International vocabulary in Russian. International vocabulary

The concept of international vocabulary

The study of international vocabulary has both theoretical and practical significance. Some scientists believe that all internationalisms in different languages ​​should have the same meaning, while others believe that a mandatory feature of internationalisms is only external similarity and common origin. According to the definition of T.R. Levitskaya and A.M. Fiterman, “international words are words that are more or less the same sound form, grammatical design and semantic content are found in a number of languages.”AvailableBesidesdotview that the degree of internationality of lexical units is higher than more languages This means that the more they are typologically removed from each other.Necessaryconfessesexistenceno waylessthan in three, preferably not closely related, languages. Thus, according to V.V. Akulenko, internationalisms are “lexemes that are similar to the degree of identification in graphical or phonemic terms with fully or partially common semantics, expressing concepts international importance and coexisting in several (practically no less than three) synchronically coexisting comparable languages ​​(including unrelated or not closely related). The peculiarity of internationalisms, as V.V. Akulenko notes, is that they “have a dual status: as units of the lexical system of each individual language and as common units of the entire linguistic union”; in other words, internationalisms simultaneously combine national and international features, revealing their international character when simultaneously compared with the corresponding analogues in national languages. The internationalization process affects various language levels, primarily vocabulary, but international elements are also widespread in word formation and phraseology. International words, known in a number of languages, have different characteristics. First of all, they have the same source language:

Firstly, this is the Greco-Latin fund of roots, word-forming affixes and ready-made words, borrowed in their entirety. Thus, from Greek the international vocabulary includes (I give Russian variants) atom, autonomy, automaton, democracy, philosophy, dialectics, thesis, synthesis, analysis and much more, from Latin - nation, republic, matter, nature, principle, federation , progress, university, faculty, subject, object, liberal, radical, etc. Next, we will name the Greek building elements of international vocabulary: bio- “life-”, geo- “earth-”, hydro- “water-”, demo- “people-”, chrono- “time-”, psycho- “soul-”, micro- “small-”, macro- “large-”, neo- “new-”, poly- “many-”, mono- “single-”, pseudo- “false-”, etc.

OftenLatin and Greek elementscombineamongby yourself, for example, sociology, socialism, television. Basically any element of the ancient Greek and Latin vocabularycapablebeusedatneedsformanotherterm. This also includes Greek and Latin " winged words"and proverbs translated into national languages.

Secondkeyinternationalismsare considerednational languages. In different historical eras The most significant contribution to the fund of international vocabulary was made by different peoples. One of the first countries to embark on the path of capitalist development was Italy, and itexistedoriginalsource, from which internationalisms began to spread to other European languages. In particular, these were words related to the field of finance: credito - credit, soldo - balance, bilancia (originally “equilibrium”) - balance; related to construction, architecture: facciata - facade, galleria - gallery, balcone - balcony, salone - salon; to painting and music: fresca - fresco, sonata - sonata, cantata - cantata, solo - solo, names of musical notes; some military terms: battaglione - battalion, etc.

The contribution of other national languages ​​to international vocabulary was quantitatively smaller for a number of reasons. From the Russian language to international vocabularyenteredonlysomewords,mainwaymeaningspecifically Russian realities, elements of the Russian landscape, etc.: steppe (German Steppe, English steppe), samovar, troika, but also the words intelligentsia (English intelligentsia), nihilism (English nihilism, German Nihilismus). Later, new internationalisms appeared - the so-called “Sovietisms”: Bolshevik, Leninism, Sputnik.

- Ultimately, differencesamongnational variants of internationalisms concern not only their sound and morphological design (and spelling), the degree of their use in the language, etc., but often also their meaning. Here are some examples: fr. ambition, English ambition means “ambition” (without a negative connotation), “striving for some goal,” and in Russian. ambition means “conceit, arrogance, vanity” and is used with condemnation or irony. Fr. partisan, English partisan is not only a “partisan”, but above all a “supporter, adherent”. Fr. famille, English family, German Familie is “family, family,” and for the Russian word surname such a meaning is now outdated. Fr. medecine, German Medezin, in addition to the meaning of “medicine”, also has the meaning of “medicine”, and the English. medicine is also “witchcraft”, as well as “talisman, amulet”.

So, international words, becoming familiar and commonly used, acquire new, often no longer international meanings, and sometimes (as happened with the word surname in Russian) they lose their international meanings

Internationalisms, words that coincide in their external form (taking into account the natural correspondences of sounds and graphic units), with a completely or partially coinciding meaning, expressing concepts of international significance and coexisting in different languages, including unrelated and non-related ones; one of the types of foreign words.

The most important condition for the internationality of words is the commonality of their semantics: Russian, Bulgarian “situation”, Czech situace, Polish, situacja, English, French, German situation, Italian situazione, Spanish situacion; Russian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian "atom", Czech, Polish, English, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Albanian atom, German Atom, French atom, Spanish, Italian atomo, Finnish atomi, Latvian atoms.

In the field of terminology, a conscious convergence of the meanings of internationalisms is possible for the purpose of international standardization of terms. The source of internationalisms is either some language, or newly created words from the roots of Greek and Latin languages, representing a common fund for the formation of internationalisms, primarily in unrelated (at least three) languages. This interpretation seems to us more complete, however, when defining internationalism, we think it is necessary to point out the source of its origin - language contact.

So, by internationalism we mean lexical units, functioning in several (at least three) world languages, similar in sound, graphic and semantic form, resulting from language contact and expressing concepts common to many cultures from the fields of science, technology, business, politics, art, and means of communication. All lexical units existing in each specific language form its vocabulary. The vocabulary of the language has no definite boundaries, since it continuously changes, being replenished with new elements; in addition, it is quite heterogeneous, since it serves a wide variety of needs different layers and community groups. It is not a fundamentally infinite series of disparate units, but a specific system, complex, extensive and mobile. Studying the vocabulary of a language from different angles “makes it possible to identify the complex and diverse connections in which words of any language are found, forming an integral lexical-semantic system inherent to it alone.” Among this huge number of lexical units, a small circle of words stands out - the main vocabulary fund, uniting all the root words, the core of the language, this is the base, the basis of the language. The vocabulary reacts to all changes occurring in different spheres of human life, records them in words and is updated much faster than other structural tiers of the language. Contact of one people with another is at the same time contact of two languages ​​and leads to the borrowing of words from one language by another. Borrowings are a productive way to enrich the linguistic stock of the recipient language along with internal capabilities: affixation, compounding, changing the meanings of existing words. Within the huge number of borrowed words in any language, one can distinguish a group of words called internationalisms. Internationality is a special kind of phenomenon among the various forms of interlingual community found in the languages ​​of the Earth. Such signs significantly bring languages ​​closer together and play important role in information exchange processes. In addition, international vocabulary is the most visible and generally accepted manifestation of international community in language dictionaries.

The internationality of linguistic signs does not exist in oneseparatelyinspectedlanguage. This interlingual synchronic category can only be identified in several compared languages, therefore, in the scientific literature, the criterion of precisely three languages ​​was put forward as minimum quantity languages ​​in which a certain international unit operates.Of courseA word that exists in the languages ​​of three non-closely related families can be considered international. The study of the peculiarities of the functioning of internationalisms is an important part of the study of the linguistic system of languages.

