Modern history

To be deleted|May 29, 2008 Modern history- the period in human history following Recent history. The period covers only a little over sixty years. Modern history begins with the end of World War II in 1945.

This time was marked by the appearance popular culture and the creation of a consumer society in the West.

The confrontation between two worldviews - communism and capitalism - gave a powerful impetus to the development of science and technology, mass culture and tools for manipulation human consciousness(television, radio, internet, cinema, printed publications), globalism, etc.

In December 1991, the USSR collapsed, which changed the whole world. Now the world has become not bipolar, but multipolar. Communist buildings began to be dismantled state apparatuses, being replaced by state apparatuses of the “democratic” type. In 2003, the war in Iraq began, which changed the government to “democratic”. Around the same time, the “orange” revolutions began in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

Since 1985, thanks to the efforts of Commodore Int., gaming personal computers began to actively spread throughout the world. IBM Company, in turn, released the first personal business computer. The explosive growth of a new industry direction has begun - the production of computers and software for them. In the 80s, the Internet began to develop no less actively.

Periods Modern history

Cold War

See also

* Post-industrial society

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It is believed that the first people lived in Africa. This is indicated by the fossils found and the results of genetic studies. However, scientists from China have a different point of view. They revised the theory of evolution, creating their own version. is figuring out whether their research deserves serious attention or is it just another example of marginal science.

Homo everywhere

There are two main hypotheses about the origin of modern man. The first - multiregional - was proposed in 1984. According to it, the immediate ancestor of man - the archanthropus, or Homo erectus - came from Africa and settled throughout Eurasia during the early and middle Pleistocene. Its individual populations gave rise to all modern races sapiens: Caucasians, Negroids, Mongoloids and Australoids. In addition, supporters of the multiregional hypothesis believe that Neanderthals, erectus, and Denisovans belong to the same species - humans (Homo) - and are simply its separate forms. And myself common ancestor people lived approximately 2.3-2.8 million years ago.

Main argument in favor of this hypothesis are fossils of sapiens, archanthropes (the same erecti) and other ancient people. The remains found throughout Eurasia, according to supporters of this theory, indicate the regional continuity of certain human traits. In other words, modern man arose several times.

But there is a significant problem - multiregionalism contradicts scientific ideas about evolution. Yes, in evolutionary theory there is a concept of parallelism when different types animals arise independently of each other common features. For example, the streamlined body shape and fins of sharks and dolphins. This makes the animals similar, but not close relatives. Or the eyes: in squids, mammals and insects they are so anatomically different that one cannot even assume the existence of some kind of common “ancestral” organ. However, with people it is different.

The multiregional hypothesis is mercilessly refuted by genetic data. Back in 1987, analysis of human mitochondrial DNA (it is inherited only from mothers) showed that we are all descendants of one woman who lived about 200 thousand years ago, the so-called Mitochondrial Eve (has nothing in common with her namesake from the Bible). Naturally, she lived among other people, but only her mitochondrial DNA was inherited by everyone alive today Homo sapiens, including Asians, Australians and Africans.

This finding is incompatible with multiregionalism. Humans had one ancestor, not several scattered around the planet. And 200 thousand years is much less than two million years. This, of course, does not answer the question of when sapiens arose: Mitochondrial Eve herself was a sapiens, like her parents. However, new information speaks in favor of the second main hypothesis of human origin - African.

Everyone was black

This hypothesis suggests that the first humans were anatomically modern type appeared in Africa. From here came different branches of sapiens, including pygmies and bushmen. According to Alexander Kozintsev, a researcher at the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, it was on this continent that a unique mini-version of multiregionalism could be realized. Apparently, many different African groups formed here, and some of them gave rise to sapiens. Moreover, representatives of different branches came into contact, which ultimately led to the formation of modern humans as a single species.

Multiregionalism in its more global version is not capable of ensuring the genetic unity of all Homo sapiens. Otherwise, supporters of this archaic hypothesis would have to assume that populations of ancient people on different continents somehow interacted with each other. But there is no evidence of such intercontinental contacts in the Pleistocene.

Sapiens left Africa approximately 70-50 thousand years ago. Spreading across Eurasia, they displaced Neanderthals and Denisovan people, occasionally interbreeding with them. If modern humans descended from Neanderthals, as multiregionalists suggest, their mitochondrial DNA would have been little different from ours. However, as decoding of the genome showed Homo neanderthalensis, there is a deep genetic gap between us and them.

