biblical prototype and the articles (the wormwood and the gall) have been dropped. In the expression whatever a man sows, that shall he reap - ~ what goes around comes around, the archaic form of the verb to sow is discarded (cf. whatever a man soweth, that shall he reap). There are cases when a biblical phrase is used in a positive sense, but in modern language it is reinterpreted and is a phraseology with a negative assessment, for example:

Not to let one’s left hand know what one’s right hand does – left hand does not know what the right one is doing (modern version).

When thou doest alms let not thy left hand know what thy right hand does – “When you do alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing” (biblical prototype).

Some phraseological units go back to the biblical story. So we find biblical images and concepts in such phraseological units as forbidden fruit - forbidden fruit, Job's comforter - grief-comforter, Juda's kiss - kiss
Judas, a prodigal son - a prodigal son, a dead letter - a dead letter; a law or slogan that has lost its meaning.

2.2. Phraseologisms borrowed from ancient fiction

Greece and Ancient Rome

Phraseologisms the golden age - the golden age, the apple of discord - the apple of discord, Pandora's box - Pandora's box, Achilles' heel - Achilles' heel, Augean stable(s) - Augean stables, a labor of Hercules - Herculean labor, a labor of Sisyphus – Sisyphean work, Lares and Penates
(book) – lares and penates, that which creates comfort, a home (lares and penates in ancient Roman mythology are the patron gods of the hearth), the thread of Ariadne (book) – Ariadne’s thread, a guiding thread, a method that helps to get out of a difficult situation (the daughter of the Cretan king Ariadne, giving the Greek hero Theseus a ball of thread, helped him get out of the labyrinth) are taken from ancient mythology.

The following expressions are associated with Homer’s poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”: Homeric laughter - Homeric laughter (the phrase is associated with Homer’s description of the laughter of the gods); an Iliad of woes - a story of countless misfortunes; a sardonic laugh - sardonic, sarcastic laughter; Penelope's web – weaving
Penelope, delaying tactics; winged words - winged words; between
Scylla and Charybdis – between Scylla and Charybdis, in a hopeless situation; on the knees of the Gods - only God knows; on the razor’s edge - in a dangerous position, on the edge of an abyss, like a Trojan - courageously, valiantly, heroically (Virgil in the Aeneid also glorifies the courage of the defenders of Troy); the Trojan Horse - Trojan horse, hidden danger.

The following expressions come from Aesop’s fables and other ancient Greek tales and fables: to blow hot and cold - to hesitate, to do mutually exclusive things, to take an ambivalent position (in one of the fables
Aesop, the traveler simultaneously blew on his fingers to warm them, and on the soup to cool it), to add insult to injury - to aggravate insults; to kill the goose that laid the golden eggs - kill the hen that lays the golden eggs; to cry wolf too often – raise a false alarm; the lion’s share - the lion’s share; the last straw (that broke the camel’s back) – the last drop that overflowed the cup, the limit of patience; sour grapes
– the grapes are green (about something unattainable and therefore condemned); to nourish a viper in one’s bosom – warm the snake on your chest; an ass in a lion’s skin - an ass in a lion’s skin; a fly on the wheel - a person who exaggerates his participation in any matter.

From one of Phaedrus’s fables comes the saying to take time by the forelock - take advantage of the opportunity, do not yawn. Expressions the small of the lamp - the smell of a lamp (i.e. oil in the lamp, by the light of which the writer reworked his work); forcedness, artificiality and to know where the shoe pinches - to know what the problem is, what the need is - became known thanks to the writings of Plutarch. This is where the phraseological unit “the skeleton at the feast” comes from – a person who darkens, spoils someone else’s fun; the expression to call a spade a spade - to call a spade a spade originates from an inaccurate, but successful rendering by Erasmus of Rotterdam of a proverb quoted by Plutarch (Plutarch says “to call a trough a trough” (No. 16)).

Some phraseological units go back to the works of ancient Roman writers: a snake in the grass - an underwater snake, an insidious, hidden enemy (Virgil); the golden mean— golden mean(Horace); the sinews of war (book) – money, material resources (necessary for waging war) (Cicero); anger is a short madness – “anger is a short madness” (Horace).

Phraseological units that came into English from literature
Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome are endowed with extraordinary colorfulness and expressiveness, this explains their prevalence not only in English, but also in other languages of the world.

2.3. Phraseologisms borrowed from English fiction

XVI – XX centuries

2.3.1. Shakespeareisms

The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred. Here are examples of some of the most common Shakespearean expressions. (All the following examples of phraseological units are taken from the English-Russian phraseological dictionary of A.V. Kunin
(No. 16) (in total, 350 phraseological units are presented in the practical part).

"King Henry IV"

"King Henry V"

"Twelfth Night"

“Merchant of Venice”

“As You Like It”

"Midsummer Night's Dream"

“Much Ado About Nothing”

"Troilus and Creseide"

"Romeo and Juliet"

"Comedy of Errors"

“Antonius and Cleopatra”

"Julius Caesar"

|A sea-change |- transformation (not death) |

"Coriolanus"

|A triton among the minnows |- a giant among the pygmies |

"Love's Labor Lost"

|That’s flat | - finally and irrevocably |

In modern English, Shakespearean words can be used with some modifications. For example, the expression to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve for days to peck at (“Othello”) – flaunt one’s feelings; (~soul wide open). (This phraseological unit is associated with the medieval knightly tradition of wearing the colors of his lady on his sleeve). In modern English it is usually used in abbreviated form: to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve. Also, instead of the preposition upon, another preposition can be used - on. For example: “It’s lovely to be able to tell the world what she means to me.” Howard … adds: “I never back off from showing my emotions whatever they are.” I think if we all wore our hearts on our sleeves a bit more we’d all get on a lot better.” (The times)

Shakespeareanism the better part of value is discretion (“King Henry IV”)
– one of the adornments of courage – modesty exists in modern English with a changed word order: discretion is the better part of valour.

Many Shakespearean expressions acquire lexical variants over time: for example, applaud (or cheer) to the echo - loudly, enthusiastically applaud, give an ovation (applaud to the echo - Shakespeareanism;
"Macbeth"); cram (ram or thrust) smth. down smb.’s throat – to impose on someone (one’s opinion, one’s views, etc.) (thrust smth. down smb.’s throat – Shakespeareanism; “Titus Andronicus”).

In Shakespeareanism, buy golden opinions - to deserve a favorable, flattering opinion about oneself, to evoke admiration; in modern language, instead of the verb buy, the verb win is used.

The expression at one fell swoop (“Macbeth”) - with one blow, in one fell swoop, at one moment immediately began to be used in the abbreviated form at one swoop.
For example: “They go quick, one after another – five of them vanished already at one swoop.” (S. O'Casey)

In modern English speech, Shakespeareanisms are also used, which include obsolete words, i.e. archaisms that are not used anywhere except this phrase. For example, from whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned from (i.e. in the kingdom of death). The word bourne is an archaism and means a boundary or limit; it is used in modern English only within the framework of this phraseological unit.

A large number of phraseological units created by Shakespeare have come into general use, which testifies to both the linguistic genius of Shakespeare and his colossal popularity.

2.3.2. Statements of English writers of the 17th – 20th centuries, which have become phraseological units of the modern language

In addition to Shakespeare, many other writers have enriched the English phraseological fund. Among them, it is mainly worth noting
Alexander Pope, Walter Scott, Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton,
Jonathan Swift and Charles Dickens.

Alexander Pop:

Walter Scott:

Geoffrey Chaucer:

John Milton:

Jonathan Swift:

Charles Dickens:

The statements of other English writers usually remain quotations and only in rare cases replenish the phraseological fund of the English language, entering colloquial speech. Here are some examples of such statements:
(the following phraseological units are classified according to the time of creation of the work in which this phraseological unit is used).

J. Arbuthnot: John Bull - “John Bull” (a mocking nickname for the British). The phrase was first used by the court physician J. Arbuthnot in the satirical pamphlet “Law is a Bottomless Pit” (1712), later republished under the title “The History of John Bull.”

R. Burns: John Barleycorn – John Barleycorn (personification of whiskey, beer and other spirits), (“John Barleycorn”).

J. Gay: (as) cool as a cucumber – completely unperturbed, calm; ~ does not blow his mustache, and does not blink an eye (“Poems on Several
Occasions").

D. Defoe: man Friday - Friday; faithful devoted servant (named after the faithful servant in the novel “Robinson Crusoe”); a gentleman’s gentleman –
“a gentleman serving a gentleman”, servant (“Everybody’s Business”).

S. T. Coleridge: an albatross about one’s neck - a constant reminder of someone’s guilt; sad circumstance (in Coleridge's poem “The Ancient
Mariner” is about a sailor who, by killing an albatross, brought disaster on his ship and was forced to wear the dead albatross around his neck as punishment).

W. Cooper: a cup that cheers but not inebriates - “a cheerful drink, but not inebriating”, tea (“The Task”).

K. Marlowe: to clip smb.’s wings - to clip someone’s wings.

T. Morton: what will Mrs. Grundy say? – “what will Mrs. Grundy say?”, i.e. what will people say? The expression is used in the comedy “Speed the
Plough.” Mrs. Grundy is the embodiment of walking morality (cf. what will Princess Marya Alekseevna say?).