Since a living language is a constantly developing phenomenon, something new comes, unnecessary and superfluous disappears, then for scientists working in the field of lexicology, many questions remain that require resolution. Many borrowed words are international, i.e. words that have a similar spelling or sound and the same meaning in different languages. Although the number of these words is limited, it is now difficult to find an area in which they are not used. But we still find the greatest concentration of international words in such areas as science, politics, and society. International words are relatively rare in literary texts and official business documents.Mainregionstheir functioningare consideredlanguage of mass media and scientific and technical texts. Printed publications, television and radio programs, and the Internet are not only an area for the use of international vocabulary, but also its conductor into all other areas. The lexical units parliament, mayor, speaker, impeachment, killer, consulting, PR, unisex and many others appeared in the Russian language thanks to the media. The international vocabulary of the scientific and technical sphere includes both terminological (affixation - affixation, illocution - illocution, cognition - cognition) and non-terminological (analyze - analyze, criticize - criticize) lexical units.

The problem of translating international vocabulary is one of the most pressing today, but, unfortunately, it has not been studied much. To the translatorrequiredworrynot only about the numerous pseudo-internationalisms that can confuseincludingexperiencedprofessional, and completely distort the meaning of the statement, but also the difficulties that may arise when choosing between preserving the international form and selecting a non-root equivalent of the native or foreign language. In terms of prevalence in English and Russian, international vocabulary occupies a prominent place, and its translation has its own characteristics. The problem arises in cases where international words have purely Russian synonyms. In this case, the international word has a more “scientific”, terminological character, and the choice between two synonyms will depend on the nature of the text and its addressee. injection - injection, hotel - hotel, image - image. In recent years, the number of borrowings, mainly from the English language, has increased significantly - shaping, monitoring, killer, thriller, etc. In some cases, this is inevitable - when foreign words come along with previously absent realities for which there is no designation in the Russian language (for example, the vast majority of terms of a market economy or computer technology). But along with this, there are also many excessive borrowings, giving rise to ugly phrases like “wonderful shopping.” To the translatornecessaryhaveKeep this problem in mind and not oversaturate the Russian text with borrowings.

International vocabulary usually includes words that, as a result of mutual influences or random coincidences, have an outwardly similar form and some identical meanings in different languages.

(Spanish and Russian matches)

Kushtaf Nadia (Morocco)

scientific supervisor – associate professor

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other language, goes through a long process of development. Russian vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages.

Borrowing is a process as a result of which foreign language elements and new words appear and are consolidated in a language. Borrowing is an integral part of the development process of any language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowed vocabulary reflects social, economic and cultural ties between peoples.

There is no language on earth that would be completely free from foreign influences, since no people live an absolutely isolated life - this is what the famous linguist argued in his book “Lexicology of the Modern Russian Language”.

Borrowing foreign language vocabulary is a natural and logical process that accompanies contacts between different peoples and their languages. It is caused by the need to name new objects or phenomena, to designate new concepts that have appeared in society.

Among borrowed words, a large percentage is occupied by words that came into the Russian language from Latin and Greek or composed of different elements of these languages. Such words, as a rule, function in several languages ​​at the same time, while they have similarities in pronunciation and meaning. They are called international vocabulary or internationalisms.

The Latin origin of many international words in the Russian language is very important point for students who are studying Russian and are native speakers of one or another Romance language, for example, Spanish or French. International vocabulary can become a support for vocabulary work already at the initial stage of mastering the Russian language. For example, analysis of the Dictionary Russian-Spanish language”, which includes 11,000 words, made it possible to select more than a thousand Spanish words that are similar in their meaning, sound and spelling to Russian words. This means that students starting to study Russian and speaking , know about 10 percent of the words of the new language.

International vocabulary in the Russian language forms a certain subsystem. Let's look at the main groups of words that make it up.

1. Words that in Russian and Spanish do not differ either in meaning or in spelling (taking into account the features): club, plan, leader, crisis. The words taxi, wine, moon are pronounced with a different emphasis.

2. Spanish words ending in the combination consonant +a are rendered unchanged in Russian: arena, barricada, brigada, candidatura, clinica, critica, fabrica, figura, forma, moda, nota, opera, pausa, planeta, sistema, tribuna etc.

Some of these words are written differently, for example, with one letter l the word colleague is written - colega, with one letter m the word commune is written - comuna, the words era - era are written through e, ethics - ethics, etc.

3. Spanish words ending in the combination consonant + consonant + a in Russian lose the final a: artista - artist, futbolista - football player, etc.

4. Spanish words ending in the combination - cion have the ending - tion in Russian: administrasion - administration, articulacion -, aviacion - aviation, constitucion - constitution, conctruccion - construction, demonstrasion - demonstration, etc.

5. Spanish words ending in on and or are transliterated, as a rule, without changes: balcon, batallion, limon, talon, vagon, director, factor, inspector, lector, motor, rector, tractor. Some words from this group differ in spelling and pronunciation: author - autor, actor - actor, humor - humor, speaker - orador, cyclone - ciclon, racion - diet, censor - censor, revisor - auditor.

6. Spanish words ending in o correspond to Russian words without o: activo - asset, apetito - appetite, argumento - argument, atomo - atom, banko - bank, candidato - candidate, comico - comedian, curso - course, document - document , litro – liter, etc.

A number of Spanish words ending in -o vary in both spelling and stress. The spellings differ in the words aeroplano - congreso - congress, efecto - effect, epilogo - epilogue, intelecto - intelligence, progreso - progress, etc.

The words differ according to the place of emphasis: agronomo - agronomist, arbitro - arbiter, astronomo - astronomer, conkurso - competition, kilogramo - kilogram, kilometro - kilometer, parlamento - parliament, poligloto - polyglot, telefono - telephone, etc.

7. Spanish words that end in - ia correspond to Russian words ending in -ia: academia - academy, bacteria - bacterium, comedia - comedy. Among this group of words there are those that differ from Russian in spelling, pronunciation or stress: armonia - harmony, averia - accident, bacteria - battery; anatomia - anatomy, biografia - biography, fotografia - photography, melodia - melody, teoria - theory.

Internationalisms functioning in different languages ​​do not always coincide in their meaning. Let's consider these options.

1. The scope of the meaning of a Spanish word can be wider than the scope of the meaning of the corresponding Russian word. For example, in Spanish the word arena has the following meanings: 1) sand, 2) gravel, 3) metal dust, 4) place of performance in a circus, 5) field of activity. In Russian, the word arena is used only in the 4th and 5th meanings.

Another example: the Spanish word argumento has the following meanings: 1) argument, argument, proof, 2) plot, theme, 3) summary. In Russian, this word is used only in the first meaning.

2. The scope of the meaning of a Russian word can be wider than the scope of the meaning of the corresponding Spanish word. For example, the term automaton corresponds to following values in Spanish: aparato automatico, automata, telefono automatico (publico), metralleta. Therefore, when translating from Russian, you need to remember that an automaton is not always automata in Spanish.

Spanish-speaking students already at the initial stage of study, when the main task is to develop oral communication skills, actually know a relatively large group of Russian words. When talking, for example, on the topic “Transport”, these words are taxi, motor, kilometer, asphalt, as well as pilot, aviation, etc. When discussing the topic “Art”, students are familiar with the words theater, balcony, lobby, intermission, drama, comedy without translation , opera, theme, idea, prologue, epilogue, artist, plot, score, composition, motive, melody, rhythm, note, realism, romanticism, etc. Students are also familiar with the names of many professions: agronomist, astronomer, physician, mathematician, teacher, pilot, chemist, philologist, etc. Students who study medicine and plan to become doctors understand the words clinic, medicine, glucose, bacterium, operation, function, organ, course, muscle, organism, anatomy, artery, epidemic, etc.

