7. Mongol invasion of Rus'. Formation of a system of dependence of Russian lands on the Horde.
IN beginning of XII I century in Central Asia The Mongolian state arose. In 1190 Temujin won in a bloody struggle, and in 1206 he was elected and proclaimed Genghis Khan. The Mongols began great campaigns of conquest in Asia and Europe. During the conquest of Crimea, the Mongols defeated the Polovtsian khans, who turned for help. The first meeting of the combined forces of the South Russian princes and Polovtsians with the advanced Mongol army took place on May 31, 1223 on the river. Kalke. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered a severe defeat. After the victory, the Mongols retreated to Asia.
In 1235, at the kurultai (congress) of the Mongol princes, a decision was made to march to the West. The campaign was led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu. Having defeated the Kama Bulgarians in 1236, the Mongols invaded the territory of North-Eastern Rus' in the winter of 1237. In a short period of time, Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Tver, Kostroma and other cities were taken and destroyed. North-Eastern Rus' came under the rule of the Mongols. Having reached Novgorod only 100 km, the Mongols retreated to the Polovtsian steppes to make up for losses and prepare a new campaign. In 1239, Batu moved his troops to conquer Southern Rus'. Having captured Kiev in 1240, the Mongols passed through the Galicia-Volyn principality and invaded Europe. Here they were defeated by the combined forces of the Czech Republic and Hungary at Olomouc (1242) and returned to the Polovtsian steppes.
As a result of the aggressive campaigns led by Genghis Khan and his descendants, a huge Mongol empire was created, which occupied a vast territory of Asia and Europe. After his death, the entire empire was divided into uluses led by the Chingizids. The empire was divided into uluses (possessions), among which one of the largest was the ulus of the descendants of Jochi (the eldest son of Genghis Khan). Ulus Jochi included Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm in Central Asia, the Urals, the Russian Plain, the Middle and Lower Volga region, the Northern Caucasus, the Crimea, the Don and Ulus was divided into two yurts (into two parts). The territory west of the Irtysh became the yurt of Genghis Khan’s grandson, Batu. In Russian chronicles it was called the Golden Horde.
The history of the Golden Horde began in 1243. Its founder, Batu Khan, did not consider it as an absolutely independent state. All Mongol uluses legally constituted a single empire with a central government in Karakorum and were required to contribute a certain share of income to it. The strength of the central government - given its remoteness from the western uluses - rested only on authority, but Batu strictly recognized this authority. However, in the 60s of the 13th century the situation changed. Mengu Timur, who ruled the Golden Horde, took advantage of intra-dynastic disputes in the center of the empire and refused to obey its supreme ruler. The Golden Horde gained independence.
The intrastate structure of the Horde copied the system introduced in Mongolia by Genghis Khan. The controlled territory was first divided into two large administrative units, and from the end of the 13th century into four. They were headed by the khan's governors - ulusbeks. The owners of the uluses were obliged to provide a certain number of mounted soldiers in the event of hostilities, and to fulfill tax and economic duties. The ulus system copied the structure of the Mongol army: the entire state was divided (like the entire army) in accordance with ranks - temnik, thousandman, centurion, foreman - into possessions of certain sizes, from which ten, a hundred, a thousand or ten thousand were sent to the army armed warriors.
The state administration apparatus was formed under the Khans Batu and Berke (40-50s of the 13th century). The capital was founded as an administrative center, taxes and duties were distributed. Supreme power was absolute. The main executive body was called a divan, which consisted of several chambers in charge of financial, tax, trade, internal political and other spheres of public life
Political and diplomatic relations between Russia and the Horde developed in a unique way. Russian princes received the right to reign at the khan's headquarters. There were punitive campaigns against Rus' and predatory raids by uncontrolled nomadic detachments. But at the same time, Rus' also had channels of political and spiritual-ideological influence on the Horde. Special role played by the Russian Orthodox Church through the diocese opened in 1261 in Sarai.
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the Mongols, although they occupied the most important positions in the army and administration, remained a small group among the bulk of the population. In the southern part of the Golden Horde, in the Middle and Lower Volga, the majority were Turks, and in the north and west - Slavs. Most of these Turks were known in Rus' as Tatars (Kazan Tatars or Crimean Tatars). Even the Mongols themselves were called Tatars in Russian chronicles. We will use the term “Mongols” for the early period of Mongol rule until the collapse of the Mongol Empire, and “Tatars” for the later period.