T. Smollett: fly off at a tangent - suddenly disconnect from the topic of conversation (“Humphrey Clinker”); fit like a glove – to be just right, to fit (“Humphrey Clinker”).

L. Chesterfield: small talk - chatter, talk about trifles, about the weather
(“Letters to his Son”).

J. G. Byron: (as) merry as a marriage-bell - very cheerful, cheerful, full of life(“Child Harold’s Pilgrimage”).

W. Wordsworth: the child is father of the man - the traits of an adult are already embedded in the child.

T. Campbell: few and far between – rare, rarely encountered
(“Pleasures of Hope”).

J. Poole: Paul Pry is a person who sticks his nose into other people's affairs, an overly curious person (the main thing character comedy “Paul Pry”).

R. L. Stevenson: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde – “Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde,” a person who embodies two principles – good and evil (named after the hero of the story “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde”).

A. Tennyson: a little rift within the lute – the beginning of discord or madness; wormhole, “crack” (“Idylls of the King, Merlin and
Vivien").

A. O. Shaughnessy: mover and shaker - influential person, leader public opinion making politics.

J. Berry: little Mary (colloquial joke) - stomach, “tummy” (after the title of the play).

R. Kipling: the tail wags the dog - “the tail wags the dog”, the subordinate commands the superior (“The Conundrum of the Workshops”)

Ch. Snow: corridors of power - corridors of power (book title)

Many phraseological units were not created by the writers themselves, but only thanks to the latter they became widespread in modern English. Here are examples. The expression John Barleycorn has been known since the first half XVII century and gained particular popularity thanks to R. Burns’s ballad “John Barleycorn”. The saying to be on the side of the angels (lit. to be on the side of the angels), insist on traditional
(anti-scientific) point of view gained popularity thanks to B.
Disraeli. Phraseologism vanity fair - vanity fair, which is the name of the famous novel by W. Thackeray, is found in the book of J. Bunyan
"Pilgrim's Progress" (1678 - 1684). The phraseological phrase “a skeleton in the closet” is a family secret hidden from outsiders, introduced by W. Thackeray into literature, and was also known before him. Comparisons green like a Cheshire cat – grin, smile from ear to ear; (as) mad as a hatter and (as) mad as a March hare - out of my mind, crazy, completely out of my mind, popularized by L. Carroll in the book “Alice in Wonderland”.

2.4. Phraseologisms borrowed from American fiction

Many phraseological units came to England from the USA. They belong to intralingual borrowings. Some of these phraseological units were once created by American writers and became widespread in modern English speech.

The creators of many revolutions are known.

V. Irving: the almighty dollar - “almighty dollar” (usually used ironically); a Rip Van Winkle - “Rip Van Winkle”, a retarded man (named after the hero of the same story who slept for twenty years).

E. O'Connor: the last hurrah - “last hurrah”; ~ swan song
(usually about the last election campaign, or about a politician ending his turbulent political career. Based on the title of the novel)

F. Cooper: the last of the Mohicans - the last of the Mohicans (based on the title of the novel). The Mohicans are an extinct tribe of North American Indians.
The popularity of Cooper's works contributed to the introduction into the English language of phraseological units related to the life of the Indians: bury the hatchet - make peace, make peace, stop hostility (the Indians buried a tomahawk in the ground when making peace); dig up the hatchet - start a war (the Indians had a custom before starting hostilities to pull out a tomahawk buried in the ground); go on the war-path - to take the path of war, to be in a warlike mood.

G. Longfellow: ships that pass in the night - fleeting, chance encounters (“Tales of Wayside Inn”) (cf. separated like ships at sea).
The popularity of the expression is also associated with its use as the title of one of the novels of the writer Beatrice Harraden (1893).

J. London: the call of the wild - “call of the ancestors”, “call of nature”, the charm of virgin nature (based on the title of the novel); the iron heel, imperialism (based on the title of the novel).

M. Mitchell: gone with the wind - disappeared without a trace, sunk into the past (the expression became popular after the publication of the novel by M. Mitchell
"Gone With the Wind" and the film based on this novel were created English poet E. Dawson (1867 – 1900).

J. Howe: the grapes of wrath (the phrase first appears in the work of J. Howe “Battle Hymn of the Republic” (1862), owes its popularity to J. Steinbeck’s novel of the same name).

R.W. Emerson: hitch one’s wagon to a star - to get carried away in dreams
(“Society and Solitude”).

The number of phraseological units borrowed from American fiction is not as large as the number of phraseological units created English writers.
But it should be noted that the Americanisms given above have the most vivid imagery and increased expressiveness compared to the statements of English writers.

2.5. Phraseologisms borrowed from French fiction

French fiction has made a significant contribution to the phraseological fund of the modern English language. Many works of French writers have been translated into English and are still widely popular in England. In this regard, it is worth highlighting such French writers as: Francois Rabelais, Jean Baptiste
Moliere, Jerome d'Angers, Lafontaine and others.

We give examples of phraseological units created by French writers and most used in modern English (all of the following phraseological units, borrowed from French fiction, are translations and are presented in English (in their original form, these phraseological units are not used in modern English speech)): appetite comes with eating - appetite comes while eating (the expression first appears in the essay “On Causes” (1515) by Jerome d’Angers, bishop of the city of Le Mans; popularized by Francois Rabelais in “Gargantua and
Pantagruel"); Buridan's ass - Buridan's donkey (about a person who does not dare to make a choice between two equivalent objects, equivalent decisions, etc.) (The 14th century French philosopher Buridan is credited with a story about a donkey who died of hunger, since he did not dare to make a choice between two identical armfuls of hay. This story was allegedly given.
Buridan as an example in discussions about free will. The phraseology an ass (or a donkey) between two bundles of hay goes back to this same story); castles in Spain - castles in the air (an expression associated with the medieval heroic epic, the heroes of which, knights, received unconquered castles in Spain into personal possession); for smb.’s fair eyes (or for the fair eyes of smb.) - for the sake of someone’s beautiful eyes, not for the sake of his merits, but according to personal disposition, for nothing, for nothing (an expression from the comedy of J.B.
Molière's "Prudence"); an ivory tower - “ivory tower”, isolation from life (an expression created by the French poet and critic
Sainte-Beuve and is a rethinking of biblicalism); let us return to our muttons - let’s return to the topic of our conversation (an expression from Blanchet’s medieval farce about the lawyer Patlen; later, by reverse formation, the infinitive arose to return to one’s muttons); to pull smb.’s (or the) chestnuts out of the fire (for smb.) - to pull chestnuts out of the fire for someone; it is pointless, at the risk of oneself, to work for the benefit of another (in La Fontaine’s fable “The Monkey and the Cat” - the monkey Bertrand forces the cat
Ratona to pull chestnuts from the fire for himself). The expression “to make a cat’s paw of smb” is associated with the same fable. - to make someone your obedient instrument - to rake in the heat with someone else’s hands).

It should be noted that the number of phraseological units borrowed from French fiction into the English language is not large, but despite this, they are often used by English writers to enhance imagery (for example: “You tried to use me as a cat's paw to pull chestnuts out of the fire for Stanley Rider.” (U. Sinclair) (No. 16)) and are widespread in modern English speech.

2.6. Phraseologisms borrowed from German and Danish fiction

Phraseological borrowings from German and Danish fiction are few. Only a few writers from Germany and Denmark added “catchphrase” expressions to the English phraseological fund.
Here are examples of these phraseological units: speech is silvern, silence is golden - “the word is silver, silence is gold”; The proverb was first found by the German writer Thomas
Carlyle: As the Swiss Inscription says: Sprechen ist silbern, schweigen ist golden (speech is silvern, silence is golden) (“Sartor Resartus”); storm and stress - “storm and stress” (a trend in German literature of the 70-80s of the 18th century); period of anxiety, excitement; tension (in public or personal life), rapid onslaught (German: Sturm und
Drang - after the name of the play by F. Klinger); between hammer and anvil - between a hammer and an anvil (after the title of a novel (1868) by a German writer
F. Spielhagen); the emperor has (or wears) no clothes - but the king is naked (an expression from the fairy tale by the Danish writer H.H. Andersen “The King’s New Clothes” (1837)); an ugly duckling - " ugly duckling"(a person unfairly assessed below his merits, which manifest themselves unexpectedly to others; according to the title of the fairy tale by H.H. Andersen about the ugly duckling who grew up and became a beautiful swan).

2.7. Phraseologisms that came into English from Spanish fiction

In modern English there are only a few phraseological units borrowed from Spanish fiction. In this regard, one should highlight one of the most famous Spanish writers, Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra, who became famous throughout the world for his work “Don Quixote”. Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra is the author of the following phraseological units: the knight of the Rueful Countenance - (book) knight of the Sad Image, Don Quixote (Spanish el Caballero de la triste figura. This is what Don Quixote was called by his squire Sancho Panza); tilt at windmills - fight with windmills, “quixotic” (Spanish: acometer molinos de viento. The battle with windmills is one of the episodes in the novel “Don Quixote”).

Currently, in the English language there are many phraseological units of Spanish origin, but only those phraseological units given above have literary roots.

