Emotional and motivational processes. Emotional states

The idea of ​​the complexity of the psychological structure of emotions was first formulated by W. Wundt (1873-1874). According to ᴇᴦο opinion, the structure of emotions includes three main dimensions˸ 1) pleasure-displeasure; 2) excitement-calming; 3) voltage-resolution.

Subsequently, these views on the structure of emotions were developed in to a certain extent transformed in the works of other foreign and domestic psychologists. Currently, the following components are called the main ones in the structure of emotions: 1) impressive(inner experience); 2) expressive(behavior, facial expressions, motor and speech activity); 3) physiological(vegetative changes). This view on the structure of emotions is shared by such scientists as E. P. Ilyin (2001), K. Izard (2000), G. M. Breslav (1984), A. N. Luk (1982), R. Lazarus (1991) and etc.

Each of these components in various forms of emotional response must be expressed to a greater or lesser extent, but all of them are present in each holistic emotional reaction as its components.

The impressive component of the emotional response (experience). All emotional reactions are characterized by a specific internal experience, which is the “main emotional unit” (A. E. Ol-shannikova, 1983). According to S. L. Rubinstein, experience is a unique event inner life, a manifestation of an individual’s personal history. According to L.I. Bozhovich, understanding the nature of a person’s experiences allows us to better understand the essence. Consequently, the main function of experiences is the formation of a specific, subjective experience of a person, aimed at identifying the essence, place in the world, etc.

IN modern psychology There are several approaches to defining the concept of “experience”

1) through ᴇᴦο opposition to objective knowledge. Thus, according to L.M. Wekker (2000), experience is a direct reflection by the subject of his own states, while the reflection of the properties and relationships of external objects is knowledge;

2) through linguistic analysis words ʼʼexperienceʼʼ, ʼʼsurviveʼʼ. This is typical for the activity theory of experiences by F.E. Vasilyuk (1984), according to which to experience something means to endure some kind of life event, to cope with critical situation, and experience is ʼʼ special activity, special work on the restructuring of the psychological world, aimed at establishing a semantic correspondence between consciousness and being, common goal which is to increase the meaning of life. Experience-activity manifests itself in cases where it becomes impossible to directly and directly solve problems in the subject matter. practical activities;

Psychology of emotional state

Plan

Introduction

1. Psychology of human emotional states

1.1. Types and role of emotions in human life

1.2. Psychological theories of emotion

1.3 Emotional states

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Any human activity is associated with the fulfillment of needs. Emotional experiences are one of the ways of expressing cognitive needs.

Emotions are elementary experiences that arise in a person under the influence of the general state of the body and the process of satisfying current needs. This definition of emotions is given in a large psychological dictionary.

Emotional states are one of the types of emotions, characterized by a longer duration, which can be measured in hours and days.

According to their modality, emotional states can appear in the form of irritability, anxiety, complacency, various shades of mood - from depressive states to euphoria. However, most often they are mixed conditions. Since emotional states are also emotions, they also reflect the relationship between the needs of the subject and the objective or subjective possibilities for their satisfaction, rooted in the situation.

Knowledge of the psychological foundations and nature of emotional states is one of the necessary factors in the self-regulation of individual behavior.

The above provisions indicate the relevance of the topic of the course work.

The purpose of the course work is to study the psychological foundations of emotional states.

Job objectives:

Expand the concept of emotions, their types and role in human life.

Conduct a review psychological theories on the issue of emotions.

Describe the characteristics of emotional states.

Give ways to eliminate negative emotional states.

1. Psychology of human emotional states

1.1 Types and role of emotions in human life

Any need, including cognitive needs, is given to a person through emotional experiences.

Emotions are elementary experiences that arise in a person under the influence of the general state of the body and the process of satisfying current needs. This definition of emotions is given in a large psychological dictionary.

In other words, “emotions are subjective psychological states that reflect, in the form of direct experiences, feelings of pleasant or unpleasant, a person’s attitude to the world and people, to the process and result of his practical activity.”

A number of authors adhere to the following definition. Emotions are a mental reflection in the form of direct, biased experience, life meaning phenomena and situations determined by the relationship of their objective properties to the needs of the subject.

According to the authors, this definition contains one of the main features of emotions, which distinguishes them, for example, from cognitive processes - the direct presentation in them to the subject of the relationship between a need and the possibility of satisfying it.

A.L. Groysman notes that emotions are a form of mental reflection that stands on the verge (to the content of the cognizable) with physiological reflection and represents a unique personal attitude of a person both to the surrounding reality and to himself.

Types of emotions

Depending on the duration, intensity, objectivity or uncertainty, as well as the quality of emotions, all emotions can be divided into emotional reactions, emotional states and emotional relationships (V.N. Myasishchev).

Emotional reactions are characterized by a high speed of occurrence and transience. They last for minutes, are characterized by their fairly pronounced quality (modality) and sign (positive or negative emotion), intensity and objectivity. The objectivity of an emotional reaction is understood as its more or less unambiguous connection with the event or object that caused it. An emotional reaction normally always arises about events that occurred in specific situation something or someone. This could be fear from a sudden noise or scream, joy from heard words or perceived facial expressions, anger due to an obstacle that has arisen or about someone’s action, etc. It should be remembered that these events are only a trigger for the emergence of emotion, and the cause is either the biological significance or the subjective meaning of this event for the subject. The intensity of emotional reactions can be different - from barely noticeable, even for the subject himself, to excessive - affect.

Emotional reactions are often reactions of frustration of some expressed needs. Frustration (from the Latin frustatio - deception, destruction of plans) in psychology is a mental state that arises in response to the appearance of an objectively or subjectively insurmountable obstacle to satisfying a need, achieving a goal or solving a problem. The type of frustration reaction depends on many circumstances, but very often it is a characteristic of the personality of a given person. This could be anger, frustration, despair, or guilt.

Emotional states are characterized by: longer duration, which can be measured in hours and days; normally, lower intensity, since emotions are associated with significant energy expenditure due to the accompanying physiological reactions; in some cases, pointlessness, which is expressed in the fact that the subject may the reason and the reason that caused them are hidden, as well as some uncertainty of the modality of the emotional state. According to their modality, emotional states can appear in the form of irritability, anxiety, complacency, various shades of mood - from depressive states to euphoria. However, most often they are mixed conditions. Since emotional states are also emotions, they also reflect the relationship between the needs of the subject and the objective or subjective possibilities for their satisfaction, rooted in the situation.

In the absence of organic disorders of the central nervous system, the state of irritation is essentially a high readiness for anger reactions in a long-term situation of frustration. A person has outbursts of anger for the slightest and various reasons, but they are based on dissatisfaction with some personally significant need, which the subject himself may not be aware of.

A state of anxiety means the presence of some uncertainty about the outcome of future events related to the satisfaction of some need. Often the state of anxiety is associated with a sense of self-esteem (self-esteem), which may suffer if there is an unfavorable outcome of events in the expected future. The frequent occurrence of anxiety in everyday activities may indicate a lack of self-confidence as a personality, i.e. about unstable or low self-esteem inherent in a given person in general.

A person's mood often reflects the experience of success or failure already achieved, or a high or low probability of success or failure in the near future. A bad or good mood reflects the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of some need in the past, success or failure in achieving a goal or solving a problem. It is no coincidence that a person in a bad mood is asked if something has happened. A long-term low or high mood (over two weeks), not typical for a given person, is a pathological sign in which an unsatisfied need is either truly absent or deeply hidden from the subject’s consciousness, and its detection requires special psychological analysis. A person most often experiences mixed states, for example, a depressed mood with a tinge of anxiety or joy with a tinge of anxiety or anger.

A person can also experience more complex conditions, an example of which is the so-called dysphoria - a pathological condition lasting two to three days, in which irritation, anxiety and bad mood are simultaneously present. Less severe dysphoria may occur in some people and is normal.

Emotional relationships are also called feelings. Feelings are stable emotional experiences associated with a specific object or category of objects that have special meaning for a person. Feelings in a broad sense can be associated with various objects or actions, for example, you may not like a given cat or cats in general, you may or may not like doing morning exercises, etc. Some authors suggest calling only stable emotional relationships towards people feelings. Feelings differ from emotional reactions and emotional states in duration - they can last for years, and sometimes for a lifetime, for example, feelings of love or hatred. Unlike states, feelings are objective - they are always associated with an object or an action with it.

Emotionality. Emotionality is understood as stable individual characteristics of the emotional sphere of a given person. V.D. Nebylitsyn proposed to take into account three components when describing emotionality: emotional impressionability, emotional lability and impulsiveness.