Thus, the analysis of internationalisms in the Russian language indicates that Spanish-speaking students who begin to study the Russian language can be sure that they already know about 10% of the words of the Russian language. This will help students feel confident and master the Russian language faster.

Literature:

1. Krysin words in modern Russian /. – M., 1968. – 346 p.

2. Matveev international vocabulary (in a Spanish audience) // Russian language abroad. – 1985. – No. 1. – P. 43-46

3. Shan of modern Russian language /. – M., 1964. – 315 p.

FATKHULLIN MANSUR MARSELEVICH

In modern linguistic literature, the problem of international vocabulary is receiving more and more attention. This is explained by the significant and steadily increasing role played by international words and terms in various areas of linguistic activity. In particular, the importance of international vocabulary for the translation of both fiction and - especially - specialized prose, where internationalisms turn out to be the most easily perceived elements of a foreign text. Also, modern educational technologies are equipped with international vocabulary. Understanding this terminology rather than rote memorization is much more important.

The practical significance of the work lies in the classification of international terminology borrowed in the 20th and 21st centuries and the determination of the possibilities for further use of this classification and conclusions on them in English and Russian.

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MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"ZAIN SECONDARY SCHOOL No. 1"

FOURTH REGIONAL HUMANITIES DISCIPLES CONFERENCE

“AND WE WILL SAVE YOU, RUSSIAN SPEECH...”

SECTION "LINGUISTICS"

RESEARCH WORK

ON THE TOPIC "INTERNATIONAL VOCABULARY IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE"

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INTERNATIONAL VOCABULARY IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION "ZAINSKAYA SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL No. 1"

The subject of the study is how international vocabulary in modern level development of society affects the process of interlingual communication

The purpose of this work is to study international vocabulary in the Russian language.

Tasks: . Determining the place of international vocabulary among borrowings in general. . Classification of international vocabulary. . Consideration of the peculiarities of its use in Russian.

Research methods Comparative and comparative method. Empirical material: -Dictionary of foreign words (); -Fasmer M. Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language (); - Shansky N.M. Ivanov V.V. Shanskaya T.V. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language. M.: Education 1971. 542 pp.; - Electronic dictionary"What's happened" ().

Antoine Meillet French linguist, one of the outstanding linguists of the 20th century. Even at the beginning of the twentieth century, he raised the issue of the historical layers of such words (internationalisms)

Ancient culture and world culture International lexical units with Greek or Latin origin. Anti-, pre-, ultra-, extra-, - ism, -ist.

International vocabulary of English origin bank, business, consult, disk, drive, hit, market, media, style, test

Internationalisms are “lexical units functioning in several (at least three) world languages, similar in sound, graphic and semantic form, resulting from language contact and expressing concepts common to many cultures from the fields of science, technology, business, politics, art , means of communication". - A.E. Knights

Division of international vocabulary Five areas of European-American peoples former USSR Near and Middle East Indian Ocean East Asian

European-American English French Russian

Compare Russian English French immunity immunity immunite ́

Classifications of borrowings 1. Borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​2. Borrowings from Greek and Latin (church vocabulary). 3. Borrowings during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (some of the obscene language, for example, has this origin). 4. Borrowings from the German language (in the era of Peter the Great). 5. Borrowings from the French language (in the 18th - 19th centuries). 6. A large number of borrowings came into the Russian language after the collapse of the USSR

Borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​Varyag, blubber, whip, chest, pud, herring, yabednik

Borrowings from Greek and Latin (church vocabulary) Bible, Gospel, prosphora, angel, apostle

Borrowings during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke Money, treasury, customs. bazaar, booth, profit, grocery

Borrowings from the German language (in the era of Peter the Great) Faculty - faculty, cabinet - cabinet, engineer - engineer quartz - quartz

Borrowings from the French language (in the 18th - 19th centuries) jabot - jabot biography - biography, genre - genre

Borrowings after the collapse of the USSR Internet - Internet scanner - scanner manager - manager stylist - stylist image maker - image - maker

Internationalisms of Russian origin Perestroika reflects the realities of Russia - perestroika

Assimilation of borrowed vocabulary in German - Johann (Johann) in Finnish and Estonian - Johan in Spanish - Juan in Italian - Giovanni in English - John (John) in Russian - Ivan in Polish - Jan in French - Jean (Jean) in Georgian - Ivane in Armenian - Hovhannes in Portuguese - Joan in Bulgarian - He

Reasons for the emergence of international vocabulary 1. Borrowing a word together with borrowing a thing or concept. car, TV, laser, computer, names of new professions: merchandiser, supervisor, manager 2. Tendency to replace descriptive names with one-word ones. Sniper - instead of a marksman, motel - instead of a hotel for autotourists, sprint - instead of sprinting

Interesting forecast By 2020, there will be 2 billion people in the world who speak English, of which only 300 million will speak English as their first language.

State educational institution of the highest professional standard

Leningradsky state university named after A.S. Pushkin

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Department of English Philology

Thesis.

International vocabulary in English and Russian languages

St. Petersburg, 2008

Introduction

The subject of the thesis research is to consider the state of international vocabulary at the current level of development of society and its impact on the process of interlingual communication.

The purpose of this thesis is to study international vocabulary in English and Russian. To address this topic, the following tasks are set:

1. Determining the place of international vocabulary among borrowings in general.

2. Classification of international vocabulary.

3. Consideration of the features of its use in English and Russian languages.

4. Consideration of the difficulties associated with translating international vocabulary (the so-called “false friends of the translator”).

Currently, linguists in many countries have noted an extraordinary increase in the evolution of languages ​​of various types. This is due, first of all, to the scientific and technological revolution, which affected almost all countries globe, serious political and social changes, development of mass media.

New words are formed using word-formation means inherent in the system of a given language, and by borrowing foreign words that adapt to a certain linguistic structure. Increased productivity of some linguistic means contributes to the social need of society for certain groups of vocabulary.

Strengthening the interaction of languages ​​with the increasing role of cultural and economic ties between peoples leads to the formation of a special fund of international vocabulary, available in both related and unrelated languages. In the languages ​​of Europe, the main fund of international words consists of borrowings from Greek and Latin, in the Near and Middle East - from Arabic and Persian, in the Far East - from Chinese language. International words relate primarily to the field of special terminology of various branches of science and technology.

The category of international vocabulary (or internationalisms) includes words that exist in several languages, while having a similar plan of expression and identical meaning (at least one). Specific gravity internationalisms in a number of languages ​​are quite large (for example, in the active dictionary of Russian, English, German and French there are more than 10% of them). The flow of words from one language into another is not mechanical and spontaneous process. It is due to many factors, and, above all, historical development, the need to communicate with other peoples - regardless of the reasons (trade, wars, friendly relations).

The reasonable use of borrowings does not come to the detriment of the development of the native language as a whole, but is combined with it and acts to improve it and improve it, because, in the words of M. Gorky, “the language should be simple, clear, precise - then it is beautiful, then everything "What you say in this language will sound strong and clear."

Relevance of the topic. In modern linguistic literature, the problem of international vocabulary is receiving more and more attention. This is explained by the significant and steadily increasing role played by international words and terms in the most diverse areas of linguistic activity, one way or another connected with the processes of contact and comparison of languages. In particular, the importance of international and pseudo-international vocabulary for the translation of both fiction and - especially - specialized prose, where internationalisms turn out to be the most easily perceived elements of a foreign text, is well known. Very important this category words for the methodology of teaching foreign languages, as well as for the practice of interlinguistics, where the vocabulary of the most common international auxiliary languages, such as Interlingua and, above all, Esperanto, is based mainly on the internationalisms of modern European languages.