2.8. Phraseologisms associated with Arabic fiction

Several expressions have come into the English language from the Arabian Nights fairy tales: Aladdin’s lamp (book) – Aladdin’s magic lamp (a talisman that fulfills all the wishes of its owner). The phrase “to rub the lamp” is associated with the same fairy tale – it’s easy to fulfill your desire; Alnascharn's dream
(book) - empty dreams, fantasies (one of the tales of the Arabian Nights talks about Alnashar, who bought glassware with all his money and put them in a basket, but, dreaming about how he would become a rich man, and, angry with his future wife, hit the basket and broke all the glass); the old man of the sea - a person from whom it is difficult to get rid of, an obsessive person (an allusion to an episode in one of the fairy tales, which tells how Sinbad the Sailor could not get rid of the old man who sat on his shoulders); an open Sesame - “Open Sesame!”, a quick and easy way to achieve something ( magic words, with the help of which the door to the cave of robbers in the fairy tale was opened
"Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves")

The fact that some expressions borrowed from Arabic folklore have become phraseological units of the modern English language testifies to the metaphorical and expressive nature of these phraseological units. Similar concepts exist in other languages of the world, in this case we can talk about the internationality of phraseological units borrowed from Arabic literature.

Conclusion

The phraseological fund of the English language is so large that its complete study would not fit into the scope of this work. Nevertheless, using the example of the considered phraseological units, one can clearly imagine how diverse in their semantics and expressiveness the phraseological units of modern English are. Thanks to the literary works of writers and poets, both in Great Britain and around the world, the English language currently has a huge number of phraseological units. But we should not forget that a huge number of phraseological units also came into the English language from the history and culture of various countries of the world.

Unfortunately, in modern English speech there is no use of expressions taken from the literature of Asian countries. Only phraseological units borrowed from the literature of countries in one way or another geographically close to Great Britain have become widespread. It should be noted that the number of biblicalisms in the English language is especially large; this may indicate the religiosity of the English.

An important fact is that all non-English literary borrowings presented in this work are complete tracings from one language or another. In modern English, these phraseological units are not used in a foreign language form. Therefore, we cannot talk here about the process of assimilation of phraseological units borrowed from the fiction of various countries.

The expression “enrich with phraseological units” is often used in the work.
It must be said that this is not a simple pattern, because as A.V. said.
Kunin “Phraseology is the treasury of language” (No. 15), and phraseological units in language are wealth. Phrases not only reflect the culture and way of life of a particular language, but also help make speech more expressive and emotional.

Phraseology is an extremely complex phenomenon, the study of which requires its own research method, as well as the use of data from other sciences - lexicology, grammar, stylistics, phonetics, history of language, history, philosophy, logic and regional studies.

The opinions of linguists on a number of problems of phraseology differ, and this is quite natural. Nevertheless, an important task for linguists working in the field of phraseology is to combine efforts and find common ground in the interests of both the theory of phraseology and the practice of teaching foreign languages.

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Anastasia Labutina, 9th grade student

This work is a systematic material on Russian and English phraseological units. Many examples of phraseological units are given. Source of information - Internet resources.

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Municipal budgetary educational institution "Gymnasium No. 2 of Torzhok"

Russian and English phraseological units. Experience of comparative analysis.

Scientific and practical work on the Russian language

Labutina Anastasia, 9th grade

Head Marchenkova I.M., teacher of Russian language and literature

Torzhok 2013

What does phraseology study……………………………………………………… p.1
What does linguoculturology study……………………………………………..page 2
Russian linguists who worked in the field of phraseology……………………… p.3
National features of phraseological units…………………………… p.4-6
Phraseologisms built on the basis of comparison……………………………p.7
Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………….page 8
References…………………………………………………………………………………. p.9

Appendix No. 1 English phraseological units with translation and their equivalents in Russian…………………………………………………………………………………pp.10-11

What does phraseology study?

Good knowledge of a language is impossible without knowledge of its phraseological units. The world of phraseology in Russian and English is large and diverse. Is there anything common in the phraseological units of these two languages? Or are they different?

The purpose of this workis to establish similarities and differences in phraseological units of English and Russian languages.

The objectives are

finding and identifying the most expressive images in two languages
origin and comparison of images in phraseological units of Russian and English languages.

Object of studyPhraseological expressions of English and Russian languages were selected.

Subject of researchis the similarity and difference of images in phraseological units of the native and English languages.

Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of a language in its current state and historical development. The phraseological composition of a language includes phraseological units (phraseologisms) or idioms. If the speaker needs to use a phraseological unit, then he extracts it from the reserves of his memory, and does not build it anew. This indicates the predictability of the components of phraseological units.

A phraseological unit has one distinctive feature - it is impossible to deduce its meaning by adding the meanings of its components (words). That is, a phraseological unit is an indivisible semantic unit. Phraseologisms also have such a mandatory quality as the presence of figurative and figurative meaning. For example:“to eat the dog”, “at breakneck speed”, “under the fly”, “the cat cried”...

A lot of scientific works have been written and are being written on phraseological units, their varieties, categories, etc. Another interesting problem is the translation of phraseological units. Due to the indivisibility of the meaning of a phraseological unit, it is necessary, knowing exactly its meaning, to select a similar phraseological unit in your language.

Sometimes one phraseological unit corresponds to several “translations”:"Who breaks, pays" - You made the porridge yourself, so you can disentangle it yourself.

And there are phraseological units in both Russian and English that not only have a similar meaning, but also the translation of their constituent words:"Like teacher, like student" - Like the teacher, like the student.

What does linguoculturology study?

Linguoculturology 1 studies the totality of cultural values, explores the relationship and interaction of culture and language and reflects this process as an integral system.

The tasks of linguoculturology include the study and description of the relationship between language and culture, language and ethnicity, language and national mentality. Language not only reflects the human world and its culture. The most important function of language is that it preserves culture and passes it on from generation to generation. That is why language plays such a significant role in the formation of personality, national character, ethnic community, people, nation.

Phraseologisms, proverbs, sayingsmost clearly illustrate the way of life, geographical location, history, and traditions of the people.

The quantity and quality of idioms reflecting a positive or negative assessment of certain qualities can be considered an indicator of ethical norms and rules social life and behavior in society, relationships through its culture and language to the world, other peoples and cultures.

For example, a quality such as laziness. A quality that prevents everyone, including students, from achieving serious results in any activity.

Both Russian and English logical units express a negative attitude towards laziness, but in Russian there are many more such phraseological units than in English:

Chasing the loafer (dogs);

Sit back;

Idleness is the mother of vices;

Labor feeds a person, but laziness spoils him;

You will become lazy, you will drag your bag;

He who gets up earlier lives twice as long;

Those who get up early get mushrooms, but those who are sleepy and lazy

follow the nettles.

Business before pleasure (Business first);

Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do (Bezdelnikov

easy to persuade to evil);

Dog-lazy (lazy as a dog);

To goof off (idle);

To work with the left hand (work with your left hand)

It is interesting that in the Russian language there are idiomatic expressions that express a negative attitude towards work:

You can’t redo everything;

You can’t work enough for peace;

Work is not a wolf; it will not run away into the forest;

A zealous horse does not live long;

There is no such theme in English phraseology!

www.pglu.ru/lib/publications/University.../uch_2008_

L.N.PereyashkinaRussian and English phraseological units in an ethnolinguistic context

Russian linguists working in the field of phraseology

Linguistics knows many definitions of a phraseological unit, but none
one thing did not find universal acceptance.

Some linguists rightly believe that the definition of a phraseological unit is as complex as the definition of a word. This difficulty lies, first of all, in the fact that it is difficult to establish for both a word and a phraseological unit common features, which could be attributed to each of them without exception.

The formation of phraseology as a field of linguistics was facilitated by the works

A. Shakhmatov, F. Buslaeva, A. Potebnya, F. Fortunatov, I. Sreznevskyand others.
Many people have become objects of phraseological research national languages,
including Western European ones.

A noticeable step forward in the development of the theory of stable phrases was made by the academician

V. V. Vinogradov. In 1946, he published the article “Basic concepts of Russian phraseology as a linguistic discipline.” In 1947, a new article by V.V. Vinogradov “On the main types of phraseological units in the Russian language” appeared. The scientist identifies four main groups of phraseological units, which he calls
phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.

F.I. Buslaev argued that phraseological units are unique microcosms that contain “and moral law, and common sense, expressed in a short saying, which the ancestors bequeathed for guidance to their descendants.”
Famous Russian linguist B.A.Larin wrote: “Phraseological units always indirectly reflect the views of the people, the social system, and the ideology of their era. Reflected - like the light of the morning reflected in a drop of dew.”

Phrasebook– a dictionary containing the phraseology of the language. In 1892, S.V. Maksimov’s collection “Winged Words” was published, containing an interpretation of 1290 words and expressions (stable combinations of words, sayings, etc.). Russian phraseology is presented with great completeness in the book published in 1967. edited by A.I.Molotkova “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, containing over 4,000 dictionary entries. Phraseologisms are given with possible variants of components, an interpretation of the meanings is given, and forms of use in speech are indicated. Each of the meanings is illustrated with quotes from fiction and journalism. In some cases, etymological information is provided.