War on Darwinism

Nevertheless, attempts to rehabilitate this hypothesis continue. Thus, geneticist Shi Huang from Central southern university in China and an ardent opponent of Darwinism decided to strike at genetic evidence. He published a preprint of the article in the bioRxiv repository.

A Chinese scientist has criticized the molecular clock method used to estimate the genetic distance between various types. The point is this. With the change of generations in DNA certain type With constant speed neutral mutations accumulate, which do not affect its survival in any way (this matters, since harmful mutations are rejected, and useful ones occur quite rarely). Related species also accumulate mutations at the same rate. Therefore, species of the same genus differ more or less equally from each other, while species of different genera have more differences.

Thus, the molecular clock is not only a tool for identifying family ties between species. They can be used to roughly determine when one species separated from another. “Approximately” is the key word.

The fact is that, for all its usefulness, molecular clocks have a number of disadvantages. The main one is that mutation rates are not always constant. This is influenced by certain factors that can slow down or accelerate mutations. For example, new repeated DNA sequences may arise, representing “hot spots” of random changes. As a result, species that are close in evolutionary terms turn out to be more distant according to the molecular clock than species that are not so related. Thus, multiregionalists like to point out that there are more differences between the mtDNA of different chimpanzees than there are between the mtDNA of humans and Neanderthals. That is, the genetic gap separating us and H.neanderthalensis supposedly ceases to mean anything.

Shi Huang goes further and tries to prove that the generally accepted mechanism of evolution does not work. To explain why the molecular clock fails, he proposes a controversial and purely speculative theory, which he calls the maximum genetic diversity hypothesis. According to Shi Huang, mutations in genes are driving force only microevolution, that is, the emergence small changes at the intraspecific level. During macroevolution, when new groups of organisms are formed, epigenetic programs become more complex. The more complex they are, the more mutations can disrupt them, so genetic diversity should decrease. As a result, in complex organisms there is supposedly a limit on the number of neutral mutations. This, according to Huang, helps explain why sapiens and Neanderthals differ less than the chimpanzee species.

Upside down

Huang used his dubious theory to redefine human evolution. Thus, Africans turned out to be closer to each other than to other groups of the human population. This conclusion contradicts the African hypothesis, because if people originally lived in Africa, then nothing prevented their individual lines from accumulating large number mutations. In addition, the Chinese scientist established the approximate time of separation of the main Eurasian human populations- about two million years ago. A very immodest date compared to the age of Mitochondrial Eve, but it fits well into multiregionalism.

Huang also suggested that there were two migrations out of Africa: erectus with the ancestor of Neanderthals and Denisovan people. And he came to the conclusion that modern Africans are closer to the latter than non-Africans. He moved Mitochondrial Eve from Africa to East Asia.

Interestingly, these conclusions are based on excluding genetic analysis neutral mutations, which supposedly distort the true picture due to epigenetic programs. Juan created new version molecular clock - “slow”, which takes into account changes only in conservative and difficult to change DNA sequences. By unjustifiably throwing out an entire piece of data, he literally turned everything upside down.

But the Chinese researcher did not take into account other possible explanations for the slowing of the molecular clock. Thus, evolutionists refer to the generation time effect. Humans live longer than monkeys, so mutations accumulate more slowly in humans.

You cannot compare the rate of mutations in humans and chimpanzees. Molecular clock should be applied at the local level, that is, to estimate the time of origin of closely related species. Within the framework of human evolution, the difference between Neanderthals and sapiens matters. On a larger scale, gross errors are possible. This once again reminds us of how important it is to know the limits of applicability of scientific instruments.

As for Shi Huang, his articles, including the one where he first proposed his hypothesis, have not been peer reviewed. Although proponents of multiregionalism support it, the Chinese geneticist has to confine himself to preprint repositories, where he can freely post his drafts without fear of serious criticism from experts in the field of anthropogenesis.

a) main

1. Mamontov S.G. , Zakharov V.B. , Kozlova T.A . Biology. Textbook for universities. – M.: Academia , 2008. – 567 p.

b) additional:

1. Biology: Textbook for Universities. In 2 books / ed. V.N. Yarygina. – M.: Higher School, 2007.

2. Green N., Stout W., Taylor D. Biology. - M.: Mir, 1996

3. Libbert, E. General biology./E. Libbert. – M.: Mir, 1982.

4. Pekhov A.P. Biology with basics of ecology.-S.-P.Lan, 2000.

5. Tupikin E.I. General biology with the basics of ecology and environmental protection. 4th edition, rev. And additional - M.: IC "Academy", 2004.