The scientific novelty of this work is determined by the study of a layer of new (XX-XXI centuries) international vocabulary.

The theoretical significance lies in considering the reasons and areas of borrowing international vocabulary in the 20th - 21st centuries.

The practical significance of the work lies in the classification of international terminology borrowed in the 20th and 21st centuries and the determination of the possibilities for further use of these classifications and conclusions on them in English and Russian.

The research methods of this work are:

1. Continuous sampling method.

2. Comparative method.

The sources of empirical material were the following dictionaries:

1. ABBYY Lingvo 12 2006;

2. Oxford Dictionary Of English Etymology (http://www.etymonline.com/);

3. Hornby A. S. Advanced learner's dictionary of current English;

4. Larousse Pocket dictionary (English - French) 2005. 388 pp.;

5. Dictionary of foreign words (http://slov.h1.ru/);

6. Moskvin A. Yu. Large dictionary of foreign words. M.: Tsentrpoligraf 2001. 816 p.;

7. Vasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language (http://vasmer.narod.ru);

8. Shansky N.M. Ivanov V.V. Shanskaya T.V. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language. M.: Education 1971. 542 pp.;

9. Electronic dictionary “What is” (http://www.chtotakoe.info/).

Chapter I. The place of internationalisms among borrowed vocabulary

1.1 International vocabulary

First of all, it is necessary to define what international vocabulary is.

One of the first linguists to draw attention to the presence of similar lexical units was Antoine Meillet (French linguist, one of the outstanding linguists of the 20th century). Even at the beginning of the twentieth century, he raised the issue of the historical layers of such words (internationalisms) [Ganya, 1989: 4]. With the appearance of the works of another researcher (E. Richter) at the beginning of the twentieth century, the opinion spread in linguistics that international words are exclusively words of Greco-Latin origin that are found only in European languages. Indeed, traditionally the Greek and Latin languages ​​were considered the sources of international vocabulary, which is explained by the enormous influence exerted by ancient culture on the development of world culture. This explains the presence of a large number of not only international lexical units, but also elements of Greek or Latin origin. These include such affixes as: anti-, pre-, ultra-, extra-, -ism, -ist, etc.

Currently, there is the formation of a special layer of international vocabulary of English origin, explained by the prestige of the English language and its global status in the world. The bulk of international elements of English origin are root morphemes that penetrate into world languages ​​and have the ability to be combined with national affixes. Among those that appear quite often are the words bank, business, consult, design, disk, drive, hit, man, market, media, net, style, test and others. In his study A.E. Rytsareva understands internationalisms as “lexical units functioning in several (at least three) world languages, similar in sound, graphic and semantic form, resulting from language contact and expressing concepts common to many cultures from the fields of science, technology, business, politics , art, means of communication."

From the point of view of the presence of international vocabulary in the vocabulary of a language, all languages ​​of the world can be divided into five areas: European-American, peoples of the former USSR, the Near and Middle East, Indian Ocean and East Asian. [Ganya, 1989: 4] It is clearly seen that in the languages ​​of each group there are quite a lot similar words. For example, Russian, English and French belong to the European-American area (which is most characterized by words of Greek-Latin origin), and if you look at the dictionaries of these languages, you can find a huge number of similar words, such as, for example: revolution - revolution - reмvolution, immunity - immunity - immuniteм, bandit - bandit - bandit (by the way, this word, unlike the previous two, is not of Greek-Latin, but of German origin) and many others.

International vocabulary is considered to satisfy the following criteria:

1. Internationalisms are usually common in at least three languages ​​of different language groups.

2. The words are completely or partially similar in terms of expression (phonetic and graphic aspects).

3. The words are the same in these languages ​​in terms of content (in one or more meanings).

In the 50s - 60s of the previous century, the question of the relationship between the concepts of international words and borrowings arose in linguistics. To resolve it, it is necessary to determine what borrowing is. I. V. Zykova gives the following definition: “A borrowed word or borrowing is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the ... language.” [Zykova, 2006: 103 ] (A borrowed word or borrowing is a word taken from another language, changed phonetically, orthographically and having a changed paradigm according to the norms of the language). The Internet encyclopedia “Krugosvet” gives the following definition of the term “borrowing”: “... the process as a result of which a certain foreign language element (primarily a word or a full-valued morpheme) appears and is fixed in a language; … Borrowing is an integral part of the process of functioning and historical change language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowed vocabulary reflects the facts of ethnic contacts, social, economic and cultural ties between language groups...".

Another definition can be found in the Small Soviet Encyclopedia: “words, as well as elements of words (roots, prefixes, suffixes) and individual expressions in a given language, borrowed from other languages ​​as a result of communication of a given people with other peoples. Borrowings in language include, first of all, international terminology of various fields of human activity: politics, philosophy, art, technology...” [ITU Vol.3, 1958: 975]

Lev Uspensky gives a short and laconic definition: “...the fruits of mutual exchange between languages.” [Uspensky, 1974: 139]

Based on all of the above, we can conclude that internationalism is a special case of borrowing, and, despite the close connection of the phenomena, there are a number of characteristics that distinguish them. So, for example, for international borrowings, tracing is impossible, and for borrowings in general, it is impossible to function in several languages ​​while maintaining the semantic content, sound and graphic shell. In addition, there is another layer of borrowing - internal borrowing [Alatortseva 1998: 186] (naming concepts with already existing words, but belonging to other functional styles), this type of borrowing is not typical for international vocabulary. Thus, we can say that most of the characteristic features of borrowing are also suitable for international vocabulary.

1.2 Borrowings in English and Russian languages

The role of borrowing in various languages is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since for historical reasons it has proven to be very permeable. English, more than any other language, has had the opportunity to borrow foreign words through direct face-to-face contact. First, in the Middle Ages, words were borrowed from the languages ​​of foreign invaders (during the Scandinavian and Roman conquests), and later words were borrowed through active trade and colonial activities. It is believed that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%. This circumstance gave many researchers a reason to exaggerate the importance of borrowings in replenishing the vocabulary of a language. Some scientists (for example, Meillet) [Ganya, 1989: 4] even believed that in developed languages ​​vocabulary is borrowed quite easily, and therefore turns out to be uncharacteristic of the specifics of the language. In fact, borrowing is one of the important ways to enrich vocabulary, but not the only one or even the most important one.

As for the Russian language, we can say that in its vocabulary the percentage of borrowed vocabulary is much less than in English, although the Russian language was influenced by other languages ​​(Mongol-Tatar conquests, active trade with other states, a large number of borrowings during the period baptism of Rus' from Greek and Latin languages, influence of the French language in the 18th - 19th centuries). The main source of replenishment of the vocabulary fund has always been the Russian language’s own resources, in other words, new words that appeared in it were created, first of all, on the basis of Russian roots and affixes themselves. In the vocabulary of modern Russian literary language native Russian words, according to L.A. Novikov, more than 90%.

From the point of view of the formation of the original Russian vocabulary, several historical layers can be found in it: the common Indo-European fund, Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) vocabulary, Old Russian (East Slavic) words and, finally, Russian words proper, which, according to N.M. Shansky, “emerged in it over the period from the 14th century. to the present time. These words already represent a specific affiliation of Russian speech, and their existence in other languages ​​will undoubtedly be a fact of borrowing from our language.”