National features of phraseological units

Phraseology researchers paid attention to the national peculiarity. Therefore, phraseological units were defined by the term “idiom”, which translated from Greek means “peculiar”. In English they are also called “idioms”. Some linguists at first even argued that phraseological units were untranslatable into other languages. And indeed, we discovered a huge layer of phraseological units that have no analogues in the English language: hang your nose, one like a finger, without a king in your head, your soul has gone to your heels, your lip is not a fool, it is written on your forehead, and Vaska listens and eats, an elephant I didn’t even notice, the stigma is covered in fluff, monkey work, a disservice. Many of them were born in the works of Russian writers. I. A. Krylov was a storehouse of phraseological units, from whose fables a large number of phraseological units came into our phraseology. The rest were created by the language-creating people.

When comparing other phraseological units in the English and Russian languages, we found phraseological units that were similar in structure. When analyzing them, similarities in structure, imagery and stylistic coloring were discovered:

Play with fire – to play with fire;

burn bridges – to burn bridges;

there is no smoke without fire - there is no smoke without fire;

hardworking like a bee – busy as a bee

live like a cat and dog – a cat and dog life

affairs of the heart – affair of the heart

matter of honor

knight without fear and without reproach

the cream of society – the cream of society

the game is worth the candle – the game is worth the candle

reverse side of the coin - the reverse side of the coin.

To determine the origin of a particular expression, linguists use not only the facts of languages in the present and past, but also data from history and ethnography, reflecting the peculiarities of the life and way of life of the people. The researcher must know the morals and customs of the people, their beliefs and superstitions, since this helps to establish the origin of phraseological units.

It is interesting to note that many Russians and English expressions go back to one primary source - the Bible. The Bible is the richest source of phraseological units. This greatest work enriched both the Russian and English languages with similar units. Here are just a few of them:

The beam in one's eye - a beam in one's own eye.

Daily bread - daily bread.

Poverty is no sin - poverty is not a vice.

Throw nature out of the door, it will come back again - Throw nature out the door, it will come through the window.

Look not a gift horse in the mouth - Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth.

A storm in a tea-cup - Storm in a glass of water.

These phraseological units are presented in the Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language as borrowed from Latin through French. This allows us to conclude that they are Russian and English tracings from the French language.

It is interesting that the French phraseological unit Cherches la femme (A. Dumas) is widely used in both Russian and English. But if in the Russian language its tracing paper is used (look for a woman), then in English it is not a tracing paper that functions, but a phrase that reveals the meaning of a foreign expression:

There is a woman in it - A woman is involved here.

The English language, and subsequently the Russian language, included units endowed with extraordinary colorfulness. This explains their prevalence in both languages and the similarity of images.

V. Shakespeare: To be or not to be - to be or not to be.

The English writer W. Thackeray is the author of phraseological units:

Vanity Fair – Vanity Fair

A skeleton in the closet - a skeleton in the closet (about a family secret hidden from outsiders).

Danish storyteller H.H. Andersenadded the following expressions to the Russian and English languages:

The emperor has no clothes - And the king is naked.

An ugly duckling - an ugly duckling (about a person valued below his merits, but who has changed unexpectedly for those around him).

However, when translating from language to language, a change in imagery often occurs. This is an interesting phenomenon for English and Russian languages.Thus, we observe the difference in images in the following phraseological units:

Laugh in the beard (laugh into the beard) - laugh into your fist

Nothing new under the sun (nothing new under the “sun”) - nothing new under the moon

Buy a pig in a poke (buy a “pig” in a bag) – buy a pig in a poke

Head to head, face to face (head to head, face to face) - face to face

As two peas (like two “peas”) - like two drops of water

To be born with a silver spoon in the mouth (to be born with a silver spoon in the mouth) - to be born in a shirt

To make a mountain out of a molehill (to make a mountain out of a molehill) - to make a molehill out of a molehill

Not worth a bean (not worth a bean) - not worth a penny

The rotten apple injures its neighbors (a rotten apple spoils the neighbors) - a black sheep spoils the whole flock

A piece of cake (piece of cake) is a trivial matter

As cool as a cucumber (cold like a cucumber) - calm as a boa constrictor

In hot water (in hot water) - to be in worries, troubles

It is not my cup of tea (not my cup of tea) - not for me

Thick as blackberries (thick as blueberries) - at least a dime a dozen

Phraseologisms based on comparison

Let's pay attention to idiomatic expressions that contain comparison 1 , for example: "Dumb as a donkey" . Here it seemed that you could easily make a literal translation, and everyone would understand you. Everyone knows that donkeys are stupid animals. “Everyone” means Russian speakers.

In fact, these are just stereotypes that have become very firmly entrenched in the language of the people and their culture. Someone accidentally imposed a label on a slow animal, and so the result was an offensive phraseological unit. But this is a stereotype of Russian culture. In Mexico, for example, the donkey is a highly respected animal and is used extensively in vast rural areas. And the comparison with a donkey there is laudatory, not derogatory. So, a literal translation of such comparisons in most cases will be a failure and will not bring the desired effect.

The hog in England and America is considered "more" clumsy than our cow:"As a hog on ice" . And the point here is in the linguistic cultural tradition, and not in different naturalistic views. There seem to be enough moles everywhere, but:"Blind as a bat" . And the bull is not so strong:"Strong as a horse" . But a bull is just right for a china shop:"Like a bull in a china shop" , only here he specifically hits porcelain.

It is very obvious that, both in Russian and in English, idioms mentioning our lesser brothers prevail over the rest of the topic. There are other comparisons:"Old as the hills" - Sand is pouring out of it.

There are some striking comparisons with the word"door-nail" (doornail)."Dead as a door-nail" - (there is no corresponding Russian idiom) - without any signs of life."Deaf as a door-nail" - Deaf as a stump. "Dumb as a door-nail\Dumb as an oyster"- Silent as a fish.

Once upon a time, these comparisons did not have a figurative meaning, but a very specific one. And then, by some coincidence, they acquired a different, idiomatic meaning. The history of almost every idiom is an interesting, fascinating, but long story.

Do not consider it difficult to look for equivalents to foreign language idioms. This way you will not only improve your knowledge of a foreign language, but also learn something extremely interesting about the culture of another people.

1. http://www.study.ru/support/oh/17.html Ilya Radchenko

6. Conclusions

As a result of the work done, we have significantly expanded our knowledge on the following issues:

Which of the Russian linguists studied phraseology.
What points of view exist on the issue of defining phraseological units.
What types of phraseological units exist.

Practical research allowed us to compare some Russian and English phraseological units.

In general, the conducted scientific and practical research has enriched the understanding of Russian and English phraseology.

The prepared presentation can be used in Russian and English lessons. The examples given in the work can be used to prepare didactic material when studying the topic “Phraseology”

References

Multilingual dictionary of modern phraseology. Ed. D. Puccio. - M.: FLINTA, 2012. - 432 s.
V.P. Felitsyna, V.M. Mokienko. School phraseological dictionary. Series: Russian - excellent. - M., Publisher: Eksmo-Press, 1999. - 384 p.
V.P.Felitsyna, V.M.Mokienko. Russian phraseological dictionary. More than 800 expressions. - M. Publishing house: Eksmo-Press, 1999. - 400 p.
A.K.Birikh, V.M.Mokienko, L.I.Stepanova. Dictionary of phraseological synonyms of the Russian language. - M., Publishers: AST, Astrel, 2001. - 496 p.

Electronic educational resources.

http://www.wikipedia.ru– Wikipedia – the free encyclopedia
http://www.tapemark.narod.ru– Collection of texts
http://www.frazeologik.narod.ru- Russian phraseology and expressiveness of speech

Appendix No. 1

English phraseological units with translation and their equivalents in Russian

White Crow. – Rara avis. (lit.: “rare bird”)
White cash (colloquially, “legal cash recorded in financial documents and subject to taxes”) - White cash. (lit.: “white cash”)
Fight like a fish on ice. –To pull the devil by the tail.(lit.: “to pull the devil by the tail”)
Sore point. – A sore subject. (lit.: "sore question")
To be in seventh heaven - To thread on air. (lit.: "walk on air")
To be out of place. – A round peg in a square hole. (lit.: "round peg in a square hole")
To be under someone's shoe. –To be under someone's thumb.(lit.: "to be under someone's thumb")
Play the fool - Act the fool. / Play the fool. /Act the ass. / Play the ass.(lit.: "play the fool/donkey")
Spinning like a squirrel in a wheel. – To be busy as a bee. (lit.: "Be busy like a bee")
Pull yourself together. – To take oneself in hand. (lit.: "Pull yourself together")
Written on the water with a pitchfork. –It's still all up in the air.(lit.: "It's still up in the air")
Hanging by a thread. – To hang by a thread. (lit.: "Hanging by a Thread")
Hanging on the phone. – To sit on the phone. (lit.: "Sit on the phone")
Lead someone by the nose. –To draw the wool over someone's eyes.(lit.: "Pull wool over someone's eyes")
You can't spill it with water. – As thick as thieves. (lit.: "To be as close to each other as thieves")
That's where the dog is buried. –That's the heart of the matter.(lit.: “This is the heart of the matter (the matter)”)
Get out of bed on the wrong side. –To get out of the bed on the wrong side.(lit.: "Getting up on the wrong side of the bed")
Lose your temper. – To fly off the handle. (lit.: "Get off the handle")
Hungry like a wolf. – Hungry as a hunter. (lit.: "Hungry Like a Hunter")
Palm goose. (colloquial: “simp, simpleton”) – A silly goose. (lit. "stupid goose")
Making a mountain out of a molehill. –To make a mountain out of molehill.(lit.: “Making a mountain out of a mole hill”)
Chickens don't eat money. – Rolling in money. (lit.: "Ride in money")
The soul is wide open. – Open-hearted. (lit.: "Soul wide open")
My soul sank into my heels. –One's heart sank into one's boots.(lit.: "My heart sank into my shoes")
Live like on a volcano. – To sit on a powder keg. (lit.: "Sitting on a powder keg")
Cover your tracks. – To cover up one's traces. (lit.: "Hide tracks")
Hack on the nose. –Put it into your pipe and smoke it.(lit.: "Put it in your pipe and smoke it")
There are not enough stars from the sky. –He won’t set the Thames on fire.(lit.: "He won't set the Thames on fire")