Emotional sensitivity is a person’s sensitivity to emotional situations, i.e. situations that can evoke emotions. Because different people have different dominant needs, each person has different situations that can trigger emotions. At the same time, there are certain characteristics of the situation that make them emotional for all people. These are: unusualness, novelty and suddenness (P. Fress). Unusuality differs from novelty in that there are types of stimuli that will always be new for the subject, because there are no “good answers” ​​for them, such as loud noise, loss of support, darkness, loneliness, images of the imagination, as well as combinations of the familiar and the unfamiliar . There are individual differences in the degree of sensitivity to emotiogenic situations that are common to all, as well as in the number of individual emotional situations.

Emotional lability is characterized by the speed of transition from one emotional state to another. People differ from each other in how often and how quickly their state changes - in some people, for example, the mood is usually stable and depends little on minor current events, in others, with high emotional lability, it changes for the slightest reasons several times a day. day.

Impulsivity is determined by the speed with which emotion becomes the motivating force of actions and actions without prior thought. This personality quality is also called self-control. There are two different mechanisms of self-control - external control and internal. With external control, it is not the emotions themselves that are controlled, but only their external expression; emotions are present, but they are restrained; the person “pretends” that he does not experience emotions. Internal control is associated with such a hierarchical distribution of needs in which lower needs are subordinated to higher ones, therefore, being in such a subordinate position, they simply cannot cause uncontrollable emotions in appropriate situations. An example of internal control can be a person’s passion for work, when he does not notice hunger for a long time (“forgets” to eat) and therefore remains indifferent to the type of food.

In psychological literature, it is also common to divide the emotional states that a person experiences into actual emotions, feelings and affects.

Emotions and feelings are personal formations that socio-psychologically characterize a person; associated with short-term and working memory.

Affect is a short-term, rapidly flowing state of strong emotional arousal, resulting from frustration or some other reason that has a strong effect on the psyche, usually associated with the dissatisfaction of very important needs for a person. Affect does not precede behavior, but forms it at one of its final stages. Unlike emotions and feelings, affects occur violently, quickly, and are accompanied by pronounced organic changes and motor reactions. Affects can leave strong and lasting traces in long-term memory. Emotional tension accumulated as a result of the occurrence of afetogenic situations can accumulate and sooner or later, if it is not given a way out in time, lead to a strong and violent emotional release, which, while relieving tension, often entails a feeling of fatigue, depression, depression.

One of the most common types of affects these days is stress - a state of mental (emotional) and behavioral disorder associated with a person’s inability to act expediently and wisely in the current situation. Stress is a state of excessively strong and prolonged psychological tension that occurs in a person when his nervous system receives emotional overload. Stresses are the main “risk factors” for the manifestation and exacerbation of cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases.

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ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE OF THE EMOTIONAL SPHERE OF PERSONALITY

Guryev Mikhail Evgenievich

Ph.D. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Pedagogy and Social Psychology, Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "St. Petersburg University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation", Russian Federation, St.- Petersburg

SUBJECT MATTER AND STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY AFFECTION

Mikhail Guriev

candidate of historical sciences, associate professor of Pedagogy and Social Psychology Department, Federal State Public Educational Institution of Higher Vocational Education Saint Petersburg University of the Russian Interior Ministry, Russia, Saint Petersburg

ANNOTATION

IN Lately More and more attention is paid to those aspects of the emotional sphere that are associated with the characteristics of a person’s professional activity. After all, it is in the structure of implementing various types of activities that a person spends most of his life. And it is emotional well-being that ultimately determines the success of an individual’s professional activity.

The relevance of this problem is determined by the need to develop theoretical and practical aspects of the emotional sphere of the individual.

ABSTRACT

Recently increasingly greater attention is given to those aspects of affection which are connected with peculiarities of professional activities of a human. Exactly in the structure of realization of different kinds of activities person spends the most part of his or her life. And namely emotional well-being ultimately defines the success of professional activities of an individual.

Topicality of this problem is determined by the necessity of development of theoretical and practical aspects of personality affection.

Keywords: emotions; emotional states; psychosomatic disorders; emotional stress; emotional reaction; emotional attitude; experience; mood; stress; anxiety; fear; panic.

Keywords: emotions; emotional states psychosomatic disorders; emotional tension emotional response attitude emotional; feeling; mood; stress; anxiety; fear; panic.

Despite active interest in the concept of emotions for several centuries, the psychology of emotions, as a scientific field, began to develop not so long ago. This indicates that some scientists studying human nature, long before scientific discoveries this phenomenon, they talked about the importance of emotions for a person’s self-awareness and the development of the subject’s social relations.

Many scientists have studied emotions in domestic and foreign science. Last years characterized by a wide variety of approaches and points of view on the nature of emotions and their meaning. Some believe that when studying human behavior, it is necessary to pay more attention to the concepts of “excitement” and “activation”, and the category “emotion” can be ignored, since these concepts are not as amorphous as the sphere of emotions. The latter share the view that the primary motivational system of a person is formed by emotions.

Some authors define the role of short-term, transient states as emotions, while others believe that a person’s being under the influence of one or another emotion is permanent. They argue that human behavior is inextricably linked to affect.

Some scientists express the point of view that human behavior is destroyed and disorganized by emotions and that they lead to psychosomatic diseases. Others assign emotions a positive role, as organizing, motivating and reinforcing human behavior.

The first to note the importance of emotions in human behavior were: R. Leeper (1948), a leading specialist in personality theory, and O. Mauer (1960), one of the outstanding specialists in learning psychology. In their works, they argued that “emotions” act as the most important factor in those changes in behavior and its effectiveness, which were called “learning” and for the first time recognized (unlike most Western psychologists) the importance of studying the problem of emotions, along with problems behavior and intelligence, which at that time were studied quite intensively in Western psychology.

A similar position was held by I.P. Pavlov, who studied the adaptive role of emotions in connection with the development of the doctrine of a dynamic stereotype - a stable system of responses, including emotional reactions of animals and humans, corresponding to a certain combination of external signals. According to the author, negative emotions arise when a need is not satisfied and actions do not achieve the goal. Positive emotions are a compensatory mechanism that makes up for the lack of information.

PC. Anokhin believed that emotions are the most ancient form of an individual’s response, and often the only opportunity to assess the situation.

Interesting are the views on the emotional sphere of W. Cannon, D. Bard, W. James, who tried to explore not just emotions, but also their determinants. The authors' works trace a detailed study of the relationship between the physiological and psychological components of emotions.

Somewhat later, within the framework of the information theory of emotions, P.V. Simonov speaks about the nature of emotions as follows: “Why did emotions arise, why could nature not get by with reason and thinking alone?” Answering this question, the author believes that emotions were a preform of thinking that performed its simplest and most vital functions. P.V. Simonov believes that emotions arise when there is not enough information to realize a goal. Emotions help a person achieve what is useful for him, causes satisfaction and joy, or protect him from negative influences.

In the Great Soviet Encyclopedia you can read that emotions are: joy, confidence, pleasure, fearlessness, fear, grief, hatred, disgust, these are human experiences and relationships to the world around him and to himself.

The essence of emotions is dialectically dual and is initially determined by the fact that they are objectively needed not only for the body’s orientation in the external world, but also for the normal functioning of the body as a whole. Structure emotional processes is closely related to the cognitive sphere of the individual, but differs from cognitive processes in that emotions are not only comprehended and realized, but also experienced. Thus, a person’s experiences turn into a direct reflection of their own bodily, physiological and mental states.

IN Psychological Dictionary emotions (from Lat. emovero - I excite, shake) stand out in independent category mental states and processes that are associated with needs, motives and instincts, and which manifest themselves in the form of experiences (satisfaction, dissatisfaction, joy, sadness, fear, calmness, etc.) of the significance of the situations and phenomena affecting the individual that carry out his life activities . Emotions accompany any activity of the subject; they serve as the main and main mechanism that regulates behavior and mental activity aimed at satisfying the most significant needs for a person.

It should be noted that emotions, including the emotional states of the subject, are the area of ​​the psyche that is closest to the sphere of organic sensations, which ensures the relationship of emotions with the physiological characteristics of the individual. In a person experiencing any emotion, changes in the electrical activity of the face and, including, the muscle tissue of the whole body are recorded. The same changes are observed in brain electrical activity and in the functioning of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The heart rate of a frightened and angry person may exceed normal values ​​by 40-60 beats per minute. These significant changes in the performance of the human body, under the influence of emotions, indicate that almost all of its somatic and neurophysiological structures participate in their implementation. All these changes directly proportionally affect the course of mental cognitive processes, such as sensation, perception, attention, representation, imagination, thinking, the characteristics of an individual’s behavior, and sometimes can lead to somatic diseases and even mental disorders. Various emotions activate the activity of the autonomic nervous system, which in turn activates the activity of all internal systems of the body, including the neurohumoral and endocrine ones. In the event that an individual’s behavior, for some reason, is inappropriate to the flow of emotion, he may be at risk of violations both from psychosomatic disorders and from the process of his activity.