With all his wealth and power, the khan of the Golden Horde was not an independent ruler, but a vassal of the great khan. The first four great khans had their residence in Mongolia. The fifth is Kublai Kublai (1260-1294), whose wisdom and power the Venetian merchant-traveler Marco Polo described with such great enthusiasm, moved his capital to Beijing (China) and adopted Buddhism. All of China recognized him as their emperor, and his dynasty became known as the Yuan. Despite China's distance from Russia, the Great Khan intervened in Russian affairs on many occasions.
During the first period of Mongol rule, the collection of taxes and the mobilization of Russians into the Mongol troops were carried out according to the orders of the Great Khan, signed by the Khan of the Golden Horde. Everything collected (both money and recruits) was sent to the Great Khan. Under Guyuk, some of the Russian princes were summoned to Mongolia to receive labels for their possessions. Later, a trip to Sarai was considered sufficient. But the Khan of the Golden Horde, who now gave labels to the Russian princes, was himself confirmed on his throne by the Great Khan at the beginning of the latter’s reign. At times, disagreement arose between the Great Khan and his regional khans. The last emperor of the dynasty. Yuan. was overthrown as a result of the national revolution in China. There in 1368 The Ming dynasty, of Chinese origin, was established in the year. This ended the Mongol Empire.
The first twenty-five years of Mongol rule in Rus' were the most difficult for the Russians. All Russian princes were required to recognize themselves as vassals of the khan; no one was allowed to take his place without the khan's label, which was not given until the prince personally appeared before the khan. The trip “to the Horde” - to the Khan’s camp - was both dangerous and humiliating. The first to go to receive labels were the princes of Eastern Russia (and then Western Russia). Even before this, some of them made secret preparations for the uprising. Others, having lost hope of immediate liberation from the power of the Mongols, especially in the face of continued pressure from the Teutonic knights from the west, advocated a loyal attitude towards the khan, seeing this as the only reasonable course of action. The representative of the princes of the first group was Prince Daniil Galitsky, the representative of the second was Alexander Nevsky.
Daniel tried to organize a conspiracy and asked for help from the West, but did not find support from the Russians for the reason that he accepted the Pope’s demands - that the Russian Church accept his power. As a result, Daniel found himself alone in a risky confrontation with the Mongols. Some time later, the new Mongol Khan Berke sent his troops to Galich, and Daniil was unable to resist. He fled to Poland, then to Hungary, and Galich and Volyn were devastated by the Mongols (1260). Daniel had no choice - he became the khan's vassal and died in 1264.
Alexander Nevsky received the label for the great reign in Kyiv from the Great Khan Guyuk. However, he did not go to the devastated city, but remained in Novgorod. A few years later, Vatu's son granted him the great reign in Vladimir. Convinced that Russia could not withstand both the onslaught of the Germans and the Mongols, Alexander took a firm political course towards the khan’s patronage; he never departed from this, and his successors followed the same policy for almost a century.
Alexander's policies were severely tested in 1257, when the khan ordered a general census of the population. Many Mongol officials were sent to Russia to set taxes and recruit for the Mongol troops. If the population of the Suzdal principality (albeit reluctantly) allowed officials to take part in the census, the residents of Novgorod strongly objected, and an uprising began, which Alexander suppressed by force. It is significant, however, that he managed to get the Mongols to promise to remove their officials from Novgorod after the completion of the census. In the future, tax collection was entrusted to officials from Novgorod itself.
In 1262, in some cities of the Suzdal principality, uprisings arose against the Mongols as a protest against the exorbitant extortions for the population by Muslim merchants. Tax collectors were allowed to seize defaulters and put them to work until the outstanding amount was fully repaid and even sell them into slavery. Unable to prevent or suppress this uprising, Alexander hastily went to the Berke camp “to beg the khan,” as the chronicler wrote, “to spare the people.” Alexander spent several months in the Horde and fulfilled his mission: Berke agreed not to send a punitive expedition to the Suzdal principality. The indignant cities, however, had to pay for the damage caused.
All Russian princes were subject to the highest court of the Golden Horde, and some of them were convicted and executed for real or imaginary crimes. All legal cases between Russians and Mongols were dealt with by Mongolian courts. All Russians enlisted in the Mongol troops were obliged to obey Mongol military orders. However, the khan assigned litigation between the Russians themselves to the jurisdiction of their own princes. In the first period of Mongol rule, this was in fact almost the only public matter in which the Russian princes could exercise their prerogatives.