Play with fire. – To play with edge-tool. (lit.: "Play with a sharp instrument")
Pour out your soul. – To bare one's heart. (lit. "Open your heart")
Looking for a needle in a haystack. –To look for a needle in a haystack.(lit.: "Looking for a needle in a haystack")
Drink the cup to the bottom. – To drink the cup to the end. (lit.: “Drink the cup to the remainder (sediment)”)
What fly bit you? (colloquial, “what’s bothering you?”) – What's biting you? (lit.: “What’s biting you?”)
Like the wind blew it away. – To vanish into thin air. (lit.: "Disappear into transparent air")
Like a bolt from the blue. – Like a bolt from the blue. (lit.: "Like a clap (of thunder) in the blue sky")
Like two and two are four. –As plain as the nose on your face.(lit.: "Clear as the nose on your face")
Like peas hitting a wall. –You might as well talk to a brick wall.(lit.: “You might as well be talking to a brick wall.”)
It just happened by hand. – Disappeared as if by magic. (lit.: "Disappeared as if by magic")
Like herring in a barrel. – Packed like sardines. (lit.: "Stuffed like sardines")
Stone on the heart. – A heavy heart. (lit.: "Heavy Heart")
A drop in the sea. – A drop in the ocean. (lit.: "A Drop in the Ocean")
Roll like cheese in butter. – To live in clover. (lit.: "Live in Clover")
Knock out wedge with wedge. – Nail drives out nail. (lit.: "The nail drives out the nail")
When the cancer hangs on the mountain ( or ) After the rain on Thursday ( that is, never) – When hell freezes (lit.: "When Hell Freezes Over")
Nice gesture. – A fine gesture. (lit.: "Beautiful gesture")
A tough nut to crack. – A hard nut to crack. (lit.: "A tough nut to crack")
Buy a pig in a poke. – To buy a pig in a poke. (lit.: "Buy a pig in a sack")
It's pouring like a bucket. – It rains cats and dogs. (lit.: "It's raining cats and dogs")
Fishing in troubled waters. – To fish in troubled waters. (lit.: "Fishing in Troubled Waters")
Between a rock and a hard place -Between the devil and the deep blue sea.(lit.: "Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea")
Measure to your yardstick (=0.71 m) – To measure another's corn by one's own bushel.(lit.: "Measuring someone else's grain with your own bushel")
It's a small world. – It’s a small world. (lit.: “The world is small”)
Press all buttons. – To pull strings. (lit.: "Tighten the ropes")
Call a spade a spade. – To call a spade a spade. (lit.: "Calling a spade a spade")
Half-bent (colloquially, “obsequiously”). – On bended knee. (lit.: "on bent knees")
It wasn't the sheep who sneezed ( or ) Not a pound of raisins (or ) Not khukhry-mukhra (colloquial, “about something important, significantv) - Nothing to sneeze at. (lit.: "Nothing to sneeze at")
Silent as a fish. – Dumb as an oyster. (lit.: "As dumb as an oyster")
Neither to the village nor to the city. – Neither here nor there. (lit.: "Neither here nor here")
Promise mountains of gold. – To promise the moon. (lit.: "Promise the moon")
Pour from empty to empty. – To beat the air. (lit.: “to beat the air”)
Drive like a tractor (colloquial, “persistently do your job”). – To flow through something.
Swim like a stone. – To swim like a stone. (lit.: "Swimming Like a Stone")

Spit on the ceiling. –To sit twiddle one's thumbs.(lit.: "Sit and twirl your thumb")
Tuck your tail. –To put one's tail between one's legs.(lit.: "Put your tail between your legs")
Put on the counter (colloquial, slang) – To turn on the meter. / The meter is running.
Then soup with a cat (colloquial) - Later-alligator. (lit.: "Later - Alligator", a rhyming response to the word “later”)
They look like two peas in a pod. – As like as two peas in a pot. (lit.: “Like two peas in a pod”)
Go through fire and water. – To go through fire and water. (lit.: "Walk through fire and water")
Verbal diarrhea (colloquial, “empty endless chatter”) - Verbal diarrhea (lit.: "verbal diarrhea")
Shot sparrow. – A knowing old bird. (lit.: "Knowing Old Bird")
What the doctor ordered (colloquially, “what you need”) - Just what the doctor ordered. (lit.: "Just what the doctor ordered")
Kill two birds with one stone. –To kill two birds with one stone.(lit.: "Kill two birds with one blow")
Sip grief - Smell hell. (lit.: "Smell Hell"
Materials for presentation at a scientific and practical conference. Labutina Anastasia, 9th grade student at MBOU Gymnasium No. 2 Teacher Marchenkova I.M.
Russian and English phraseological units. Experience of comparative analysis.
What is phraseology. PHRASEOLOGY is a section of lexicology that studies phraseological units, i.e. linguistic units that are complex in composition and have a stable character. Phraseological units can perform the functions of various parts of speech, for example: 1. noun (substantive phraseological units): Kazan orphan, a dog in the manger (dog in the manger); 2. verbs: to beat one's head, to burn the candle at both ends (burn through life), 3. adjectives: (adjective phraseological units): Adam's apple. 4.interjections: gracious me! (like that!) ; 5.adverbs (adverbial phraseological units): tirelessly; headlong, etc.
Idioms and classification of phraseological units. Phraseology researchers paid attention to the national peculiarity. Therefore, phraseological units were defined by the term “idiom”, which translated from Greek means “peculiar”. In English they are also called “idioms”. Some linguists at first even argued that phraseological units were untranslatable into other languages. G.O.Vinokur
Buslaev, Fyodor Ivanovich (1818-1897) After graduating from the gymnasium in Penza (1833), he entered the literature department of Moscow University. Upon graduation (1838), he taught in Moscow gymnasiums and gave private lessons. As a home teacher in the family of Count S. G. Stroganov, he lived in Germany and Italy, studied archeology and the history of European art, works on linguistics and the history of W. Humboldt and J. Grimm. He began his university career in 1842, when he was seconded to professors I. I. Davydov and S. P. Shevyrev, from 1847 he began lecturing, from 1848 - adjunct, then extraordinary professor (1850), ordinary professor (1859), emeritus professor ( 1873); Corresponding Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (1852), Academician (1860). Author of works on Slavic and Russian linguistics, Old Russian literature, oral folk art, Old Russian fine arts. Master's thesis - “On the influence of Christianity on Slavic language"(1848), doctoral - "Historical essays on Russian folk literature and art" (1861, vol. 1-2).
Complete idioms: Adjuncts - idioms that have lost the motivation of their meaning (for example, beat the bullshit, eat the dog). *Eating a dog means learning something very well.
Unities are idioms that retain a transparent motivation (for example, out of the frying pan and into the fire, a shot sparrow). *The shot sparrow is an experienced person.
Partial idioms: Combinations - expressions in which one of the components is reinterpreted and has a related use (for example, a sensitive question). *A sensitive question is a delicate question.
Expressions are sentences with reinterpreted subtext (usually proverbs and sayings) (for example, you can’t catch a fish out of a pond without difficulty). *You can’t even pull a fish out of a pond without difficulty – i.e. Every business requires a lot of effort (we are not talking about catching fish).
“Hang your nose” “One like a finger” “And Vaska listens and eats” “I didn’t even notice the elephant” “Stigma in the fluff” “Monkey’s work” “A disservice” “Written on the forehead” There is a huge layer of phraseological units, which have no analogues in the English language: Many of them were born in the works of Russian writers. I. A. Krylov was a storehouse of phraseological units, from whose fables a large number of phraseological units came into our phraseology.
When comparing phraseological units in the English and Russian languages, we found phraseological units that were similar in structure. When analyzing them, similarities in structure, imagery and stylistic coloring were discovered:
Play with fire To play with fire Burn bridges To burn bridges There is no smoke without fire There is no smoke without fire Hardworking like a bee Busy as a bee Live like a cat and a dog The cat and dog life Matters of the heart Affair of the heart A matter of honor Affair of honor Knight without fear and reproach The cream of society The cream of society The game is worth the candle The game is worth the candle The reverse side of the coin The reverse side of coin
It is interesting to note that many Russian and English expressions go back to the same primary source - the Bible. The Bible is the richest source of phraseological units. This greatest work enriched both the Russian and English languages with similar units. Here are just a few of them:
These phraseological units are presented in the Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language as borrowed from Latin through French. This allows us to conclude that they are Russian and English tracings from the French language. The beam in one’s eye Poverty is no sin Look not a gift horse in the mouth A storm in a tea-cup Poverty is not a vice. Don't look a gift horse in the mouth. Storm in a teacup.
The English language, and subsequently the Russian language, included units endowed with extraordinary colorfulness. This explains their prevalence in both languages and the similarity of images. V. Shakespeare: To be or not to be - to be or not to be. The Danish storyteller G.H. Andersen added expressions to the Russian and English languages: The emperor has no clothes - And the king is naked. An ugly duckling - an ugly duckling (about a person valued below his merits, but who has changed unexpectedly for those around him). V.I. Chernyshev
Most English idioms and phraseological units cannot be understood word for word. For example, without knowing in advance what the phrase “wear more than one hat” means, you can get into trouble by hearing it in speech or seeing it in writing, and starting to translate it literally as “wear more than one hat,” when in fact it means "to perform multiple duties"
The phraseology “Skin of an unkilled bear” is often used when they want to emphasize calculations based on nothing, unfounded hopes. “He shares the skin of an unkilled bear” - this saying became popular after Lafentin’s French fable “The Bear and Two Hunters” was translated into Russian. So, does this expression come from a fable? Not everything is so simple, because in France there is folk proverb, very close in meaning to the fable, which preaches the same moral: “There is no need to sell the skin of a bear until it is killed.” I.I.Sreznevsky
In addition, there are similar proverbs in Germany, which undoubtedly proves the version that it is not a proverb that originates from a fable, but vice versa. Jemendem einen Bären aufbinden - to tell someone a tall tale. Jemandem Honig um dem Bart schmieren - to flatter someone. Man soll das Fell nicht verkaufen, ehe man den Bären hat - you cannot share the skin of an unkilled bear. Einer Sache das richtige Gesicht geben – to present the matter in the right light. Leben wie Gott in Frankreich - to ride like cheese in butter, to live happily ever after. B.A.Larin
The study of phraseological units greatly helps to understand the culture and life of peoples and to master a foreign language. Using the examples of the units considered, one can clearly imagine how diverse and expressive the phraseological units of modern English and Russian languages are, how similar and different they are from each other. V.I.Dal