Any emotional state can have a serious impact on somatic and physiological functions the human body, there is no need to go through a psychosomatic crisis. Any emotion experienced by a person, regardless of the strength of its occurrence, leads to physiological changes that occur in his body and which, as a rule, contribute to changes in it, which sometimes simply cannot be ignored. Many neurophysiological studies prove that both emotions and emotional states directly influence immune system human, and in the event of a negative combination of circumstances, helps to reduce the body’s resistance to disease. Provided that a person is under the influence of negative emotions for a long time, such as: anger, hatred, anxiety, anticipation, depression, he is much more likely to get sick colds, intestinal disorders, viral infectious diseases. Experiences caused by corresponding emotions lead to changes in the level of electrical activity cerebral hemispheres human brain, which contributes to tension or relaxation of the corresponding facial muscles, influencing the endocrine circulatory and respiratory systems of the body.

During a period of emotional stress of a person, the physiological reactions of the body change sharply, such as: blood pressure, blood sugar levels, breathing and pulse rates, muscle tension. W. James suggested that it is in these changes that the essence of emotions lies. However, further research into emotions showed that significant organic changes are not its essence, since with the exclusion of all its physiological manifestations, the content of subjective experiences does not change or disappear. Thus, it was revealed that the most significant is the psychological component of emotions, which largely influences changes in the sphere of behavior and activity of the individual.

At the present stage of theoretical research into the emotional sphere, it has been revealed that emotional reactions and states play not only a conditionally negative, but also a positive role, since they are a necessary condition activation of all the forces of the body for enhanced muscular, intellectual and other types of activity. On this basis, it can be argued that emotional states allow the energy mobilization of the body.

The forms of manifestation of an individual’s emotions can be completely different, ranging from short-term emotional reactions to situational circumstances (emotions themselves) to stable forms of personal emotional response to various objects and situations (emotional properties of the individual).

Emotional reactions and states are the most dynamic forms of manifestation of emotions, and, therefore, can be considered flexible indicators of changes that occur in the body under the influence of environmental influences, activity conditions, and allow one to quickly tune in to a particular activity. It is necessary to dwell in more detail on the problem of emotional states.

This problem has been studied as an independent problem since the 60s of the 20th century. The first work devoted to this problem was the book by N.D. Levitov “On the mental states of man,” which was published in 1964. In particular, he noted that no sphere of mental activity is so connected with the term “state” as emotional life, since in feelings and emotions there is a strong tendency to color a person’s activities and experiences in a special way, creating a temporary direction for them or the so-called timbre, or qualitative originality mental life. Continuing further, he noted that when even individual authors do not try to use “mental states” as a special mental category, in in some cases, to define the concepts of “feelings” and “emotions” they use it.

Understanding the emotional reaction as a state is very important, because it makes it possible to more fully and specifically understand the essence of emotion, its impact on the human body, and eliminate the superficial approach to emotion only as a way to express one’s attitude towards something or someone. N.D. Levitov noted that any state is at the same time both a way of experiencing the subject and the result of the activity of a wide variety of functional systems of his body. It is externally expressed not only by psychophysiological indicators, but also by human behavior. Formulating the category “state”, N.D. Levitov defined it as a cumulative characteristic of mental activity in a certain unit of time, which shows the originality with which mental processes. However, the author noted that when characterizing experiences one cannot limit oneself only to external indicators of the forms of manifestation of behavior, since a wide variety of experiences and associated mental states can be expressed by the same form of manifestation of behavior. He believed that the products of human activity can tell a lot about the mental state.

L.V. Kulikov believed that the mechanisms of human interaction with living environment reflected in mental states, as can be observed in other mental phenomena. Changes that arise in the external environment, the human body, and within his personality find a response that manifests itself in new mental states that influence changes in the level of activity, mood and experiences of the subject. The author attributed the category “state” to metacategorical concepts. For example, physics defines “state” as a momentary characteristic of an object. “Process” denotes a multiple set of altered states, “function” then should denote the relationship of the external manifestation of the state of the system to other systems. System state, in external manifestation, which is in a relatively unchanged state over time, is called “property”.

Psychology calls a “state” a certain internal characteristic that is quite stable over a short period of time. human psyche. It should be noted that with the development of psychology, the category of emotional states began to be studied quite often by scientists. Differentiating the concept of “state”, N.D. Levitov noted that his classification, as a rule, is based on either the dominant mental process (cognitive, volitional, emotional) or the dominant characterological aspect (decisiveness, enthusiasm, laziness).

V.N. Myasishchev defined emotional states in independent class emotional phenomena. He argued that feelings (emotions) cover three groups of heterogeneous emotional phenomena such as reactions, states and relationships. In his assessment, emotional states are presented as a class where emotional characteristics come to the fore. Relating states to this class, V.N. Myasishchev assumed that if an individual is in this state, then he experiences powerful emotions.

Somewhat later, an interesting classification of emotional states was proposed by L.V. Kulikov. The author considers emotional states as an independent phenomenon. In turn, he includes a whole class of human manifestations in this group; the author believes that emotional states differ from other groups of states in that they are part of any other mental state.

Yu.E. Sosnovikova proposed several bases for the classification of mental states. So, in her opinion, states can be classified taking into account age, the leading activity that characterizes them, the type of work in which these states arise, as well as taking into account the principle of significance and maximum expression of the most significant personal properties of a person in them. At the same time, she puts forward the point of view that the classification of mental states is not limited to identifying and indicating the signs on the basis of which they can be classified, but also to leading them to a certain systematization.

The broadest classification of conditions is the one proposed by V.A. Hansen. In the classification he proposed, all states are divided into: practical, humanitarian, motivational, emotional and states of attention. It is assumed that any state contains the following structural components: emotional (since there are no states without emotions); motivational; cognitive; component of relationships (originality of self-esteem, awareness and acceptance of oneself); component of physical well-being (activation and tonic); tension component.

The state can be determined at each subsequent moment, according to the prevailing parameter in the structure of the relationship. Thus, the modality of the predominant emotion determines the emotional state: joy, euphoria, panic, fear, etc.). This approach to the structure of states was proposed by L.V. Kulikov and at the moment can be considered the most appropriate.

The functional system, reflecting states, is represented by a number of levels: psychological (including human experiences); physiological (including central and autonomic nervous system); behavioral (including facial expressions, psychomotor reactions and pantomime). Any psychophysiological state must contain these levels, and only by combining their indicators, which reflect each of them, makes it possible to draw a conclusion about the state in which a person is.

Conditions, on the emotional side, manifest themselves in emotional experiences (boredom, dissatisfaction with activities, fatigue, apathy, joy, fear, satisfaction with success, etc.). The physiological component manifests itself in changes in individual functions, including autonomic and motor functions.

Experiences and the physiological changes associated with them interact quite closely. This unity can highlight each of these signs of conditions as a priority causal factor. For example, when a state of monotony develops, as a result of increasing parasympathetic influences, feelings of boredom and fatigue develop; when a state of fatigue develops, a feeling of fatigue appears, which may be the cause of the resulting physiological changes in muscles or in nerve motor centers and the sensations associated with them.

Any human activity occurs under the influence of mental states. This thesis also corresponds to the idea that the emotional state acts as a background on the basis of which both practical and mental functions function. human activity. However, it is also necessary to take into account the fact that it is in the process of activity (sensory, physical and mental) that one or another mental state arises and changes. Based on this, it most often acts as a product of activity. There are also cases when conditions arise as a result of inactivity. It follows from this that it is necessary to evaluate the situations that cause them.

In order to create an optimal emotional state, it is necessary to correctly assess the significance of the ongoing event, since for a person higher value It is the individual value of the event that matters, not its duration or intensity. When an emergency event occurs, even if it is of low intensity, it may, in short term, cause a state of disadaptation. It is necessary to take into account that when strong emotional arousal occurs, a person begins to assess the situation quite tendentiously: the good is multiplied, to the point of dizziness from success, the bad is darkened many times over.

Based theoretical facts, we can identify several patterns that allow us to reflect the relationship between activity and emotions. This is how emotional states express a person’s evaluative attitudes towards situations that are possible or developing. There is a close connection between emotions and the motivational sphere of the individual and, most often, they are objective in nature. On the basis of a positive emotional background, we can say that positive emotional states can play a motivating role in relation to the activity being performed. Not all emotional states manifest themselves in visible changes. Certain conditions are always characteristic of a person. Mixed conditions may exist. When they arise, they do not replace the previous ones at one moment, they instantly, and most often, slowly transform into one another. Based on this, the most important characteristic of states is their continuity, which is closely related to stability and intensity.