Internet resources

1. Wikipedia (electronic resource) – http :// ru . wikipedia. org

2.http://biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca/

3. Modern biology, articles, news. Bioloqy. Asvu.ru/

4. Cell biology http://www.cellbiol.ru/

5.Microbiology Information http://www.microbes.info/

Seminar No. 11 Topic: Evolution of the organic world. Evolutionary concepts in the pre-Darwinian period

(2 hours)

TARGET: summarize knowledge about the development of evolutionary theory in the pre-Darwinian period, expand ideas about the outstanding role of C. Linnaeus and J.B. Lamarck in the development of evolutionary concepts.

During the lesson they form knowledge:

The main provisions of evolutionary teaching, the history of its development;

Contribution of outstanding scientists to the development of biological science;

skills:

- analyze stages of development evolutionary ideas,

Compare different theories and evaluate them critically

competencies:

OK – 1- possess a culture of thinking, the ability to generalize, analyze, perceive information, set goals and choose ways to achieve them;

- OK – 11- using the basic laws of natural sciences in professional activities.

Contribution of philosophy Ancient world in the formation of evolutionary views.

The essence of metaphysical views in biology.

K. Linnaeus, his works and basic views on the problems of biology.

Development of evolutionary ideas by scientists of the 18th century.

The first evolutionary concept of J. – B. Lamarck

Glossary

Learn the definitions of the following terms: binary nomenclature, species, internal striving for perfection, gradation, creationism, preformationism, transformism.

Questions for discussion:

What ideas of evolution are revealed in the works of ancient materialists of India, China, Greece? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

What characterizes the pre-Darwinian period in biology? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

What are the differences between evolutionary and metaphysical views? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

K. Linnaeus argued that species are constant, there are as many of them as different forms in the beginning God produced; the forms, following the laws of reproduction, produced many others, always similar to themselves. What conclusions can be drawn from these statements: did Linnaeus recognize species change? Evolution organic world? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

C. Linnaeus and J.B. Lamarck had different views on the causes of species diversity. Linnaeus believed that species were immutable, created by God, and Lamarck did not recognize the real existence of species. What is wrong with the views of these scientists? What factors indicate the real existence of species? About the variability of species? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

At the beginning of the 19th century. Lamarck substantiated the idea of ​​evolution of the organic world. What evidence did Lamarck give? What are the causes of evolution according to Lamarck? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

“...Nature, consistently producing all types of animals (starting with the most imperfect and simple and ending with the most perfect), gradually complicated their organization...” - Lamarck. “Philosophy of Zoology.” - M. - L. 1935. - vol. 1 - P. 209.

“...Nature has formed in both kingdoms a real ladder, in the sense of the ever-increasing complexity of the organization of living bodies...” - Lamarck. “Philosophy of Zoology.” - M. - L.1935. - vol.1 - P.94

a) how do you understand Lamarck’s words “sequentially” and “gradually” in relation to the origin of species;

b) how and when, according to Lamarck, simple (lower) and complex (higher) species arose - into one or different times, which species are earlier, which are later;

c) how do Lamarck’s views differ from Linnaeus’s views on the origin of species. (OK – 1, OK – 11)

“And how many extremely diverse breeds have we obtained among our chickens and pigeons by raising them in different conditions and different countries! It would be in vain to look for them in nature now.” - Lamarck. “Philosophy of Zoology.” - M. - L. 1935. - vol. 1 - P. 181.

Explain: a) how, according to Lamarck, did the breeds of domestic animals originate? Do you agree with him on this issue?

b) what breeds of domestic chickens, pigeons, dogs, rabbits do you know?

c) from whom and how, in your opinion, did these breeds of domestic animals originate? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

9. Summarizing the study of modern organisms and fossil remains, Roulier writes: “How does history generally study prehistoric human existence“, based on the laws of human existence today, the past fates of the earth, plants, animals that once lived, arise only through the study of earthly phenomena that are contemporary to us... the earth itself wrote its history on layers that gradually took shape, like on the leaves of a huge book.” – K.F. Roulier. Favorite biol. proizv.M., 1954, pp. 157 – 158.