INTRODUCTION

Phraseology is the most living, vibrant and original part of the vocabulary of any language. The overwhelming majority of phraseology in Russian and English belongs to various functional styles and has an expressive flavor. All phraseological units are distinguished by their national identity and can acquire expressive meaning in the context. Therefore, there is every reason to consider phraseology one of the expressive means of language and consider it from a stylistic point of view.

English is an international language, and it is very rich in idiomatic expressions, proverbs and sayings, which are constantly found in literature, newspapers, films, radio and television programs, as well as in the everyday communication of native speakers. English idioms are very diverse and quite complex for those learning English. From known to science There are no languages that are completely devoid of idioms, phraseological units, proverbs and sayings. But the English language surpassed everyone.

Many stable phrases and sayings are easily translated into Russian, while others need explanation. Also in the English language there are idioms and proverbs that, when translated into Russian, sound differently, but their meaning remains the same.

Thus, we decided to refute the hypothesis about the advisability of learning idiomatic expressions by heart, and determined the goal of our research - to study phraseological units of the English and Russian languages for methods of translation and searching for correspondences in English and Russian. The goal involves solving the following tasks:

Carry out an analysis of phraseological units in English and Russian;

Determine the features of the translation of phraseological units of the English language;

Construct conclusions from the study.

The object of study of this work is phraseological units of the English and Russian languages. The subject of the study is the peculiarities of translating English phraseological expressions and phrases into Russian. The relevance of the study is due to the fact that the translation of phraseological units has received a lot of attention in theoretical works and translation manuals, but a unified system for their translation has not been invented.

In our research, we used research methods such as descriptive, comparative and structural analyzes of phraseological expressions in English and Russian; survey, research.

CHAPTERI. ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGISTS AND THEIR PLACE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1.1. The concept of "idiom" in English

At a certain stage of language learning, the need to master idioms begins to become acutely felt - speech without them, even correct ones, is dry and lifeless, and is often perceived as studentish. A very common mistake is to attribute idioms only colloquial speech, and sometimes confuse them with slang. The importance of idioms lies in the fact that they exist in any layer of speech (literary, colloquial, etc.), permeate and fill the entire language.

Idioms are expressions whose meaning is not equal to the meaning of their constituent words. An idiomatic expression is a phrase whose meaning is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to guess by looking at the meanings of individual words. If translated literally, it would be nonsense. The word "idiom" comes from the Greek "idioma", which means "peculiarity", "originality".

The translation of phraseological units has received a lot of attention in theoretical works, in translation manuals, and in many publications on comparative linguistics. Research results indicate that the study of the entire phraseological system can be successful only if careful analysis its individual subsystems, which have common and specific signs, inherent in the entire system as a whole.

1.2. Regional value of English phraseological units

There is no doubt that by becoming acquainted with a foreign language, assimilating and studying it, a person simultaneously penetrates into a new national culture and receives enormous spiritual wealth stored in the language being studied. In particular, a Russian schoolchild, student, or ordinary person, by mastering a foreign language, in this case English, receives a highly effective opportunity to become familiar with the national culture and history of the people of Great Britain.

Phraseology, as an integral part and a kind of treasury of any language in the world, can especially strongly contribute to this familiarization.

Phraseologisms and phraseological combinations reflect the centuries-old history of the English people, the originality of their culture, way of life, and traditions.

Therefore, phraseological units are highly informative units of the English language.

What is a phraseological unit? The work is devoted to clarifying this, as well as the types and reasons for the emergence and transformation of phraseological units.

The regional value of phraseological units consists of three components.

Firstly, phraseological units reflect the national culture in a divided way, by units of its composition. Some of these words belong to the number without equivalents.

Secondly, English phraseological units reflect the national culture comprehensively, with all their elements taken together, that is, their phraseological meanings.

Finally, thirdly, phraseological units reflect the national culture with their prototypes, since genetically free phrases described certain customs, traditions, features of life and culture, historical events and much more.

Most idiomatic expressions were created by the people, so they are closely related to the interests and daily activities of ordinary people.

Many phraseological units are associated with beliefs and legends. However, most English phraseological units arose in professional speech.

Sport has always played an important role in the lives of the inhabitants of Foggy Albion.

The British are proud that many sports originated in their country and then spread throughout the world.

The national British games are football, cricket, horse racing, and billiards.

Many phraseological units are associated with horse racing, cockfighting, and boxing. They are characterized by humor, worldly wisdom, their content is our world, the environment, and their atmosphere is insightful, solid, unromantic common sense.

The focus is on luck and money. The satisfaction brought by wealth and success is expressed in many phraseological units.

Thus, English phraseological units can give us the key to the national character of the people of Great Britain, to their culture, history and political life.

CHAPTERII. FEATURES OF TRANSLATING ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS INTO RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

2.1. Classification of phraseological units translation techniques

In order to theoretically talk about methods of translating phraseological units, it is necessary to divide the entire phraseology of a given language according to some reasonable criterion into groups, within the boundaries of which one or another technique, one or another approach to the transfer of phraseological units would be observed. Many authors take linguistic classifications as a starting point, built mainly on the indecomposability of phraseological units and the unity of its components.

1) non-phraseological translation , as the name shows, conveys meaning using lexical, rather than phraseological, means of the translating language. They usually resort to it only after making sure that none of the phraseological equivalents or analogues can be used.

2) lexical translation applicable, as a rule, in cases where a given concept is designated in one language by a phraseological unit, and in another by a word. Mostly idioms lend themselves to such translation, i.e. combinations denoting objects or concepts.

3) descriptive translation phraseological units comes down, in essence, to the translation not of the phraseological unit itself, but of its interpretation, as often happens in general with lexical units that do not have equivalents in the target language. These can be explanations, comparisons, descriptions, interpretations - all means that convey the content of a phraseological unit in the clearest and most concise form.

4) contextual and selective translation: Speaking about the methods of translating phraseological units and the choice between them, it remains to touch upon two more concepts: contextual translation and selective translation. Most often, we remember contextual translation in the absence of equivalents and analogues, i.e. in the case when a phraseological unit has to be conveyed by non-phraseological means.

5) tracing is a method of translating a lexical unit of the original by replacing its constituent parts with their lexical equivalents in the target language, which copy the structure of the original lexical unit. For example: The way to a man’s heart is through his stomach – “pathToheartmenliesthroughhisstomach”.

6) specification - is a replacement of a word or phrase source language with a broader subject-logical meaning; a word or phrase of the target language with a narrower meaning. As a result of applying this transformation, a unit of the source language expresses a generic concept, and a unit of the target language expresses the specific concept included in it.

7) generalization - this is the replacement of a unit of the source language, which has a narrower meaning, with a unit of the target language with a broader meaning. The created correspondence expresses a generic concept that includes the original specific one. A unit of the translated language expresses a generic concept, and a unit of the source language expresses a specific concept.

8) syntactic assimilation (literal translation) is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure of the target language. Syntactic assimilation can lead to complete correspondence of the number of linguistic units and the order of their arrangement in the original and translation.