The question of differentiation and description of various mental states is quite interesting and important. Most often, the subject of measurement in psychology is the so-called integral mental states, which reflect the dynamics of personal emotional states as a whole, over a certain period of time. Such conditions most often include anxiety, mood, as a general “diffused” state of the individual, and various indicators of adaptability. The diagnosis of such an emotional state as stress deserves special attention. Emotional manifestations such as passion, affect, etc. could hardly be measured using standard methods diagnostics

Special attention deserve certain emotional states of the subject, including such as mood, which characterizes the person as a whole and serves as the main background of his mental life. The mood is directly proportional to the individual's vital relationships with his environment and how his own activities proceed. Included in activity, woven into an effective relationship with the environment, the mood arises there. What is very important for mood is not how an event proceeds without a personal attitude towards it, but how this event relates to the person himself and how he evaluates it. Based on this, the mood fully depends on the individual characteristics that characterize a person, on how he endures difficulties: whether he can evaluate them and not lose heart, whether he is able to overcome difficulties, whether he remains confident that he is able to cope with them.

Optimistic people are able to maintain a good mood and, conversely, pessimistic people are more often in a sad mood. bad mood. There are people in whom a cheerful mood prevails, while others see no reason for fun and are in a state of worry. There are people who can be called “poetic natures,” whose mood contains many lyrical and romantic notes. There are “prose writers” for whom such sentiments are unacceptable.

The experiments carried out show that for happy people characterized by such qualities as a willingness to be generous and help other people. Observations indicate that if the subjects are in a good mood, they are willing to provide a variety of assistance to the experimenters. It has been noticed that when people are in a happy mood and they notice some depressed state spirit in other people, there appears, on their part, an attempt to smooth out this discrepancy, in order to balance this difference. Numerous observations indicate that people who are characterized by a good mood give a higher assessment of their environment. It has been established that the positive relationship between people is facilitated by the environment in which they find themselves. Sympathies appear much more often in a cozy environment, while antipathy is characterized by a bad, wretched environment.

When a person experiences emotional overload, a state of stress can often occur. Stress is a condition characterized by excessively strong and prolonged psychological stress that can occur in a person. G. Selye defines stress as a nonspecific response of the human body to any demand that is presented to it. This is an emotional state that manifests itself in a person as a normal reaction to an abnormal circumstance.

Stress leads to disorganization of human activity and disruption of the normal course of his behavior. Frequent and prolonged stress leads to disturbances in both the psychological state and physical health person. They are the main causes of the development of many cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases in humans. The definition of stress (English stress - tension, pressure) includes a category of mental state that arises as a response to various extreme influences on the body; This is an integral response of both the body and the individual to these transcendental influences and excessive load. Stress is a phenomenon that has various manifestations, such as: physiological, psychological, biochemical, social and socio-psychological. Distress is a destructive, destructive form of stress. It causes a change in adaptive activity and even if it expands the possibilities of adaptation, at the same time it causes inhibition of the individual’s development, delays the achievement of long-term goals, and depletes forces that may not be enough to overcome a stressful situation. Stress acts as a requirement that is imposed on the ability of a person’s body and psyche to adapt to their life circumstances. Stress cannot be avoided. G. Selye said on this occasion that complete freedom from stress can be designated by death. This phrase finds constant interpretation in the scientific works of scientists dealing with the problem of stress. A person’s entire life is permeated with joyful and harmful stress (distress). Any overly strong emotion can cause stress. It is generally accepted that stress can be caused by anger or fear, but it can also be caused by a state of intense joy. In the process of stress, a person experiences an unpleasant feeling of tension in the stomach area, dry mouth and increased heart rate. These three symptoms are the most common during periods of stress. In addition, strong emotions can cause human body: increased sweating, flushing of the face, increased breathing, dilated pupils and muscle tension. Stress leads to the activation of many physiological processes. Blood pressure increases, the number of contractions of the heart muscle increases, muscle blood circulation increases, there is an increase in the content of adrenaline in the blood, the frequency and depth of breathing becomes more intense, and galvanic skin conductivity changes. Observations show that for different people the same event can act either as a challenge or as a cause of distress. Modern Explorer emotions R. Lazarus believes that “the analysis of physiological stress does not lead to an understanding of psychological stress.”

However, if a person is periodically exposed to various stress factors, this can act as serious incentives and impetus for its further development. It is important that stress impacts are predictable. When an event is expected, it is less likely to cause stress than when it occurs suddenly. Stress can increase or decrease depending on how a person prepares to cope with it. A stressful event, according to G. Selye, is one that causes stress; This is a situation in which the operating loads exceed and do not correspond to the adaptive capabilities. The situation, at the same time, can have a subjective and objective assessment (for example, when subjective feelings of stress increase, a change in circumstances may occur, under which they can actually be assessed as stressful).

Equally important is the consideration of such a condition as anxiety. Anxiety, according to N.D. Levitov, is a mental state that is expressed in a deep experience of fear that peace may be disturbed and that troubles are possible and probable, which can lead to a delay in what is desired and pleasant. Anxiety is sometimes seen as special shape adaptation during periods of stress, in acute and chronic form. Although anxiety is most likely not so much a form of mental adaptation as a way of activating adaptive mechanisms. Based on this, anxiety plays the role of protection and motivation. The intensity of anxiety depends not so much on the real significance of the threat, but on the individual characteristics of the subject. Despite numerous studies of the concept of "anxiety", the approaches outlined in theoretical concepts, are not unique. The direction of research that highlighted personal factors, divided anxiety into that personality trait that determines readiness for anxiety reactions, and that actual anxiety that is presently included as a structural element of the mental state. Anxiety is the basis of any (adaptive and non-adaptive) change in behavior and mental state of the subject.

When a situation arises associated with a lack of information to carry out an action, negative emotions appear. The most striking of them is fear, which, according to P.V. Simonov, arises from a lack of information necessary for protection. Fear is mainly classified as a type of anxiety that occurs under the following circumstances: the threat of danger during a planned meeting with people; when there is an important matter or meeting ahead; during a conflict; failures in school and work; planned performance in front of a large number of people; a sudden unfamiliar situation; upcoming acquaintance with a representative of the opposite sex. As observations show, fear dramatically changes the course of mental processes. Sensitivity worsens or intensifies, the essence of the material being absorbed is lost, and perception is disrupted. Under the influence of fear, thinking processes change: intelligence may increase (there is a concentration in searching for a way out of the current situation); The productivity of the thinking process may be disrupted (confusion arises, logic in actions and words disappears). The ability to perform volitional actions, including the ability to take any action, sharply decreases. Fear greatly affects such a mental process as attention. This manifests itself in absent-mindedness, the inability to concentrate or a narrowing of consciousness, which can be observed in a violation of concentration on a specific object. Fear, as a rule, is accompanied by intense manifestations of physiological reactivity, such as: severe trembling, accelerated contraction of the heart muscle, rapid respiratory rhythm. Appetite may either increase or decrease. “Cold sweat” may break out.

Overcoming fear is also facilitated by awareness, which supports hope for a favorable outcome of events. Thus, when competitions are held between sports teams of equal strength, victories are often achieved by athletes fighting on their own field, in their own state. When athletes are aware of the country in which they will compete, about its customs and morals, anxiety, doubt and fear disappear in their minds. The most pronounced form of anxiety can be considered a state of panic, which can be considered as a stage of anxiety, characterized by complete disorganization of human behavior. By duration, panic is divided into short-term (from several seconds to several minutes); quite long (from ten minutes to several hours); prolonged (from several days to several weeks). An example of short-term panic is panic that occurs in a vehicle that has lost control. Prolonged panic is typical during an earthquake and other pronounced stressful situations.

It should be noted that the study of emotional states has a large applied value. Almost the entire system psychological correction is based on working with the situational characteristics of the individual. Correction of personality traits occurs on the basis of the development and consolidation of positive states. in addition, in exceptional cases, the diagnosis of emotional states is the only indicator of the effectiveness of the subject’s activities.

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Emotional condition- This is the direct experience of a feeling.

Depending on the satisfaction of needs, the states experienced by a person can be positive, negative or ambivalent(duality of experiences). Taking into account the nature of the impact on human activity, emotions are sthenic(encourage active activity, mobilize forces, for example, inspiration) and asthenic(relax a person, paralyze his strength, for example, panic). Some emotions can be both sthenic and asthenic at the same time. Different Impact the same feeling on the activities of different people is determined by the individual characteristics of the person and his volitional qualities. For example, fear can disorganize a cowardly person, but mobilize a courageous one.

According to the dynamics of the course, emotional states can be long-term and short-term, according to intensity - intense and weakly expressed, according to stability - stable and changeable.

Depending on the form of occurrence, emotional states are divided into mood, affect, stress, passion, frustration, and higher feelings.

The simplest form of emotional experience is emotional tone, i.e. emotional coloring, a peculiar qualitative shade of the mental process, prompting a person to preserve or eliminate them. The emotional tone accumulates a reflection of the most common and frequently occurring signs of useful and harmful factors of the surrounding reality and allows you to make a quick decision about the meaning of a new stimulus (beautiful landscape, unpleasant interlocutor). The emotional tone is determined personal characteristics a person, the process of his activity, etc. The purposeful use of emotional tone makes it possible to influence the mood of the team and the productivity of its activities.