Words from other languages, together with native Russian words, fully participated in the formation of the vocabulary of the language, therefore, in the lexical composition of the Russian language, foreign words occupy a certain place - words of foreign origin, under the influence of which, together with native Russian words, the lexical fund of the Russian language was replenished. So, the development of Russian vocabulary went in two ways, or in two directions: “New words were created from word-forming elements existing in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed. In addition, new words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples” [Rosenthal et al., 002: 60-61].

1.3 Classifications of borrowings

1.3.1 Genealogical classification

As in the formation of vocabulary, so in borrowing, special time layers are distinguished. They are often associated with the interaction of representatives of one linguistic culture with representatives of the other, more often, as a result certain events(wars, cooperation, trade and so on). The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words in different periods is very different. Depending on specific historical conditions, it either increases or falls. The degree of influence of one language on another depends largely on language factor, namely on the degree of proximity of the interacting languages, that is, on whether they are closely related or not. Most often, in each individual period of time, vocabulary was borrowed from individual languages. Based on this principle, the following layers can be distinguished in the English language: 1. Celtic borrowings. 2. Latin loanwords the first centuries of our era, i.e., who came to the British Isles even before the arrival of the Angles and Saxons (the so-called 1st layer of Latin borrowings).

3. Latin borrowings of the VI-VII centuries, i.e. the era of the introduction of Christianity in England (the so-called 2nd layer of Latin borrowings).

4. Scandinavian borrowings from the era of Scandinavian raids (VIII-IX centuries) and especially the Scandinavian conquest (X century).

5. Old French borrowings (XII-XV centuries), due to the Norman conquest.

6. Latin borrowings of the 15th-16th centuries, i.e. associated with the Renaissance (the so-called 3rd layer of Latin borrowings).

7. New French borrowings after the 16th century.

8. Borrowings from Greek, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages, due to economic, political, cultural, etc. connections with the relevant peoples.

In addition, one can note such a layer of borrowed vocabulary as Sovietisms, i.e. borrowings from the Russian language of the post-October period, reflecting the influence of the advanced social system.

The Russian language is also characterized by a similar division - it has already been mentioned above - here is a more detailed presentation of it:

1. Borrowings from Scandinavian languages.

2. Borrowings from Greek and Latin (church vocabulary).

3. Borrowings during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (some of the obscene language, for example, has this origin).

4. Borrowings from the German language (in the era of Peter the Great).

5. Borrowings from the French language (in the 18th - 19th centuries).

6. A large number of borrowings came into the Russian language after the collapse of the USSR, since the language was deprived of the opportunity to borrow vocabulary for a long time.

It should be noted that this classification is also valid for international vocabulary and will be discussed in the second chapter.

1.3.2 New aspect for the host language

The classification by source of borrowing has been most fully developed, but is not the only possible one. Borrowings can also be classified according to which aspect of the word is new to the receiving language. According to this principle, borrowings are divided into phonetic, calques, semantic and borrowings of word-forming elements.

Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e. accurate reproduction of it by means of the receiving language while maintaining the morphological structure and motivation.

Such tracings are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face, pipe of peace. There are many cripples among Sovietisms: palace of culture, house of rest, holiday home, collective farm. As noted above, this method of borrowing is not typical for international borrowing. And from the examples it is clear that one of the criteria that an international word should have is violated, namely: complete or partial similarity in terms of expression (phonetic and graphic aspects).

Semantic borrowing is understood as the borrowing of a new meaning, often figurative, to a word already existing in the language, a kind of reverse borrowing. The word was borrowed from one language to another, where it acquired a new meaning, and returned back with a new meaning. Semantic borrowings occur especially easily in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among Scandinavian borrowings. So, for example, Old English. verb dwellan to wander, to linger, under the influence of other Scand. Dvelja live. Thus, in terms of sound, dwell goes back to English, and in terms of semantics, to the Scandinavian verb. As for international vocabulary, Sovietisms can serve as striking examples: pioneer (pioneer), initially meaning pioneer, and later borrowed to designate a representative of a children's organization in the USSR. Moreover, there are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs.

Borrowed words enter the language in two ways: through oral and written sources. The first method (phonetic borrowings) is typical for more early stages borrowings, while the second (graphic borrowings) brought later borrowings into languages, as it is associated with written sources and written interaction between speakers of different languages, but this does not mean that modern stage development, phonetic borrowings are impossible, which, in fact, has already been noted above.

Not only a word, but also individual meaningful parts of a word can be borrowed. Morphemes are borrowed, of course, not in isolation, but in words: if some foreign language morphemes are included in a larger number of borrowed words, then the morphological structure of these words begins to be realized, and the morphemes themselves are included in the number of word-forming means of the receiving language. Many Greek and latin words turned into international affixes. For example, anti-, inter-, sub-, ultra-, etc. In many languages, Greek suffixes are widely used: -ist, -ism, -isk.

1.4 Assimilation of borrowed vocabulary

When moving from one language to another, a word often undergoes some changes (phonetic, graphic, semantic).

Phonetic changes are associated with differences in the phonetic structure of languages. For example, when borrowing from Russian into English, Russian monophthongs are replaced by diphthongs samovar /Іsжmouґva:/, copeck /ґkoup?k/ and so on. In the absence of graphic correspondences, the receiving language (recipient language [Shkut 1987 p. 8]) is forced to resort to combinations of letters unusual for its graphics. For example, the word tsar (king), borrowed from Russian into English, or the word week-end (French) - weekend (English) - borrowed from English into French and increasingly used in Russian. It should be noted that the letter W in French is used mainly in words of English origin, while in Russian due to the difference in graphic systems (Latin/Cyrillic) english letter w is replaced by the letter combination “y” and the next vowel of the English word (weekend).

Such changes (graphic and phonetic) are easily tracked when proper names move from one language to another (or to several other languages ​​at once). For example, the Russian name Ivan. It turns out that this is a very ancient Jewish name Yehohanan, common among the Jews of Asia Minor. With the spread of Christianity, the names of the prophets began to pass to other nations. Moving to Greek, the name changed to Ioannes, since the sound /h/ turned out to be difficult to pronounce, in addition, the suffix “es”, characteristic of masculine nouns, was added to the name. Further, through Latin, in the process of Christianization, the name spread throughout Europe, each time undergoing more and more changes. Now here's what it sounds like in different languages:

in German - Johann

in Finnish and Estonian - Juhan

in Spanish - Juan

in Italian - Giovanni

in English - John

in Russian - Ivan

in Polish - Jan

in French - Jean

in Georgian - Ivane

in Armenian - Hovhannes

in Portuguese - Joan

in Bulgarian - He [Uspensky 1974 p. 136-137]

That is, languages ​​have adapted this name to their system, and now it sounds like a native, original name for each language; the same thing happens with words, that is, they are assimilated.

What exactly is “assimilation of borrowings”?

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must become entrenched in a new language, firmly enter its vocabulary - just as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, mug, umbrella, shop, cat, horse, dog, monkey, plate, tea, sugar, etc., many of which have become so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign origin.

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. sounds missing from it are replaced with the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain in their pronunciation sounds that are absent in a given language, as, for example, in words borrowed from French German words Chance, Restaurant (both words are pronounced “in the French manner” with a sonorant vowel). In the Russian word jury, borrowed from the same French, a sound that is absent in the Russian language is also pronounced - /zh"/ and so on. In this way, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language occurs.

For a word to enter the system of a borrowing language, the following conditions are required:

1. rendering a foreign word phonetically and grammatically using the borrowing language;

2. correlating the word with grammatical classes and categories of the borrowing language;

3. phonetic and grammatical development of a foreign word;

4. word formation activity of the word;

5. semantic development, namely, certainty of meaning, differentiation of meanings and their shades between words and borrowings that existed in the language;

6. regular use in speech.