By what methods, according to Roulier, can and should we learn the reliable history of nature? Was the scientist right in this? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

10.What is the contradiction between the views of transformism and creationism, preformationism and epigenesis? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

11.What were the evolutionary views of J. - B. Lamarck? Why, according to the worldview views of J.-B. Is Lamarck considered a deist? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

12. What is the essence of the evolutionary theory of J.-B. Lamarck? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

13.What is gradation from the point of view of J.-B. Lamarck? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

14. What are Lamarck’s views on the origin of man? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

15. What questions remained unanswered in Lamarck’s theory? (OK – 1, OK – 11)

Quests(OK 1, OK – 11)

General:

Task 1. The evolutionary materialistic views of various scientists were manifested in their attempts to systematize animal and plant organisms of the organic world. Appendix No. 1 shows the animal systems of Linnaeus, Lamarck and modern taxonomy. Compare them and find the differences. Write it down in your notebook.

Task 2. Make 10 questions on this topic to test your knowledge retention. Write down the questions in your notebook.

Task 3. Complete the table indicating the main differences in the views of Linnaeus and Lamarck on modern types of organisms in nature.

Individual:

The Swedish scientist K. Linnaeus proposed using double species names, for example, meadow cornflower and field cornflower, or red clover and creeping clover. What does this mean for taxonomy?

Scientists explain in different ways the mechanism by which organisms adapt to their environment. How do Lamarck's views on this problem differ from the views of C. Linnaeus?

Test: B – 1.

The concept of "species" was introduced in the 17th century

a) Lamarck b) Linnaeus c) Ray d) Buffon.

2. The principles of constructing a classification of living nature are set out by C. Linnaeus in his work

3. Binary nomenclature developed

a) Lamarck b) Linnaeus c) Roulier d) Buffon.

4. Principles binary nomenclature set out in

a) “Philosophy of Botany” b) “System of Nature”

c) “Evolutionary doctrine” d) “Evolutionary process”.

5. Defined a species as a real and elementary unit of living nature, constant and unchanging

a) Lamarck b) Linnaeus c) Roulier d) Buffon.

6. All animals were divided by Linnaeus into the following classes based on the structure of the respiratory and circulatory systems: worms, insects,………………, reptiles, birds, animals.

7. Lamarck outlined his views in his work

a) “Philosophy of Botany” b) “Philosophy of Zoology”

c) “The Evolution of Nature” d) The Origin of Species.

8. Successive stages of complication of the organization of organisms according to Lamarck are called ……………………

Basic provisions of the first evolutionary concept

a) the development of nature began and always begins with the formation of the simplest bodies, moving from simple to complex

b) the process of increasing the complexity of an organization is step-by-step

c) driving forces of evolution: hereditary variability, struggle for existence and natural selection

d) the adaptability of organisms to their environment that arises during evolution is relative

e) all living organisms have an inherent desire for perfection.

10. Match

1. The term “evolution” appeared

a) 1667 b) 1802 c) 1858 d) 1902

2. Aristotle's main work on biology

a) “Philosophy of Botany” b) “Philosophy of Zoology”

c) “History of Animals” d) Origin of Species.

3). For the first time he arranged living organisms in order of their complexity in the form of a “ladder of creatures”

a) Democritus b) Lamarck c) Aristotle d) Linnaeus

4) In the philosophy of the Ancient world, the idea of

a) gradual development of living forms b) kinship as the reason for similarity

c) transformation of nature d) time as an important factor of transformation.

5) The idea of ​​species variability was supported

a) creationists b) transformists c) idealists d) naturalists.

6) The idea of ​​species variability was supported

a) O. Lamettrie b) C. Linnaeus c) Plato d) Democritus

7) The metaphysical approach to the study of nature is characteristic of

a) Lamarck b) Roulier c) Cuvier d) Kaverzneva

8. According to Lamarck, on the sixth step of the ladder, creatures are located……… and………..

9. Choose multiple correct answers

The following provisions of Lamarck’s teaching are erroneous:

a) all animals and plants change under the influence of the external environment

b) animals have an internal desire to improve their organization

c) if exercise and non-exercise of organs continues for a long time, then the changes caused by this are inherited.

d) the first living organisms arose from inorganic matter and developed in the process of evolution from simpler to more complex

e) organisms have the original ability to change only expediently, adequately.