Mood- these are relatively long-lasting, stable mental states of moderate or weak intensity, manifested as positive or negative emotional background mental life. Mood depends on social activity, worldview, and orientation of a person. May be related to health status, time of year, or environment.

Depression- This is a depressed mood associated with a weakening of excitement.

Apathy characterized by loss of strength and is a psychological state caused by fatigue.

Affect- this is a short-term, violent emotion that has the character of an emotional explosion. The experience of affect is stage-specific. At the first stage, a person, seized by a flash of rage or wild delight, thinks only about the object of his feelings. His movements become uncontrollable, his breathing rhythm changes, and small movements are disrupted. At the same time, at this stage, every mentally normal person can slow down the development of affect, for example, by switching to another type of activity. In the second stage, a person loses the ability to control his actions. As a result, he can commit actions that he would not have committed in his normal state. At the third stage, relaxation occurs, the person experiences states of fatigue and emptiness, and sometimes he is not able to remember episodes of events.

When analyzing an affective act, it is necessary to remember that the structure of this act does not have a goal, and the motive is the experienced emotions. To prevent the formation of an affective personality, it is necessary to teach students methods of self-regulation and take into account their type of temperament in the process of education. Students with choleric and melancholic temperaments (the latter in a state of fatigue) are prone to affect.

The concept of “stress” was introduced into science by G. Selye (1907-1982). The scientist determined stress as a nonspecific reaction of the human (animal) body to any demand. Depending on the stress factor, physiological and mental stress are distinguished. The latter, in turn, is divided into informational(EMERCOM worker does not have time to accept the right decision at the required pace in a situation of high responsibility) and emotional(occurs in situations of threat, danger, for example, during an exam). The body's response to stress is called "general adaptation syndrome". This reaction includes three stages: the alarm reaction, the resistance phase and the exhaustion phase.

From the point of view of G. Selye, stress is not just nervous tension, it is not always the result of damage. The scientist identified two types of stress: distress and eustress. Distress occurs in difficult situations, under great physical and mental overload, if necessary, to make quick and responsible decisions and is experienced with great internal tension. The reaction that occurs during distress resembles affect. Distress negatively affects the results of a person’s activities and has a detrimental effect on his health. Eustress, on the contrary, it is positive stress that accompanies creativity and love, which has a positive impact on a person and contributes to the mobilization of his spiritual and physical strength (G. Selye, 1960).

Ways to adapt to a stressful situation are rejection of it on a personal level (psychological protection of the individual), complete or partial disconnection from the situation, “displacement of activity,” the use of new ways to solve a problem problem, the ability to carry out a complex type of activity despite tension. To overcome distress, a person needs physical movements that help activate the parasympathetic department of higher nervous activity; music therapy, bibliotherapy (listening to excerpts from works of art), occupational therapy, play therapy, as well as mastering self-regulation techniques can be useful.

Passion- a strong, stable, all-encompassing feeling, which is the dominant motive of activity, leads to the concentration of all forces on the subject of passion. Passion can be determined by a person's worldview, beliefs, or needs. In its direction, this emotional manifestation can be positive or negative (passion for science, passion for hoarding). When we talk about children, we mean hobbies. Truly positive hobbies unite a child with others and expand his sphere of knowledge. If a positive hobby isolates a child from his peers, then perhaps it compensates for the feeling of inferiority experienced by him in other areas of activity (in studies, sports) that are not related to his interests, which indicates a dysfunctional personality.

Frustration is a mental state caused by the appearance of insurmountable obstacles (real or imaginary) when trying to satisfy a need that is significant to the individual. Frustration is accompanied by disappointment, annoyance, irritation, anxiety, depression, and devaluation of the goal or task. For some people, this condition manifests itself in aggressive behavior or is accompanied by withdrawal into the world of dreams and fantasies. Frustration can be caused by a lack of abilities and skills necessary to achieve a goal, as well as by experiencing one of three types of internal conflicts (K. Levin, 1890-1947). This conflict of equal positive possibilities, which arises when it is necessary to choose in favor of one of two equally attractive prospects; b) conflict of equal negative possibilities, arising from a forced choice in favor of one of two equally undesirable prospects; V) conflict of positive-negative possibilities, arising from the need to accept not only the positive, but also the negative aspects of the same perspective.

The dynamics and forms of manifestation of states of frustration vary from person to person. Special role Research shows that intelligence plays a role in shaping the direction of emotional reactions. The higher a person’s intelligence, the more likely it is to expect an externally accusatory form of emotional reaction from him. People with less high intelligence are more likely to take the blame in situations of frustration.

Many psychologists believe that there are only three basic emotions: anger, fear and joy.

Anger is a negative emotion caused by frustration. The most common way to express anger is aggression- an intentional action intended to cause harm or pain. Ways of expressing anger include: direct expression of feelings, indirect expression of feelings (transferring anger from the person who caused the frustration to another person or object) and containing anger. Optimal options for overcoming anger: thinking about the situation, finding something comic in it, listening to your opponent, identifying yourself with the person who caused anger, forgetting old grievances and strife, striving to feel love and respect for the enemy, awareness of your condition.

Joy is an active positive emotion that is expressed in a good mood and a feeling of pleasure. A lasting feeling of joy is called happiness. According to J. Friedman, a person is happy if he simultaneously feels satisfaction with life and peace of mind. As research shows, people who have families, have active religious beliefs, and have good relationships with others are happier (V. Quinn, 2000).

Fear is a negative emotion that arises in situations of real or perceived danger. Justified fears play an important adaptive role and contribute to survival. Anxiety- this is a specific experience caused by a premonition of danger and threat, and characterized by tension and concern. The state of anxiety depends on the problem situation (exam, performance) and on personal anxiety. If situational anxiety is a state associated with a specific external situation, then personal anxiety- stable personality trait constant an individual's tendency to experience anxiety. People with low personal anxiety are always calmer, regardless of the situation. It takes a relatively high level of stress to trigger a stress response in them.

Higher feelings of a person arise in connection with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of his spiritual needs, with the fulfillment or violation of the norms of life and social behavior he has learned, the course and results of his activities. Depending on the subject area to which they relate, higher feelings can be intellectual, moral and aesthetic.

TO intellectual feelings include experiences that arise in the process of human cognitive activity (surprise, interest, doubt, confidence, feeling of something new, etc.). Intellectual feelings may be determined by the content, problematic nature of the activity, and the degree of complexity of the tasks being solved. Intellectual feelings, in turn, stimulate activity, accompany it, influence the course and results of a person’s mental activity, acting as its regulator.

Moral feelings include a moral assessment of an object, phenomenon, and other people. The group of moral feelings includes patriotism, love for the profession, duty, collectivism, etc. The formation of these feelings involves the assimilation by a person moral rules and norms that are historical in nature and depend on the level of development of society, customs, religion, etc. The basis for the emergence of moral feelings are social interpersonal relationships, defining their content. Once formed, moral feelings encourage a person to perform moral actions. Violation of moral standards is fraught with the experience of shame and guilt.

Aesthetic feelings represent a person’s emotional attitude to beauty. Aesthetic feelings include a sense of tragic, comic, ironic, sarcastic, manifested in assessments, tastes, external reactions. They intensify activities and help to better understand art (music, literature, painting, theater).

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Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

EE "Vitebsk State Technological Institute"

Department of History and Law

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Subject: “Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy”

Topic 6

Is done by a student

ZS-24 group

Vitebsk 2010

Plan

Introduction

1. General concept about emotions. Psychological structure of emotions, their external expression

2. Classification and functions of emotions. Thenic and asthenic emotions. Mood. Feelings. Affects

3. Needs, their classification. Motive and behavior.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The presented work is devoted to the topic "Emotional and motivational processes."

When thinking about emotions, a question may come that seems strange and unexpected at first glance: why are they needed? Thanks to cognitive processes, the surrounding reality is reflected. Moreover, each of the studied processes makes its own contribution: sensations provide information about individual properties and signs of objects and phenomena, perception gives their holistic images, memory stores what is perceived, thinking and fantasy process this material into thoughts and new images. Thanks to will and active activity, a person carries out his plans, etc. Maybe it would be easy to do without joy and suffering, pleasure and annoyance, and finally, without love and hatred?

At the same time, from our own experience we know that all our cognitive and objective activities, in general, our entire life, are unthinkable without emotions, without feelings.

Nowadays, many scientists and entire scientific teams are studying the problem of emotions and feelings. And one of the main questions remains: why are emotions needed? In other words, what is their structure, functions, needs, what role do they play in a person’s mental life?

In this work we will try to figure this out.

General concept of emotions. Psychological structurera of emotions, their external expression

Emotions are one of the few factors in a person's inner life that are easily detected and quite subtly understood by other people. Even a small child, who has not yet learned to speak, is very sensitive to the emotional state of others, especially the mother.