9) grammatical substitutions is a method of translation in which a grammatical unit in the original is transformed into a unit of the target language with a different grammatical meaning.

10) antonymic translation is a lexical-grammatical transformation in which the replacement of an affirmative form in the original with a negative form in the translation, and vice versa, is accompanied by the replacement of a lexical unit of the source language with a unit of the target language with the opposite meaning [Kunin, 1996].

The types of interlingual transformations considered clearly show that English is a flexible and expressive language. Thanks to the use of translation transformations, a more complete translation into the native language is carried out.

2.2. Features of the translation of English phraseological units

Translation of phraseological units, especially figurative ones, presents significant difficulties. This is explained by the fact that many of them are bright, emotionally rich phrases that belong to a certain speech style and often have a pronounced national character. When translating stable combinations of words, one should also take into account the peculiarities of the context in which they are used. Many English phraseological units are characterized by polysemy and stylistic diversity, which complicates their translation.

From the translator's point of view, phraseological units are divided into two groups: phraseological units that have equivalents in the target language, and those without equivalent phraseological units.

Equivalents can be full or partial. Full equivalents are equivalents that coincide with English phraseological units in meaning, lexical composition, imagery, stylistic orientation and grammatical structure. There are few similar matches. This group includes phraseological units of an international nature, based on mythological legends, biblical legends and historical facts (tobeornottobe- to be or not to be). Partial equivalent does not mean any incompleteness in the transmission of meaning, but only contains lexical, grammatical or lexico-grammatical discrepancies in the presence of the same meaning of the same stylistic orientation (tobeasredasabeetroot- be red like a tomato;tobeashungryasahunter- be hungry like a wolf). Therefore, in terms of the degree of translation adequacy, a partial equivalent is equivalent to a full equivalent. But it should be noted that, despite the presence of a full or partial equivalent, stable combinations of words sometimes have to be translated literally, for example, when the image contained in a phraseological unit is not indifferent to the understanding of the text, and replacing it with another image interferes with the understanding of the text, or deprives it brightness and expressiveness.

Taking into account the specifics of the translation of phraseological units, very often when translating them, overtone translation (according to the terminology of A. V. Kunin) or contextual replacement (according to the terminology of Ya. I. Retzker) is used. “Overtonal” translations are a kind of occasional equivalent used to translate phraseological units only in a given context. It should be taken into account that the occasionality of a given equivalent is determined solely by the features of the context, and that in another context a similar translation may not be “overtone”, but a full or partial equivalent. Finding an “overtone translation,” as opposed to using a ready-made equivalent, is a creative process.

Many English phraseological units do not have equivalents in Russian. This primarily applies to phraseological units denoting realities that do not exist among us. When translating such phraseological units, tracing and descriptive translation are used. Tracing makes it possible to convey to the Russian reader a living image of an English phraseological unit, which is impossible when using a free non-figurative phrase, which is a Russian explanation of the meaning of an English phraseological unit (tocutalongstoryshort- in short).

In addition to tracing, descriptive translation is used, that is, the translation of a phraseological unit using a free combination of words. It is especially convenient for conveying phrases of a terminological nature that do not allow literal translation. A descriptive translation is inferior to the original in terms of brightness, although it correctly conveys its meaning.

Based on the above, the translation of phraseological units presents significant difficulties. There are no ready-made recipes for translating phraseological units. Therefore, a detailed study of various groups of phraseological units and the development of methods and techniques for their translation are necessary.

2.3. Translation of figurative and non-figurative phraseological units

When translating phraseological units with a figurative basis, certain patterns can be established. Mainly, this refers to phraseological unities with a “derivable” internal form. Thus, four different ways of transmitting them can be distinguished, namely:

1) with full preservation of the foreign language image;

2) with a partial change in imagery;

3) with a complete replacement of imagery;

4) with the removal of imagery.

The first method conveys phraseological units of very different structures, but having an international character: frozen metaphors and periphrases, proverbs and sayings, catchphrases, as well as borrowings. For example:deadletter– “dead letter”;bluestocking- “blue stocking”;thelion’ sshare– “lion’s share”;bodyandsoul– “soul and heart”;intheseventhheaven- “in seventh heaven”;toplaywithfire– “play with fire”;togildthepill- “gild the pill.”

In all of the above examples, the image is preserved unchanged in the translation.

With the second method, the figurative basis of phraseological units in translation is preserved, but with certain changes of a lexical or grammatical nature. One of the components of the phrase can be replaced: a figurative component - with another, close to it, or an auxiliary component - with any one. For example: inthedeadofnight- “deep at night”;inbroaddaylight- “in broad daylight”;cannonfodder ( foodforpowder) – “cannon fodder”;adiamondofthefirstwater- “a diamond of pure water.”

The image is preserved, but the form of the grammatical expression changes. For example: singular in English, plural in Russian: to have the news at first hand - “learn the news first hand”; to give a free hand - “untie your hands, provide freedom of action.”

The English infinitive is replaced by a verb in personal form when translating phraseological units into Russian: nottolieonabedofroses – “(his path) is not strewn with roses”; tomakeone’ smouthwater- "mouth watering".

The most interesting from a creative point of view are phraseological units, when translating them one has to completely replace their figurative basis. A complete replacement of the image may be associated with the preservation of expressive coloring, which is often even more important than the transfer of the functional and stylistic affiliation of a phraseological unit. But such a requirement is far from always feasible. In each language, phraseology is the most unique part of the vocabulary, and a large number of phraseological units retain a certain national flavor. This national identity is reflected simultaneously on both the stylistic and expressive side of the phraseological unit.

A complete replacement of the figurative basis can be considered adequate if it accurately conveys the meaning of the statement and corresponds to the expressive and stylistic nature of phraseological units and the general tone of the original.

Translating phraseological units with the removal of imagery is not the best way out of the situation, as it is associated with a loss of expressiveness: askeletoninthecupboard- “family secret”. Of course, “skeleton in the closet” is unacceptable in any context. It follows from this that it is best for the translator to replace the translation with the removal of imagery with a more suitable type of translation.

Phraseological units devoid of imagery, in which emotional-expressive meaning is combined with a subjective assessment of reality, are distinguished by complex semantics. These phraseological units are at the same time modal introductory words and expressions. As a rule, they are ambiguous. In English these are phraseological units likeforthatmatter; forthatmatterofthat; ifanything.

The difficulty of understanding and translating these phraseological units lies, firstly, in the fact that, as phraseological units, they cannot be analyzed, and secondly, they are single-vertex, and their core component usually loses its lexical meaning. And finally, and most importantly, this category of phraseological units is particularly influenced by context. Therefore, the semantic range of such phraseological units is extremely wide.

2.4 Analysis of the results of the study conducted with students in grades 5-8

Among students in grades 5-8 studying English, we conducted a small study on the topic “Features of translating English phraseological units into Russian” with the goal of finding out what difficulties students have when translating English phraseological units into Russian and what translation techniques they most often use apply.

To do this, we gave students cards with phraseological units, including both equivalent and non-equivalent ones, and asked them to translate them into Russian. We noticed that students coped with some phraseological units easily, but some caused difficulties for the children. After the students completed the task, we asked them to put into one pile those phraseological units that the children could easily cope with. And in the other - phraseological units, the guys have difficulties. To our surprise, the first pile contained equivalent phraseological units, and the other pile contained non-equivalent ones. We then asked these students the following questions:

Have you had any difficulties translating English phraseological units into Russian? Which?

What translation techniques did you use when translating English phraseological units into Russian?

What suggestions would you give to scientists doing research on this issue?

The results were as follows:

Almost 90% of the students surveyed have particular difficulties when translating with phraseological units from the second pile (without equivalent ones).

Since it was more difficult to find an equivalent from the Russian language for these phraseological units, we had to look at the structure of the sentence, the lexical and grammatical structure of the phraseological expression.

Translation techniques depend on the lexical composition and grammatical structure of the phraseological expression.

Based on this, students use one of the methods of classifying the translation of English phraseological units into Russian.

The same 90% of students surveyed would like to see a unified system for translating English phraseological units into Russian: a translation dictionary, reference books, etc.

Thus, from our study we can conclude that translating English phraseological units can cause some difficulties not only for students, but also for experienced teachers. The choice of translation techniques depends on the grammatical and lexical structure of the phraseological unit. Of great importance would be the creation of reference books and dictionaries for the translation of English phraseological units into Russian, which would greatly facilitate the work of both students, teachers, and translators.

CONCLUSION

The English language, from the point of view of the presence of phraseological units and phraseological units in its extensive system, is perhaps one of the richest languages. Phraseologisms occupy a huge layer in its structure. All events taking place in Great Britain are reflected in phraseology: political life, sports, cultural events, everyday life - this is just an incomplete list of topics reflected in English phraseological units. Many become obsolete, but they are invariably replaced by new, lively, bright and witty ones. So, we can say with confidence that the phraseological system of the English language will develop every day, acquire new shapes, enrich itself and enrich the inner world of every individual resident of Foggy Albion.

Summarizing the above, it should be said that, despite the complexity and versatility of the meanings and forms of phraseological units and the presence of some difficulties in using phraseological units in live colloquial speech, they are perhaps the most striking tool for expressing human emotions and feelings.

The percentage of the presence of phraseological units in a language is closely related to the indicator of the development of the culture of a particular people, since phraseological units and their etymology are an expression of this very culture.