However, some conditions are optional, for example, phonetic and grammatical assimilation of the word and its word-formation activity. In the Russian language, the words jam, college, dossier, attaché, coffee, interview and many others are widely used, not assimilated grammatically and not mastered phonetically.

According to I. V. Zykova, the term “borrowing assimilation” is used to denote partial or complete phonetic, morphological, grammatical and semantic adaptation of a word to the systems of the recipient language.

Considering all of the above, according to the degree of assimilation, words can be divided into 3 groups:

1. fully assimilated borrowings;

2. partially assimilated borrowings;

3. unassimilated words.

Fully assimilated borrowings include words that follow morphological, phonetic and orthographic standards. In addition, they take an active role in word-formation processes and can be found in the language not only in free form, but also modified with the help of affixes. Fully assimilated words can be found among the layers of early borrowings. But even completely assimilated words do not retain their semantic structure, that is, not all meanings of a word are transferred to the recipient language.

Partially assimilated words can be divided into 4 groups:

1. Not completely assimilated graphically. This phenomenon is typical for languages ​​that have the same alphabet.

2. Not completely assimilated phonetically. This is expressed, for example, in maintaining the stress characteristic of the donor language (for example: cardboard, cartoon - borrowing from French); preserving a combination of sounds that are uncharacteristic of the recipient language.

3. Not fully assimilated grammatically. This phenomenon is expressed in the preservation of grammatical forms of the word characteristic of the donor language (plural forms of borrowings from Greek and Latin into English; the absence of a declension category in some nouns borrowed into the Russian language).

4. Not completely assimilated semantically, since most often they reflect the culture of the country of the donor language.

Non-assimilated words most often include words used in colloquial speech. They usually have equivalents in the recipient language of original origin. For example, the widespread greeting words chao (Italian) or salute (French); or an English borrowing used when saying goodbye bye-bye (so-called xenisms).

1.5 "False friends of the translator"

International words that completely coincide in meaning are quite rare. Meanwhile, words associated and identified (due to similarity in terms of expression) in two languages ​​in terms of content or use do not fully correspond or even completely do not correspond to each other. That is why words of this type were called faux amis du traducteur in French linguistics - “false friends of the translator.” The typology of differences in the field of international vocabulary in languages ​​can be divided into three large groups of differences: semantic, historical and stylistic.

Semantic inconsistencies are often due to the fact that in one language a word can have more than one general meaning, and in the other - more specific. Moving from one language to another, a word can retain all its semantic features, then we can talk about reproducing the semantic structure of the word; if there is a change in at least one semantic feature of the borrowed word (etymon), then we are talking about a transformation of the semantic structure of the word. [Bipper 1976 p.7] The word password in Russian has a single meaning: a specific conventional word, phrase or object that is used to identify one’s people in military service or in secret organizations. The French parole carries the following meanings: word, promise, text, statement, slogan, ability to communicate, speaking, and speech itself. Reproduction of the semantic structure of a word more often occurs when borrowing an unambiguous word (for example: a term is borrowed as a term: cubism, cubism is a term borrowed from the French language as a term denoting a direction in art); as for polysemantic words, then reproducing the semantic structure of a word is possible, but it happens extremely rarely. Such words are characterized by a transformation of the semantic structure of the word, that is, the loss of some semantic features.

Historically, the “false friends of the translator” are the result of mutual influences of languages. In a limited number of cases, they can arise as a result of random coincidences, and in related, especially closely related languages, they are based on related words that go back to common prototypes in the base language. Their total number and the role of each possible source in their formation turn out to be different for each specific language, determined by their genetic and historical connections.

Another type of inconsistency is in the area of ​​style. A number of meanings of an international word in one language can be neutral, standardized; in another language - to belong, for example, to a sublime, bookish style. The discrepancy between emotional and expressive coloring is especially often manifested in the figurative meanings of words. Word related to neutral vocabulary in one language, may be stylistically colored in another. The word combinator means a person prone to combinations, achieving success through complex combinations, tricks; French word combinateur has a single meaning of switch and refers to technical vocabulary. The Italian combinatore has two meanings: organizer, combinator and switch. The most common differences in English-Russian comparisons are in functional and stylistic colors, i.e. in the permissibility of using words predominantly or exclusively in certain styles of speech.

1.6 Reasons for the emergence of international vocabulary

The reasons for borrowing can be external (extra-linguistic) and internal (intra-linguistic).

External reasons for borrowings (extralinguistic):

1. The main external reason is the borrowing of a word together with the borrowing of a thing or concept. For example, with the advent of such realities as a car, radio, cinema, television, laser, computer, the names of new professions: merchandiser, supervisor, manager and many others, their names also entered languages. Most borrowings are associated with the development of science, technology, culture, economics, industrial relations. Many of these words become firmly established in life, and then lose their novelty and become active. vocabulary. So, in the 50-70s. XX century A large number of terms related to the development of astronautics have appeared: cosmonaut, satellite, etc. Today, all these words have become commonly used.

2. Another external reason for borrowing is the designation of some special type items. The need for specialization of objects and concepts leads to the borrowing of scientific and technical terms: relevant (English) (relevant); local (lat.) (local - English); compression (lat.) (compression - English); pilot (French) (pilote).

3. One of the most important reasons for the emergence of international vocabulary is globalization, increasing international interaction, which naturally leads to the emergence of all more internationalisms in the languages ​​of the world.

Intralingual reasons for borrowing (linguistic):

1. The intralingual reason for borrowing, characteristic of most languages ​​(for example, Russian), is the tendency to replace descriptive names with single-word ones. For example: sniper - instead of marksman, motel - instead of a hotel for auto tourists, sprint - instead of short-distance running, etc.

2. Another intralingual factor that contributes to the borrowing of foreign words is the strengthening in the language of borrowed words with a certain morphological structure (in this case, borrowing a new foreign word is significantly easier). For example, words meaning persons and common element-men. Currently similar words constitute a fairly significant group: businessman, congressman, crossman, athlete, etc. Conclusions on Chapter I

Thus, we can say that the ever-increasing international communication, rapprochement and unification of states, for example, the European Union, which united 25 European states, with a single currency and an almost complete absence of borders, undoubtedly contribute to the emergence of an increasing amount of international vocabulary. In addition, the emergence of internationalism is greatly influenced by scientific and technological progress and the dissemination of its achievements throughout the world. Also, among the main reasons for the emergence of international vocabulary, one can note the media, that is, the emergence printed publications, radio stations and television channels broadcasting in several countries simultaneously (BBC, for example, covers more than 70 countries), the emergence of the worldwide computer network Internet.

According to some linguists, subsequently the abundance of international borrowings can lead to the emergence of an interlanguage. There are already artificial international languages, based on internationalisms, for example, Esperanto.

Internationalism, as it turned out above, is a special case of borrowing and has mostly signs of borrowing, but not by all.

It is impossible to say whether the internationalization of vocabulary is a positive or negative phenomenon. Each phenomenon has its pros and cons: on the one hand, the internationalization of vocabulary simplifies communication between representatives of different linguistic cultures, on the other hand, the uniqueness and originality of the language is lost and it becomes similar to other languages. But we must not forget that language is a living organism, and it grows and develops and chooses what it needs; Accordingly, internationalization of vocabulary is necessary for languages, especially recently.