Very often, emotions are the cause of failures or mistakes in any human activity. We can give examples when, on the contrary, this or that feeling, this or that emotional state helps a person cope with the tasks facing him. The feelings of a person’s personal life are of utmost importance. They are the main components of intimate family communication.

Emotions are mental and/or physiological reactions of humans and animals to the influence of internal and external stimuli associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs.

Emotion is a specific form of the mental process of experiencing feelings. For example, a feeling of patriotism, responsibility for an assigned task, or a mother’s feeling of love for her children manifests itself in the mental life of people as a stream emotional experiences, varying in strength, duration, complexity and even in content.

The most common emotions: joy, surprise, suffering, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame and others. Some of them are positive, others are negative, depending on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the individual.

The concept of “relationship” is used in psychology in two meanings: firstly, as an objective relationship between subject and object (objective relationships - mental processes), and secondly, as a reflection, or experience, of these connections (subjective relationships - emotions and feelings).

Emotions have a complex structure, no matter how elementary they may seem to us at first glance.

Wundt's three-dimensional theory of feelings. For a long time, the prevailing opinion in psychology was that emotional experiences are characterized by the presence of only two polar and mutually exclusive subjective states - pleasure or displeasure. The outstanding German psychologist of the 19th century, W. Wundt, found that such a division does not reflect the entire complexity of the psychological structure of emotions. He put forward a theory according to which emotions are characterized by three qualities or “dimensions” - pleasure or displeasure, excitement or calmness, and tension or resolution (release from tension).

Each of these three “dimensions” is present in emotion not only as a subjective state of certain quality, but also in various degrees of intensity - from emotional zero (state of indifference) to higher degrees intensity of this quality. Due to the fact that emotions in their psychological structure are a variety of three “dimensions”, each of which can continuously and widely vary in the degree of its intensity, an infinite variety of emotional states and their shades is obtained.

The merit of Wundt Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (08/16/1832 - 08/31/1920) - German physiologist and psychologist. Mainly known as the founder experimental psychology and cognitive psychology, it should be recognized that he moved away from the traditional view of the structure of emotions, as consisting only of variations of one “dimension”, raised the question of the complexity of the psychological structure of emotions and pointed out the presence in emotional processes and states of features important for human life and activity other than pleasure and displeasure.

Pleasure and Displeasure. These subjective experiences, directly known to every person, constitute the psychological basis of emotional processes: without pleasure or displeasure there can be no emotion. They can be of varying degrees - from very great joy to a weak feeling of pleasure and from slight displeasure to severe grief, but they must be there, otherwise the emotion will cease to be itself.

Pleasure and displeasure are experienced by a person in connection with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of his needs and interests. They express a person’s positive or negative attitude towards the phenomena of the surrounding reality, as well as towards his own actions and activities.

It is thanks to the elements of pleasure or displeasure that emotions act as the strongest incentives to action. For example, pleasure from an activity is accompanied by confidence in own strength and abilities and encourages a person to work even more energetically and successfully. Displeasure causes a desire to avoid what is associated with this feeling; it often causes an increased surge of energy and encourages a person to fight the circumstances that brought him displeasure.

However, pleasure and displeasure do not always play a positive role. Often, a feeling of pleasure causes complacency and weakening of energy, and displeasure prompts one to avoid difficulties and stop fighting.

Excitement and calm. Many emotions are characterized by greater or lesser degrees nervous excitement. In some emotions, for example in a state of anger, this arousal manifests itself intensely and vividly; in others, for example, when listening to melodic music, in weak degree, sometimes decreasing to a state of calm.

States of excitement and calm not only give a characteristic imprint to the activity performed by a person, but are also necessary for its better performance. These qualitative features of emotions are of great importance during physical education and sports.

All physical exercises are associated with emotions, characterized by varying degrees of arousal and calm. For example, fast running is accompanied by strong emotional arousal.

During the lesson physical culture The teacher can offer students a game and thereby not only give them a certain pleasure, but also cause them the required degree of emotional arousal. During the game, students become excited, behave noisily, animatedly, their eyes sparkle, their faces blush, their movements become faster and more energetic. When the physical education lesson comes to an end, after which classes in other subjects should begin, the teacher offers students calm, measured movements in order to remove an excessive degree of emotional arousal and bring their body to a calm state.

Voltage and resolution. These states are characteristic of emotions experienced in complex activities associated with the anticipation of the onset of important events or circumstances for a person, in which he will have to act quickly, energetically, overcoming significant difficulties, sometimes realizing the danger of upcoming actions.

Emotions of tension and resolution often manifest themselves in sports activities, most clearly in sports competitions. They are experienced as tense anticipation of certain events and actions. For example, at the start, waiting for the signal to run, an athlete experiences a strong emotional state of tension. Outwardly, this state is expressed in composure, as if in stiffness of the whole body, in the absence of sudden movements, in slow breathing, etc., although internally the athlete is in a state of very great activity. The emotion of tension in this regard is the opposite of a state of excitement, during which a person outwardly manifests himself very violently, makes sudden, impetuous movements, speaks loudly, etc.

The opposite features characterize the emotion of resolution from tension. When the intensely awaited signal to run is given, the tension is replaced by an emotional state of liberation from the tension that just existed. The emotion of resolution is externally expressed in increased activity: at the moment of the signal, the athlete makes a sharp energetic jerk forward, the stiffness of movements just observed is instantly replaced by fast movements of maximum intensity, the muscle energy restrained until this moment is released and manifests itself in movements of great intensity.

Emotions are internal mental subjective states, characterized by a bright bodily expression specific to them, which manifests itself in vascular reactions, in changes in breathing and blood circulation (in connection with this in paleness or redness of the face), in peculiar facial expressions and gestures, in intonational features of speech and etc.

Changes in breathing during emotions. Many emotions are associated with increased muscle activity and a higher voice. This explains the large role that breathing movements play in emotions, which, as is known, perform a dual function: 1) enhancing gas exchange and providing the oxygen necessary for increased muscular work and 2) passing air through the glottis and providing the required vibration of the vocal cords.

Breathing movements during emotions undergo changes in their speed and amplitude characteristic of various emotional states. According to R. Woodworth Robert Sessions Woodworth(17.10.1869 - 07/04/1962 [New York] SSH A) -- American psychologist, representative of functional psychology. these changes are as follows: with pleasure, there is an increase in both the frequency and amplitude of breathing; in case of displeasure - a decrease in both; when excited, breathing movements become frequent and deep; under tension - slow and weak; in a state of anxiety - accelerated and weak; in case of unexpected surprise, they instantly become frequent while maintaining normal amplitude; in case of fear - a sharp slowdown in breathing, etc.

The ratio between the duration of inhalation and exhalation is also indicative of emotions. G. Sterring Gustav Sterring (1860 - 1946) -- German psychologist and psychopathologist. determined this ratio by dividing the inhalation time by the time of the entire cycle (consisting of inhalation and exhalation) and obtained the following data showing a significant increase in the duration of inhalation in emotional states compared to the duration of exhalation:

at rest 0.43

when excited 0.60

when surprised 0.71

with sudden fear 0.75

The significance of these data for characterizing emotional processes is emphasized by the fact that during concentrated mental work, devoid of emotional arousal, the corresponding coefficient is only 0.30 and tends to decrease even more as concentration increases, i.e. indicates a sharp predominance of the duration of exhalation.

Changes in the frequency of the amplitude of respiratory movements, typical for the corresponding emotions, acquire a stable character in the process of practical activity, being a factor that ensures the required effectiveness of this activity. They occur not only during the direct performance of the activity, but also during emotional memory about her. Experiments on athletes show that when remembering difficult and important physical exercises, their breathing acquires the same characteristics that it had during the actual exercise. This indicates that changes in breathing, as well as vasomotor reactions, are organically included in emotional memory.

Changes in blood circulation during emotions. These changes are characterized by the frequency and strength of the pulse, blood pressure, expansion and contraction of blood vessels. As a result of these changes, blood flow speeds up or slows down and, accordingly, there is an influx of blood to some and its outflow from other organs and parts of the body. As mentioned above, the heart rate is regulated by autonomic impulses and also changes under the influence of adrenaline. At rest, the heart rate is 60-70 beats per minute. When frightened, an instant acceleration occurs up to 80-90 beats. With excitement and tense anticipation (at the start), the heart rate increases by 15-16 beats per minute. In general, excitement speeds up blood circulation.

Corresponding changes are observed in blood pressure. When frightened, systolic blood pressure rises. This increase is also observed when thinking about possible pain: in some people it is detected as soon as the dentist enters the room and approaches the patient. The increase in blood pressure before the first exam day is sometimes 15-30 mm above normal.

All these changes are related to the body’s needs for better performance of the corresponding activity: in the event of sudden fear, they lead to faster and better blood supply to the muscles that have to work (this is reflected in an increase in the volume of the arms due to the flow of blood to them); in anticipation of an exam - to improve blood supply to the brain, etc.