Traditions and customs are considered the unspoken founders of the emergence of phraseological units in speech.

But you cannot continue to use all phraseological units without exception in lively colloquial speech. Many of them become outdated over time, and their use may seem ridiculous. This is especially true for those who study a foreign language.

From our research we can conclude that the translation of phraseological units presents significant difficulties. There are no ready-made recipes for translating phraseological units. Therefore, a detailed study of various groups of phraseological units and the development of methods and techniques for their translation are necessary. Currently, a fairly large number of studies are devoted to phraseological units of various groups. Also great importance has the organization of the results of such work and the publication of various kinds of dictionaries and reference books. This will greatly facilitate the work of teachers and students.

LITERATURE

1. Amosova N.N. Fundamentals of English phraseology - L.: Nauka, 1989. - 97 p.

2. Zakharova M.A. Strategy of speech use of figurative phraseological units of the English language. – M.: Infra-M, 1999.-151 p.

3.Kunin A.V. Phraseology of modern English. – M.: International relations, 1996. - 183 p.

4. Savitsky V.M. English phraseology: Problems of modeling. – Samara, 1993. – 219 p.

5. Worell A. J. English idiomatic expressions. – M.: fiction, 1999. - 117 p.

APPLICATION

Reasons for the appearance of 7 English phraseological units

English version

Russian version

Reasons for appearance

Hobson's choice

No choice

Named after a certain Hobson, the owner of a paid stable in Cambridge in the 16th century, who obliged his clients to take only the horse closest to the exit.

Confusion worse confounded

Complete chaos

The expression was created by J. Milton in Paradise Lost.

Jam tomorrow

Waiting for the promised 3 years

ExpressioncreatedL. Carroll: “The rule is, jam tomorrow and jam yesterday - but never jam today.”

Under the rose

In secret

The rose is a symbol of silence in Dr. Rome

Baker's dozen

Devil's dozen

According to the old English custom, bread merchants received from bakers, who feared punishment for underweight, 13 loaves instead of 12, and the 13th went towards the income of the merchants.

Cut somebody off with a shilling

Disinherit

The testator left one shilling to the disinherited to prove that the disinheritance was deliberate.

Soap opera

Sentimental melodrama for housewives: many of these films were sponsored by soap production campaigns.

Interesting Origin idioms

1. The rule of thumb - means that this is the first and most important rule that must be obeyed and which is based on experience.

As a general rule of thumb, you need to drink 2 liters of water a day.

According to numerous sources, the origin of this idiom dates back to 1782, when Judge Sir Francis Buller passed a law stating that a man had the right to beat his wife with a stick, as long as the stick was no thicker than thumb. This is where the expression came from - the rule of thumb or “the rule of thumb”.

2. One sandwich short of a picnic - this is what they say about someone who is crazy or stupid.

Please don’t trust Eric, he is one sandwich short of a picnic.

There are several expressions that say that someone or something is lacking something. They all mean one thing: the one who lacks, or is crazy or stupid. However, the expression “one sandwich short of a picnic” is a fairly new expression. It was first used in the BBC's Lenny Henry Christmas Special in December 1987, where he parodied Michael Jackson and remade his song "Bad" as "I'm Mad". You can listen to the song below, pay attention to the words of the last verse:

"He's mad, mad, one brick short of a load

“He’s mad, mad, one sandwich short of a picnic”

3. Drop in a bucket – This idiom's predecessor is “drop in the ocean”, which means the same thing. INRussianlanguageThere issimilarexpression – « dropVsea».

The company donated two thousand dollars for a cause, but this is just a drop in a bucket.

Interestingly, this idiom is first used in the Bible in Isaiah 40:15.

“Behold, the nations are as a drop of a bucket, and are counted as the small dust of the balance: behold, he takes up the isles as a very little thing.”

Whether this word was used for the first time in the Bible is unknown, but it is known that it appears for the first time in written literature there.

4.Love is blind – Loveblind.

I can’t believe I dated him for so long, love is blind.

A huge number of idioms and catchphrases in the English language were invented by William Shakespeare. The use of this idiom was first noticed in such famous works as: “The Two Gentlemen of Verona”, “King Henry V”, “The Merchant of Venice”.

Here interesting quote from William Shakespeare's play "The Two Gentlemen of Verona":

“VALENTINE I have loved her ever since I saw her; and still I

see her beautiful.

SPEED If you love her, you cannot see her.

VALENTINE Why?

SPEED Because Love is blind. O, that you had mine eyes;

or your own eyes had the lights they were wont to

have when you chide at Sir Proteus for going

ungartered!

5. As keen as mustard – fullenergy, enthusiasm.

You can ask Steve to help you, he is always as keen as mustard.

In England, roast beef has been loved for a long time. To this day, there is a tradition in England - the whole family gathers for lunch to eat the Sunday roast, which includes fried potatoes and beef. And they eat beef with mustard.

There is even a song about beef by Richard Leveridge, known since 1735, in which he sings about how healthy it is:

When mighty Roast Beef was the Englishman’s food

It ennobled our brains and enriched our blood.

Our soldiers were brave and our courtiers were good

Oh the Roast Beef of old England and old English Roast Beef

Since ancient times, it was also believed that mustard could heal all ailments. You are probably familiar with these grandmother's recipes: if you are frozen or have a cold, you need to steam your feet in mustard or make a compress from it. Of course, such recipes were also popular in the UK. Mustard was considered a seasoning that adds energy and strength, and heals various ailments. This is why mustard is associated with energy and health. This is where the expression “keen as mustard” comes from.

6. it's raining cats and dogs

verbatim: rain of dogs and cats

meaning: it’s pouring like buckets

This phraseological unit, which vividly illustrates the weather in England, originates in “ACompleteCollectionofPoliteandIngeniousConversation” Jonathan Swift:

I know Sir John will go, though he was sure it would rain cats and dogs.

Table of relevant idiomatic expressions

in English and Russian languages

English version

Russian version

A friend in need is a friend indeed

A hand's breadth escape

On the brink of death

Agree like cats and dogs

Lead a cat and dog life

As like as two peas

Similar as 2 drops of water

As you make your bed so you must lie on it

What goes around comes around

Be on nettles

Sit on pins and needles

Better late than never

Black as a crow / a raven / jet / soot

Black as pitch

Call things by their proper names / Call a spade as spade

Calling a spade a spade

Close as on oyster

Silent as the grave

Disappear / vanish / melt into thin air

Melted like snow in spring

Drag through the mud

Trample into the mud

East or West home is best

Away is good, but at home is better

Every man for himself

Your shirt is closer to your body

First catch your hare

They're counting chickens in the fall, don't say "hop" until you jump.

Keep a tight rein on somebody

Holding someone under a tight rein

Like a bolt from the blue

Like cat on hot bricks

Like on hot coals

Like father, like son

The apple doesn't fall far from the tree

Make a mountain out of a molehill

Making a mountain out of a molehill

Milk and roses

Blood with milk

Mint of money

Chickens don't eat money

More haste, less speed

If you hurry, you will make people laugh

Never put off tell tomorrow what you can do today

Don't leave for tomorrow what you can do today

No smoke without fire

Out of sight, out of mind

Out of sight, out of heart

Set one's cap at somebody

Turn someone's head

So many men, so many minds

How many people, so many opinions

Speech is silver, but silence is gold

The word is silver, silence is gold

Strike while the iron is hot

Strike iron. While it's hot

Talk of the devil and he is sure to appear

Easy to find

Time is money

Two heads are better than one

One head is good, but two are better

You know a man by his friends

Tell me who your friend is and I will tell you who you are

It's no secret that every language has its own stable phrases - phraseological units or idioms. Some English idioms with translations similar to their Russian counterparts are easy to understand and do not require excellent knowledge of the language. Other idioms in English are very specific and to understand them you need to constantly enrich your speech with idioms and sayings. Examples of English idioms include: “So far as” - “Because”, “A man and a brother” - “Neighbor”, “Cut and run” - “To flee.”

Phraseologisms in English with translation

Idioms and phraseological units of the English language are not translated literally. The use of phraseological units makes the English language brighter and more figurative, but makes it difficult to understand speech and books where the use of phraseological units is quite common. Stable phrases present in every language are translated with a fixed meaning, and sometimes very figuratively: “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush” - “Better one bird in the hands than two in the bushes” (nothing about a tit and a crane Doesn’t that remind you?), “A dime a dozen” - “A dozen 10-cent coins” (that’s what they say about something you can get cheap). You can get acquainted with these and many other idioms and phraseological units thanks to our newsletter.

Busy English businessmen, like all business people in the world, have their own jargon - specific words and expressions that are incomprehensible to a foreigner. Each foreign company or enterprise has its own director, employees and accountants. Like all organizations, they can experience periods of success and continuous loss. This, of course, is reflected in English idioms.

Those who studied English came across so-called idioms - stable expressions in the language. Literal translation rarely explains such phrases, if not distorts their meaning. Therefore, when communicating in a foreign language, it is important not only to have a large vocabulary, but also to use such expressions.

The names of body parts are mentioned by the British in conversation not only when discussing well-being or someone's appearance, but also to designate some abstract, non-physical states - mood, character traits, relationships between people.