10. Match:

Many of us have at least once in our lives wondered how a person appeared. No less interesting is the mystery of the origin of the Earth. No one has been able to completely remove the veil from these secrets. Philosophers have pondered these topics for centuries. To date, neither thinkers nor scientists have provided 100% proof of any theory that explains where people came from on Earth. There are many assumptions, but let’s try to identify four main groups of hypotheses.

Theory of evolution

How did man appear according to this theory? It is believed to have evolved from great apes. The gradual transformation of the species occurred under the influence natural selection. There are four stages of this process:

• The period of existence of Australopithecus (alternative name - “southern apes”). They had already mastered upright walking and were able to manipulate various items in their hands and built herd relationships. The weight of Australopithecines was approximately thirty to forty kilograms, and their height was 1.2-1.3 meters.

• Pithecanthropus (ancient man). In addition to all the above characteristics, the ability to make fire and handle it appeared. The shape of the facial skeleton and skull still had apelike features.
• Neanderthal ( ancient man). General structure the skeleton was almost the same as that of modern people, but the skull had some differences.
• Modern man. Appeared during the Late Paleolithic period (from seventy to thirty-five thousand years ago).

Flaws

The inconsistency of the theory discussed above lies in the following: scientists have not been able to explain how, due to mutations, more complex shapes life. The catch is that as a result of mutation, individual genes are damaged, hence the quality new form decreases. None useful result this process still not found.

Guests from other planets

This version of how man appeared is based on the assumption of external intervention in the course of development of our planet. The leading role in the theory under consideration is given to extraterrestrial civilizations. It was thanks to them that people appeared. Simply put, the first man on Earth was a direct descendant of an alien. There are other options. Among the most common are the following:

• Homo sapiens arose thanks to the possibilities of genetic engineering.
• The first people appeared in a homuncular way (in a test tube).
• The evolutionary development of life on Earth is controlled by a higher mind.

Theory of creation

How were people born according to this hypothesis? Man was created by God himself out of nothing, or the material used was not biological (if we take creationism into account). According to the most famous biblical version, the first people - Eve and Adam - appeared from clay. Representatives of other nations and beliefs have their own versions on this matter. None of them require proof. The main argument is faith.

Some modern theological movements consider a variation of evolutionary theory, adjusted for the fact that first man on earth appeared from a monkey, but by the will of God.

Spatial Anomaly Theory

How did man appear according to this hypothesis? It is somewhat reminiscent of evolutionary, but has its own characteristics. Thus, the presence of both random factors and a specific program for the development of life is allowed. There is a humanoid triad (aura, matter and energy) or spatial anomaly. The latter includes such an element as anthropogenesis. It is argued that the biosphere of humanoid universes develops according to a standard scenario at the level of information substance (aura). At favorable conditions the emergence of the humanoid mind occurs.

Read more about one of the common theories

Most conservative scientists argue that our ancient ancestors- small arboreal animals, a little reminiscent of modern tupai. They inhabited the Earth at least sixty-five million years ago, during the extinction of the dinosaurs. About fifty million years ago, highly organized animals similar to monkeys appeared. Over time, the development of one of the groups of primates followed a special path, which led to the emergence great apes twenty-five million years ago.

Today, most of the one hundred and eighty primate groups live in tropical or subtropical regions. But it wasn't always like this. About fifty million years ago, the climate on our planet was much warmer, so the ancestors modern monkeys occupied much larger territories.

Features of life in trees

Early primates perfectly mastered the art of tree climbing. For successful life at altitude they had to learn how to thoroughly cling to branches and correctly judge distances. The first property was developed thanks to movable fingers, and the second - with the participation of eyes directed forward, providing the so-called binocular vision.