Mimic expressive movements. A person has complex facial muscles, which in its significant part perform only the function of facial movements in accordance with the nature of the emotional states experienced by a person. With the help of facial expressions, i.e. that is, coordinated movements of the eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose, etc., a person expresses the most complex and varied emotional states: a slightly open mouth with its corners lowered expresses sadness; lips extended to the sides with the corners of the mouth raised upward - pleasure; raised eyebrows - surprise; strong and sudden raising of eyebrows - amazement; bared teeth - irritation and anger; raising the upper lip with a characteristic widening of the nostrils of the nose - disgust; half-closed eyes - indifference; tightly compressed lips - determination, etc. Facial expressions can express very subtle shades of embarrassment, anger, insult, love, disdain, respect, etc. The expression of the eyes is of great importance.

Charles Darwin believed that in the animals of human ancestors these expressive movements had practical significance, helping in the struggle for existence: the baring of teeth and the accompanying growl frightened the enemy; the posture and facial expressions of humility reduced his aggressiveness; facial expressions of surprise facilitated the orientation reflex, etc. In humans, these facial movements lost their immediate vital practical significance and remained only in the form of simple relics.

However, a significant number of facial expressive movements appeared and improved in humans already in the process of their historical development, for example, facial movements associated with intellectual, aesthetic and moral emotions. They are not innate, but are acquired by a person through imitation in the process of communication with other people and education. To understand these expressive movements in other people, it is necessary to have both the corresponding personal emotional experience and familiarity with the universal human experience, which has found its expression in the relationships between people in everyday life or reflected in works of art. Thus, facial expressions of contempt are not at all perceived and understood by children aged 3-5 years; facial expressions of inner, spiritual suffering become understandable at 5-6 years old, facial expressions of intellectual surprise at 10 years old, etc. All this speaks to the important role played by facial expressive movements in the education of emotions.

Expression of emotions in speech intonation. Since speech plays a huge role in human life, the expression of emotions by raising, lowering, or weakening the voice has become of great importance in human relationships. At the same time, the methodology and dynamics of speech can have an expressive meaning regardless of and even in contradiction with the meaning and content of the spoken words.

The timbre of the voice, the tempo of speech and its rhythmic (accent) division with the help of pauses and logical stress. Words pronounced at the same pitch make speech monotonous and lacking in expressiveness. On the contrary, significant pitch modulation of the voice (for some artists it exceeds two octaves) makes a person’s speech very expressive emotionally.

Emotional expressiveness of speech plays a huge role in human communication. With the combined effect of all these means, a person, with the help of his voice alone, can express the most complex and subtle emotions - irony, affection, sarcasm, fear, determination, request, suffering, delight, etc.

Classification and functions of emotions. Stenicand asthenic emotions. Mood. Feelings. Affects

Classification of emotions

Emotion is usually defined as a special type of mental processes that express a person’s experience of his relationship to the world around him and himself. The peculiarity of emotions is that, depending on the needs of the subject, they directly assess the significance of objects and situations acting on the individual. Emotions serve as a connection between reality and needs.

According to the classification of emotional phenomena by A.N. Leontyev Alexey Nikolaevich Leontyev (1903-1979) -- outstanding Soviet psychologist, full member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, doctor pedagogical sciences, Professor. There are three types of emotional processes: affects, actual emotions and feelings.

Affects are strong and relatively short-term emotional experiences, accompanied by pronounced motor and visceral manifestations. In a person, affects are caused both by biologically significant factors affecting his physical existence, and by social ones, for example, the opinion of a manager, his negative assessment, and accepted sanctions. A distinctive feature of affects is that they arise in response to a situation that has already actually occurred. Affect has pronounced external signs: increased motor activity or, conversely, atrophy of movements (“stunned” with joy). Affect affects a person due to the weakening of consciousness control over the course of emotions (anger, rage, fear, etc.).

Emotions themselves, unlike affects, are a longer-lasting state, sometimes only weakly manifested in external behavior.

The third type of emotional processes - feelings - in contrast to ordinary emotions (immediate, temporary experiences) - are more complex, established relationships. The feeling includes a whole range of emotions. These are the most long-lasting and stable emotional experiences that have a clearly defined objective character. A person cannot experience a feeling in general unless it is related to someone or something in particular.

Feelings are a special form of mental reflection, characteristic only of man, in which what is reflected is the person’s subjective attitude to the objects and phenomena of reality.

The structure of feelings consists of emotions and concepts. For example, in order for a person to have a feeling of love for his homeland, he must master the concept of homeland. If he does not have this concept, he does not own it, then there is no point in talking about feeling. Animals do not have concepts, so talking about the feelings of animals is complete nonsense; they only have emotions.

Our feelings perform two main functions: signaling and regulatory.

Signal function feelings is expressed in the fact that experiences arise and change in connection with changes occurring in the environment or in the human body.

Regulatory function feelings is due to the fact that experiences determine a person’s behavior, becoming long-term or short-term motives for his activities. Due to the presence of a regulatory mechanism, a person experiences a decrease in emotional arousal or its increase. In the first case, a person’s strongest emotional experiences are transformed into muscle movements, laughter, exclamations, and crying. In this case, a rarefaction of excess voltage occurs, the long-term preservation of which is extremely dangerous.

Emotions are expressed through movements and numerous bodily changes. It is customary to highlight facial expressions(movements of facial muscles) and pantomime(movements of body muscles, gestures). These movements and changes serve as objective signs of the experience of feelings. The performance of involuntary and conscious movements, changes in voice, facial expressions, gestures, restructuring of processes occurring in the body are called in psychology the expressive side of emotional states.

Mood-- a general emotional state that colors a person’s mental processes and behavior over a long period of time. Mood primarily depends on a person’s worldview, his social activities and orientation in general, but it can also be associated with health, time of year, weather, environmental conditions, etc. The main sign of a particular mood is the emotional tone, positive or negative. Mood is characterized by cyclical changes (rise and fall of mood), but too pronounced fluctuations may indicate mental ill-being, in particular manic-depressive psychosis.

It is believed that mood is an integral characteristic of an individual’s system of activities, which signals the processes of implementation of activities and their consistency with each other. The main mental states include vigor, euphoria, fatigue, apathy, depression, alienation, and loss of sense of reality.

Diagnostics. The study of mental states is carried out, as a rule, by methods of observation, surveys, testing, as well as experimental methods based on the reproduction of various situations.

Asthenic feelings(Greek asthenes - weak) - a form of emotions in which the leading experiences are depression, despondency, sadness, and non-localized fear. They indicate a refusal to fight difficulties in a situation of increased emotional stress.

Diagnostics. About human experience asthenic feelings can be judged by external signs, for example, he stoops, his breathing slows down, his eyes dim.

Stenic feelings(Greek sthenos - strength) - positive emotional states that are associated with an increase in the level of vital activity and are characterized by the occurrence of feelings of excitement, joyful excitement, uplift, and vigor. At the same time, breathing becomes more frequent, deeper and easier, the work of the heart is activated, and in general the body is physiologically prepared for large expenditures of energy.

There are many various classifications types of feelings. One of the most common is the following.

Higher feelings are feelings that express spiritual world of a person and determining his personality.

Moral and political feelings are feelings associated with the attitude towards other people, towards society, towards the Motherland.

Intellectual feelings are the highest social feelings that arise in a person as an emotional attitude to his own thoughts or to the thoughts expressed by other people. This is, for example, the pleasure of a speaker’s performance (logicality, persuasiveness), positive emotions when correctly solving a complex problem that has been unsuccessful for a long time, etc.

Aesthetic feelings arise on the basis aesthetic perception. The latter differs from ordinary perception not in content, since it also reflects objects and phenomena of the real world. Aesthetic feelings are inextricably linked with the experiences of a person, his feelings (perception of pictures of nature, works of culture and art, modern technology, people and much more).

Feelings are closely connected not only with the mind, but also with other mental processes - sensations, perception, memory, imagination, will. They belong to the core properties of the personality and create a certain coloring of character.

In the triad "mind - feelings - will" the main role belongs to the mind. An unreasonable will is deprived of its content (by definition); feelings without proper control by the mind cease to be human.

However, the true wealth of a personality consists of her feelings, primarily associated with the mind, thinking, and creativity. In any case, the happiness of people stems from the wealth of feelings, no matter how highly people value intelligence and professional activity. The education of feelings is an integral element of the education of the individual. Feelings are of great importance for awareness and knowledge of oneself. It enriches us and helps us relate to other people differently.

Also special place Among emotional phenomena are the so-called general sensations. Thus, P. Milner believes that, although it is customary to distinguish emotions (anger, fear, joy, etc.) from the so-called general sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.), nevertheless, they have a lot in common and their division is quite arbitrary. One of the reasons why they are distinguished is the different degree of connection between subjective experiences and receptor excitation. Thus, the experience of heat and pain is subjectively associated with the excitation of certain receptors (temperature, pain). On this basis, such states are usually referred to as sensations. The state of fear and anger is difficult to associate with the excitation of any receptor surfaces, therefore they are classified as emotions. Another reason why emotions are opposed general feelings, consists in their irregular appearance. Emotions often arise spontaneously and depend on random external Factors, while hunger, thirst, and sexual desire follow at certain intervals.