Chapter II. Classification of international vocabulary

In the first chapter, examples of the classification of borrowed vocabulary were given; for the most part, they are also valid for international borrowings, but in this case there are some peculiarities.

It would be logical to start with a genealogical classification, since it is this that shows the source, era and circumstances of the borrowing of a word by several languages ​​at once. In order for a certain lexical unit to be accepted by several languages ​​at once, the following conditions are necessary:

1. Interaction of several linguistic cultures at once;

2. The presence of the designated concept in several cultures whose languages ​​accept the word.

Thus, to classify international vocabulary, it is necessary to consider periods of active international communication and its reasons. One of the earliest layers of international borrowings of our era can be considered the period of the spread of Christianity. It began in the 1st century AD and continued until the 9th century (and even later). Naturally, with the spread of Christianity, the holy book of this religion, the “Bible,” spread widely, and with its spread, words denoting the realities of this religion penetrated into the languages ​​of Europe (and then into others). However, the borrowings of this period represent a much more voluminous layer, since in connection with the further development of religion, new phenomena and concepts appeared in it that required nomination.

A fairly large number of borrowings from this era consist of proper names: the names of apostles, saints (an example of borrowing the name Ivan is given above). And, it goes without saying, common nouns were also borrowed in fairly large quantities.

Table No. 1

The table below shows a small number of international borrowings during this period. But even from this example it can be judged that most of the borrowings were successfully assimilated, since the words belong to the early period of borrowings. As can be seen from the example, most of this vocabulary is of Greco-Latin origin, and this is quite understandable, since after the destruction of Jerusalem the importance of the church center passes to the Roman Empire, which becomes the cradle of Catholicism.

It should be noted that the international borrowing of religious vocabulary is true for the spread of any religion, not just Christianity:

Table No. 2

As the examples from tables No. 1 and No. 2 show, international religious terms have the origin of the language in whose culture the religion originated. The next period of spread of international vocabulary is the 4 periods of the scientific and technological revolution.

The first scientific and technological revolution dates back to the 17th century. Then there was a breakthrough in the field of physics and astronomy. It was this period that was associated with the discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, and Newton. This period was more productive for the English language. It makes sense to combine this period with the next one. internationalism borrowed vocabulary assimilation

The second scientific and technological revolution occurred in late XVIII- beginning of the 19th century. This period is associated with the names of Maxwell and Boltzmann. Medicine, physics, and science in general are developing. The above factors contributed to the formation of a powerful layer of international vocabulary.

Table No. 3

The vocabulary borrowed during this period came from different languages ​​and at different stages of development. Thus, this layer of vocabulary can be classified in even more detail according to such principles as: the source of borrowing (that is, the donor language), the time of borrowing and the sphere of use and the degree of assimilation.

Borrowing source

Among the selected material there are words of French, German, Latin, Greek, English and Swedish origin.

56% of the vocabulary borrowed by the Russian language is of French origin (moreover, 40% were borrowed in the 18th century, and the remaining 16% in the 19th century.) 13% of the vocabulary was borrowed by the Russian language from German, 4% from English, the rest came from other languages ​​(Latin, Italian, Swedish). In English, 58% of words are of French origin, 22% are of Latin origin, 6% are Italian, 4% are German and English words each, the remaining words come from other languages ​​(Greek, Swedish).

Only 60% of the vocabulary has the same donor language (often these are borrowings from the French language - 48% of the vocabulary selected for a given period): salad - salade, press - press, alley - alley, (French borrowings); quartz - quartz, (German borrowings); piano - piano (Italian borrowing) and navigation - navigation (Latin borrowing).

This discrepancy can be explained by the fact that England and Russia interacted with different states during this period. For example, in the 18th century, Russia actively interacted with Germany (the period of the reign of Peter I), therefore this period is characterized by borrowings from the German language, while in the English language the same words were borrowed both from German and from French and Latin or are native English vocabulary. In addition, it should be noted that the German language often acted as an intermediary between the Russian language and the donor language (Latin: laboratory - laboratorium, faculty - facultus; French: engineer - inginiur, cabinet - cabinet, English: packet - packet) . The French language also plays the role of an intermediary, but much less frequently than German (the donor language is German: communism - Kommunismus, Arabic: jasmine - jвsmin, Latin: secret - secretus), that is, words borrowed by German from other languages ​​were subsequently borrowed from it in Russian.

Borrowing time

22% of words were borrowed into Russian and English almost simultaneously. Moreover, most often, these words denote a concept that has just appeared, for example: dynamite (XIX century), kerosene - kerosene (XIX century), gramophone - gramophone (XIX century), quartz - quartz (XVIII century), cutlet - cutlet (XVIII century). 64% of the vocabulary selected for this work was borrowed into the Russian language in the 18th century, the rest - in the 19th century. As for the English language, 50% of the vocabulary entered the English language in the 16th century or earlier, 26% in the 17th century, 12% in the 18th century, and 12% in the 19th century.

This can be explained by the fact that Great Britain has always been a more open country, that is, it actively interacted with other countries through trade, wars, colonization, while Russia, due to special circumstances(mentality, consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke), developed scientifically and technologically more slowly than Great Britain and had less contact with other countries.

Vocabulary borrowed at the same time and having the same donor language is even less - 18%. It was already noted above that 22% of the vocabulary was borrowed almost simultaneously, thus, it is clear that the vocabulary borrowed at the same time was borrowed from the same language, and most often named a concept that either just arose or was from the same linguistic culture passed into others: linoleum - linoleum (donor language - English, 19th century), dynamite - dynamite (donor language - Swedish, 19th century), cardboard - cartoon (donor language - French, 18th century), frill - jabot ( donor language - French, XVIII century), communism - communism (donor language - French, XIX century).

Scope of use

Borrowings from the French language of this period are diverse; they denote everyday concepts, such as clothing (jabot), cooking (cutlet, salade), hygiene (shower); literary terms(biography - biography, genre - genre), political terms (communism - communism). International vocabulary of German origin is mainly associated with educational and work activities (faculty, cabinet, engineer) or special terminology (quartz).

Degree of assimilation

For the most part, international borrowings of this period were successfully assimilated. However, there are words that are partially assimilated: jabot /ґjжb?u/, ballet /ґbжlei/ or /Іbжґlei/ - these words have retained the pronunciation of the donor language.

We can conclude that the most productive language in this period is French. This is easily explained, since the French language was very popular at that time. In Russia, the upper strata of society communicated with each other in French. And England and France, being geographically closer and having more opportunities for interaction, began to contact much earlier, and this explains the fact that words were borrowed into English earlier than into Russian.

The next global period of the emergence of international vocabulary can be read as the 20th century. At this time, active international interaction takes place, in addition, science and technology are developing, all this leads to the emergence of another layer of international borrowing. (The material selected for this period is given in the Appendix; Table No. 2)

Both in the previous period and in this one, there are words borrowed at different times and from different languages. However, the layer of such vocabulary during this period of borrowing is much smaller: about 9%. A little less than 11% of the vocabulary is from different donor languages; about 12% of the vocabulary was borrowed at different times. In most cases, this is due to the fact that the designated phenomenon came into the Russian language later than into English, or had its own name and was later renamed (office - office (previously this concept was called: bureau, office, office), tractor - tractor ( with the advent of the concept came the nomination). Thus, the vocabulary of a given period of borrowing can be classified in more detail according to such principles as: the source of borrowing (that is, the donor language), the time of borrowing and the sphere of use and degree of assimilation.