The incredible story of "Lucy"

D. Johansen - an American anthropologist - in 1974 managed to do one very important discovery. He conducted excavations in Ethiopia and discovered the remains of a female of the aforementioned “southern monkeys.” They began to call her "Lucy". The height of the young female was about one meter. "Lucy's" teeth and brain bore many similarities to those of apes. Nevertheless, it is assumed that she moved on her own two, albeit crooked, legs. Before this discovery, scientists were sure that the “southern apes” lived on our planet about 2 million years ago. As for the remains of “Lucy,” their age is 3-3.6 million years. Thus, it became known that these creatures lived on Earth more than a million years earlier.

The Man Who Never Lived

In 1912, near Piltdown (England, Sussex), archaeologists discovered several fragments of the skull and a broken facial bone of our distant ancestor. Unusual find aroused unprecedented public interest. However, after some time, experts began to doubt the value of the find. This is why bone age testing was initiated in 1953. Nobody expected such a result. It turned out that the jaw bone belonged to an orangutan that lived five centuries earlier, and parts of the skull - to modern man. All the remains were simply coated with a special composition, and the teeth were skillfully filed down so that they took on a prehistoric appearance. The "Joker" was never found.

A detailed examination of evolutionary processes and their results

History of human origin says: in the beginning, evolution did not happen so quickly. Almost seven million years passed from the appearance of our first ancestor to the development of the skill of making cave paintings. However, as soon as the “thinking man” thoroughly settled on Earth, he began to rapidly develop all kinds of abilities. Thus, only one hundred thousand years separate us from the above-mentioned rock art. Currently, humans are the dominant form of life on the planet. We were even able to leave Earth and began to explore space.

Now it is difficult to imagine what our descendants will be like in a hundred thousand years. One thing is clear: they will be completely different. By the way, we have generally changed quite a lot over the past four centuries. For example, the armor of fifteenth-century knights would barely fit a modern soldier. The average height of a warrior of those times was 160 cm. And the current supermodel would hardly wear the dress of her great-great-grandmother, who had a waist of 45 cm and a height 30 cm shorter. As scientists note, if evolutionary processes continue to develop in the same direction, our faces will become flatter and our jaws will become smaller. Our brain will become larger, and we ourselves will become taller.

Unbearable heat

According to recent research, ancient people learned to walk upright to avoid overheating. Four million years ago, walking on two legs on the hot African plains was much more comfortable. Among the main advantages is the following: the rays of the sun fell only on the head of the one who walked upright. Well, those who continued to move with their back bent overheated much more. People who began to walk on two legs sweated less intensely, therefore, they did not need as much water to survive. This allowed man to surpass other animals in the constant struggle for existence.

Hairline

The development of upright walking had other significant consequences. So, a bipedal creature no longer needed to have such a vast and dense hairline, which previously protected his back from the merciless sun. As a result, only the head remained protected by hair. Thus, our ancestors became the notorious “naked apes.”

Blissful coolness

By starting to walk on two legs, our ancestor seemed to have opened one of the important “evolutionary doors”. Taking an upright posture, he moved significantly away from the ground, and therefore from the heat that it emitted. For this reason, the brain began to overheat much less. The cool breeze, blowing one or two meters above the ground, further cooled the body. For the above reasons, the brain became larger and more active.

Where did the first man appear?

Scientists have found and continue to find the remains of ancient people in various places on the planet. Some of the most widely known excavations took place in a valley near the German village of Neander. Similar remains were later discovered in France and other countries. Due to the fact that the finds near Neander were the most complete and interesting, our most ancient ancestors began to be called Neanderthals.

Where did the first man appear? modern type? Previously, scientists believed that this happened in the eastern part of Africa, but later a version appeared about southern regions. Draw conclusions that refute original theory, helped genetic research representatives of indigenous African tribes. However, such conclusions are in conflict with modern archaeological data, since the most ancient remains of anatomically modern humans were found precisely in eastern Africa - on the territory of such modern countries, like Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. In addition, the information available today allows us to conclude that the population of the above states is characterized by the greatest genetic variability when compared with representatives of other regions of the planet. This fact gives the right to consider Africa the starting point of all waves of human spread across the Earth.

Conclusion

Questions about how many years ago man appeared and where exactly this happened still excite the minds of both scientists and ordinary people. There are many versions, and each of them has the right to exist. Unfortunately, as time goes on, it becomes more and more difficult to get to the bottom of the truth, since the years inexorably erase evidence of the past from the face of the Earth...