Functions of emotions

Researchers, answering the question of what role emotions play in the life of living beings, identify several regulatory functions emotions: reflective (evaluative), stimulating, reinforcing, switching, communicative.

The reflective function of emotions is expressed in a generalized assessment of events. Emotions cover the entire body and represent an almost instantaneous and integral assessment of behavior as a whole, which makes it possible to determine the usefulness and harmfulness of factors affecting a person even before localization is determined harmful effects. An example would be the behavior of a person who has suffered a limb injury. Focusing on the pain, he immediately finds a position that reduces pain.

Emotion, as a special internal state and subjective experience, performs the function of assessing the circumstances of the situation. Based on the need that has arisen and an intuitive idea of ​​​​the possibilities of satisfying it. Emotional assessment differs from conscious cognitive evaluative operations of the mind; it is performed at a sensory level.

Anticipatory emotions have been successfully studied as part of mental activity when solving creative problems (chess). Emotions of anticipation are associated with the emergence of the experience of a guess, an idea of ​​a solution that has not yet been verbalized.

P.V. Simonov Pavel Vasilievich Simonov (04/20/1926 -- 06/06/2002) -- Russian psychophysiologist, biophysicist and psychologist. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1987), Doctor of Medical Sciences (1961), professor (1969). Laureate of the USSR State Prize (1987, in a team) for the creation and development of methods for diagnosing and predicting the state of the human brain. highlights the reinforcing function of emotions. It is known that emotions are directly involved in the processes of learning and memory. Significant Events, causing emotional reactions, are quickly and permanently imprinted in memory. Thus, a well-fed cat cannot develop conditioned food reflexes. Successful learning requires the presence of motivational arousal, in this case reflected in the feeling of hunger. However, the combination of an indifferent stimulus with hunger excitation is not yet sufficient for the development of conditioned food reflexes. A third component is required - the influence of a factor that can satisfy the existing need, i.e. food.

The switching function of emotions is that they often prompt a person to change his behavior.

The switching function of emotions is most clearly revealed in extreme situations, when a struggle arises between the natural human instinct of self-preservation and the social need to follow a certain ethical norm. The conflict of needs is experienced in the form of a struggle between fear and a sense of duty, fear and shame. The outcome depends on the strength of motives, on the personal attitudes of the subject.

An important function of emotions is the communicative function. Facial expressions, gestures, postures, expressive sighs, changes in intonation are the “language of human feelings” and allow a person to convey his experiences to other people, inform them about his attitude towards phenomena, objects, etc.

Needs, their tolassification. Motive and behavior

Man, like other living beings, also needs for his existence and activity certain conditions and means drawn from the external environment.

Needs are the internal states experienced by a person when he experiences an urgent need for something.

The characteristic features of needs as mental states are:

1. The specific substantive nature of the need, usually associated either with an object that one strives to possess, or with any activity that should give a person satisfaction (for example, a certain job, game, etc.); in this regard, a distinction is made between objective and functional needs (for example, the need for movement);

2. More or less clear awareness of a given need, accompanied by a characteristic emotional state (attractiveness of an object associated with a given need, displeasure and even suffering from unsatisfaction of the need, etc.);

3. An emotional-volitional state of motivation to satisfy a need, to find and implement the necessary ways for this; thanks to this, needs are one of the most powerful motives for volitional actions;

4. weakening, sometimes complete disappearance of these states, and in some cases even their transformation into opposite states (for example, a feeling of disgust at the sight of food in a state of satiety) when a need is satisfied;

5. re-emergence, when the need underlying the need again makes itself felt; the repetition of needs is an important feature of them: a one-time, episodic and never repeated need for something does not turn into a need.

Human needs are diverse. They are usually divided into material, related to bodily needs (needs for food, clothing, housing, warmth, etc.), and spiritual, related to human social existence: needs for social activities, in work, in communicating with each other, in acquiring knowledge, in the study of sciences and arts, the need for creativity, etc.

The greatest importance in human life and activity are the needs for work, learning, aesthetic needs, and the need for communication with other people.

Need for labor. Man satisfies his material needs through labor. He satisfies these needs in the process of life, mastering a certain system of actions necessary for this.

Modern man, in order to feed and clothe himself, does not prepare the food he needs and does not make fabric for the clothing he needs, but receives all this from society, participating in the work of satisfying other needs of society. Social labor has become a condition for human existence and at the same time his most important need.

In different social formations Representatives of different classes of society have a need for work due to their characteristics public life people takes on different characters and is expressed to varying degrees.

Need for teaching. Along with labor, in the process of work itself, the need for learning and the acquisition of knowledge develops. To characterize a person, it is important to take into account both the degree of development of this need and its characteristics. For example, some people strive to satisfy this need by independently scientific work, others - through the assimilation of ready-made knowledge.

Aesthetic needs. An important personality trait is the need for aesthetic pleasure and corresponding creative activity in the field of one or another art. This need appeared already at the dawn of the historical development of man, who had just emerged from the animal world. As soon as a person began to engage in labor, he began to give the objects, tools, and utensils he made aesthetically pleasing forms, decorating them first with simple, and then with more and more artistic ornaments, thus satisfying not the natural needs immediately necessary for life, but the aesthetic need in enjoying the beautiful.

Along with the development of society, human aesthetic needs also developed, which led to the emergence of numerous and complex types of art: painting, sculpture, architecture, music, literature, theater, cinema, etc.

To characterize a person, both the content and degree of development of aesthetic needs, as well as the method of satisfying them, are important. Some people have the most pronounced aesthetic needs in music, others in painting, in dance; Some are well versed in perfect works of art, others are satisfied with mediocre and primitive ones. Based on the way they satisfy aesthetic needs, some people can be classified as passive, or contemplative, types, others - as active, or creative.

Needs are formed in a person throughout life. Concerns about the correct organization of needs are one of the important issues in the education of a person’s personality.

Motivation is the process of actualizing an individual’s needs, which leads to mental tension and the emergence of motives-- internal incentives for active activity or behavior.

The demand-motivational sphere of the individual is a complex integral psychological formation. By actively interacting with others, a person strives to achieve mutual understanding, to find out both his own reasons for behavior and his communication partners. In all these processes there is a motive, i.e. something that belongs to the subject of behavior himself. A motive is a stable personal property that absorbs needs, intentions to do something, as well as a desire to do it.

Important in their motivational significance are the needs that act as a source of human activity. Thanks to them, the behavior of an individual in society is regulated, the direction of a person’s thinking, emotions, feelings and will is determined. Satisfying a person’s needs is the process of assigning him a certain form of activity, determined by social development and social relations. Among the basic needs of the individual, the following are distinguished: biological (needs for food, air, etc.); material (needs for clothing, housing, etc.); social (needs for objective social activity, for an individual to understand his place in society); spiritual (need for cognitive, moral and other information). In general, motivation is a set of reasons psychological nature, which explain human behavior and actions, their origin, direction and activity.

Conclusion

So, we found out that it is impossible to answer many of the questions posed in monosyllables. The fact is that emotions have more than one specific function, but several. First of all, emotions and feelings, like all other mental processes, are a reflection of real reality, but only in the form of experience. At the same time, the concepts of “emotions” and “feelings,” which “in everyday life” are often used as equivalent, actually designate various mental phenomena, which, of course, are closely related to each other. Both emotions and feelings reflect a person’s needs, or rather, how these needs are satisfied.

Emotional experiences reflect the vital significance of phenomena and situations affecting a person. In other words, emotions are a reflection in the form of a biased experience of the life meaning of phenomena and situations. In general, we can say that everything that promotes or facilitates the satisfaction of needs causes positive emotional experiences, and, conversely, everything that interferes with this causes negative ones.

One of the main functions of emotions is that they help to navigate the surrounding reality, evaluate objects and phenomena from the point of view of their desirability or undesirability, usefulness or harmfulness.

According to the Soviet psychophysiologist P.V. Simonov, emotion arises when there is a discrepancy between what needs to be known in order to satisfy the need (necessary information) and what is actually known.

Bibliography

1. Berezovin N. A., Chepikov V. T., Chekhovisky M. I. “Fundamentals of Psychology”: Textbook. - Minsk: New knowledge, 2002;

2. Borozdina G.V. “Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy” Textbook. - Minsk, “BSEU”. 2004;

3. Bondarchuk E. I., Bondarchuk L. I. Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy: A course of lectures. -- 3rd ed., stereotype. - K.: MAUP, 2002. - 168 p.;

4. INTERNET materials:

1) http://psi.webzone.ru;

2) http://www.psyznaiyka.net;

3) http://azps.ru;

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