Source of borrowing The donor languages ​​in this period of borrowing were French (centimeter, pacifism), Greek (psychoanalysis), English (shorts, cooler), Russian (Sovietisms: Bolshevik), Hungarian and others languages.

1.5% of the international vocabulary of this period is of Hungarian origin, 3% each of the vocabulary of German and Greek origin, 6% are borrowed from the Russian language (the so-called “Sovietisms”), 10.5% are borrowed from the French language and about: 61.5% are borrowed from the English language.

Borrowing time

88% of the selected vocabulary was borrowed in the 20th century, but this period can be divided into 3: the beginning of the 20th century, the middle and end of the 20th - the beginning of the 21st century. This division is most clearly visible in the example of internationalisms of English origin.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, technical terms can be attributed, such as: speedometer - speedometer, bumper - bumper (mechanical engineering), diode - diode, resistor - resistor and so on.

In the middle of the twentieth century, there was a slight decline in the borrowing of Anglicisms, this is due to the USSR and the Russian language. But still some borrowings occurred. Most often they were associated with the emergence of a foreign concept (jeans).

But after perestroika, a period of compensation for the borrowing of international vocabulary begins. This vocabulary belongs to the computer field, since this industry is actively developing (Internet, scanner), new professions are appearing and, accordingly, the need for nomination (manager, stylist, image-maker).

Scope of use

The layer of international vocabulary of English origin is the most voluminous. Here are presented lexical units belonging to a variety of functional styles, ranging from colloquial (drive, OK, glamor) and neutral (shorts, sweater) to scientific (diode, reducer). The scope of use is also very wide: technical language(starter - starter, generator - generator) and, as noted above, computer language (printer - printer, CD - compact disk). Whereas French borrowings belong mainly to scientific (centimeter - centimeter) and colloquial styles and are used in colloquial speech or in industry. Internationalisms of Russian origin reflect the realities of Russia (perestroika), German internationalisms, like French ones, belong to the scientific functional style (aspirin).

Degree of assimilation

Most of the borrowings of this period have already been successfully assimilated, although it should be noted that words of French origin retain the emphasis on the last syllable in Russian: margarine, pacifism, guipure.

In addition, in the Russian language at the present stage of development there are international words of English origin that are quite often used in colloquial speech, are absolutely not assimilated and do not even have a graphic expression in Cyrillic (DVD, VHS, SMS, MMS, GPRS, flash card). But they are already widely used in speech, and, perhaps, in the near future they will firmly enter the Russian language.

In Chapter I it was mentioned that international vocabulary, according to some linguists, represents words of Greco-Latin origin, but in fact this is not entirely true. There are many words that do not have Greco-Latin roots, but about? vocabulary from the selected material is either of Greco-Latin origin or derived from words of Greco-Latin origin.

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Adjectives as part of phraseological units of English and Turkish languages. Lexico-semantic characteristics of adjectives in Turkish and Russian languages. Word-formation features of adjectives in Turkish, English and Russian languages.

thesis, added 11/11/2011


Internationalisms are words that have a superficially similar form and some of the same meanings in different languages. Study of the layer of international vocabulary in English. Common mistakes that students encounter when working with interlexics.

practical work, added 04/20/2012


Euphemia in modern English and Russian languages. Functions, themes and purposes of euphemization of speech. The phenomenon of euphemism in linguistic literature. The role of euphemisms in political speeches. Means of creating euphemisms in Russian and English, euphemistic phrases.

thesis, added 05/29/2010


Borrowed vocabulary: concept, scope of functioning, classification. Sources of borrowings in English. Transcription, transliteration and tracing. Difficulties in translating international vocabulary. Practical analysis transfer of borrowings.

A special group consists of international words. It often happens that, denoting a new important concept, a word is borrowed not into one language, but into many languages. Thus, an international fund of vocabulary is being created, which includes international terminology of various fields of human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, as well as many abstract words.

The main part of the international vocabulary consists of terms from the field of science and technology (geography, history, philosophy, logic, aspirin, flu, microscope, telegraph), socio-political life (party, constitution, socialism, communism, revolution, dictatorship, administration, republic) , economics (import, export, bank, credit, interest), literature and art (drama, comedy, tragedy, poet, opera, ballet, style).

International or international words, borrowed from one source, have graphic and sound similarities and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute, as it were, the common property of a number of languages. Most of them are the result of parallel enrichment of new languages ​​at the expense of the vocabulary of the ancient ones, i.e. Latin and Greek (democracydemocracia, philosophyfilosofа, atomбtomo, satellitesatйlite, synonymsinуnimo, rhythm itmo). The other part comes from modern languages:

· Soviet, kolkhoz, sputnik - from Russian

Revolution, bourgeois - from French

· Sonata, soprano - from Italian

· Corrida, sombrero - from Spanish

International words do not include related correspondences, i.e. words, the presence of which in a number of languages ​​is a consequence of the relationship of these languages ​​and their origin from one language - the basis:

English mother Spanish madre Russian mother

English nose isp. nariz Russian nose

English goose Spanish ganso Russian goose

Thus, if the term “borrowed vocabulary” is understood as “words, morphemes, sounds, meanings moved from one language to another,” then following A.E. Rytsareva, we believe that internationalisms, as well as international words, can be considered lexical units that function in several (at least three) world languages, are similar in sound, graphic and semantic form, are a consequence of language contact and express concepts common to many cultures from the fields of science, technology, business, politics, art, and communications.

Internationalisms of Greek origin:

In a narrow sense, international vocabulary is scientific and technical terminology built on the basis of Latin and ancient Greek.

Such terminology is present in all European languages ​​(except Icelandic), including the Romance languages ​​(which themselves derive from Latin) and modern Greek, such as the word television. Many words borrowed from Greek are so mastered by the language that they cease to be felt as foreign, and their foreign origin can only be revealed etymological analysis. Thus, in the Russian language the words ship, bed, notebook, lantern, and letter are not felt at all as borrowed words. A significant number of borrowings of the English language (e.g. `rural` (`rural`) - from Latin `ruralis`, `rus`, `ruris` (`village`, `arable land`, `field`); `cardiac` (`heart` ) - from Greek `kardiakos`, `kardia` (`heart`)

Internationalisms of English origin:

Due to US dominance in science and technology, large number English terms was borrowed into almost all languages ​​of the world, and this process of borrowing continues today. Although many English words themselves ultimately derive from Latin, there is a growing tendency for borrowing to retain English pronunciation rather than reconstruct traditional Latin (for example: combine, confinement, Unicode).

Internationalisms of Arab origin:

In the languages ​​of those peoples where the Muslim religion predominates, the bulk of scientific, philosophical and religious terms were borrowed from Arabic (partly also Persian). When using Arabic writing, the original Arabic writing is preserved. Such words as “caliph”, “algebra”, “alcohol” were borrowed from Arabic.

Internationalisms of Chinese origin:

In the countries of Eastern and Southeast Asia The dominance of Chinese culture has led to the borrowing of a large number of Chinese words into local languages. Where Chinese writing took root (in Korea and Japan), Chinese words borrowed from in writing, that is, they continued to be written with the same hieroglyphs. Words directly related to realities are borrowed into the Russian language, the names of dishes “pian-se”, “nian-gao”, “lagman”; names of martial arts “kung fu”, “wushu”.

Internationalisms of Russian origin:

Some languages ​​use words of Russian origin, mainly associated with the scientific, internal political and cultural achievements of Russia and Soviet Union, for example, “perestroika”, “sputnik”, “vodka”, “matryoshka”.

International vocabulary is of great methodological interest in teaching practice and requires special attention and a special approach.