In order to collect reinforcements for their army and taxes, the Mongols conducted three censuses of the population of Russia (in 1245, 1257 and 1274). The Mongol administrative system was closely connected with military affairs and, like it, was based on the decimal principle. The quota of warriors that each locality fielded depended on its size. Each district capable of fielding ten people was considered an association of ten up to darkness.
The situation was exactly the same with the collection of taxes - each district was a unit of measurement. The main tribute is the way out. The general tribute collected in the countryside was equivalent to darkness. So, in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir it corresponded to 15 darkness.
Most Russians were engaged in agriculture, and tribute in this case took the form of a land tax paid on each agricultural unit (“plow”). Merchants in cities at first paid a capital tax; later it was replaced by a turnover tax and was collected as a regular duty. They paid once a year. Sometimes they were detained for 2-3 years. Another type of tribute from the kings is a request. Passing tribute - if an ambassador passed by, they paid him tribute. Initially, tribute was collected by the Bessermen. They first came to the Horde and paid the khan how much tribute needed to be collected. Then they went to Rus' and collected tribute, but more. In total, there were 14 types of levies in favor of the Horde. In 1262, an uprising took place in North-Eastern Rus', as a result of which the Besermans were killed. Baskaks appear who collect the tribute that is really due. In the first quarter of the 14th century, the prince himself collected tribute. To better ensure the operation of their system, Mongol garrisons were located at strategic points. In the event of any serious disturbance, the khan sent punitive expeditions to break resistance. Thus the Russian taxpayers were so taught to obey the law unconditionally that when the Mongol officials and troops were withdrawn and the Khan entrusted the collection of taxes to the Russian princes, they encountered no difficulty. At the same time, they found this system very expedient and profitable: in a number of areas more money was collected than was given to the khan, and the princes had the opportunity to put this remainder in their pocket.
Consequences:
Representatives of the world-historical theory (N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky, M.N. Pokrovsky and others) rooted in the minds of the people the thesis that “the Mongol-Tatar yoke threw back Rus' in its development to two hundred years ago."
Liberal direction World historical theory, studying the progress of mankind, gives priority to the development of the individual.
Liberal historians (I.N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) draw attention to the fact that in the 13th century an alternative to historical development arose in Rus'. I. Ionov believes: “... Russia faced the extremely acute question of who to rely on in the fight for survival - on Catholic Europe in the war against the Tatars or on the Tatars in the fight against the crusade of Europe?... The choice was not made in favor of Catholic Europe , but in favor of the Mongol-Tatars, who were a powerful military force... But this help cost Rus' dearly.”
Local historical theory studies the unity of man and territory, which constitutes the concept of local civilization. On the territory of Russia, such a civilization is Eurasia.
Eurasian historians (G.V. Vernadsky, L.N. Gumilev, V.A. Kuchkin and others) see in the influence of the Horde on Rus' a strong charge of originality introduced into the course of Russian history. The Golden Horde was located on the territory occupied today by Russia, G.V. Vernadsky (1887-1973), L.N. Gumilev (1912-1992) called Russia the geopolitical 4 heir of the Golden Horde. L.N. Gumilyov rejected the concept of the “Mongol-Tatar yoke” and argued that the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, represented by Alexander Nevsky, had achieved a profitable alliance with the Golden Horde.
Representatives of the Eurasian historical school believe that the originality of Russian-Horde relations can only be understood in the context of that historical time when appanage Russia was subjected to double aggression - from the east and from the west. At the same time, Western expansion brought more severe consequences for Rus': the goal of the crusaders was territorial conquest and the destruction of Orthodoxy, while the Horde, after the initial blow, retreated back to the steppe, and in relation to Orthodoxy they showed not only tolerance, but even guaranteed the inviolability of the Orthodox faith and churches and church property. The choice of foreign policy strategy made by Alexander Nevsky was associated with the defense of “the historical meaning of the uniqueness of Russian culture - Orthodoxy.” “...The Union with the Horde - not the yoke of the Horde, but the Military Alliance with it - predetermined the special path of Rus'.”
A number of representatives of local theory believe that Rus' was integral part state of the Golden Horde and, handing out labels for reigning to the princes, the khans turned them into their “officers”.
The Mongols, having carried out enormous conquests in Eurasia, created the state of the Golden Horde on this territory. The Russian principalities were an integral part of this state.
Mongol Empire Horde Kulikovo
The Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea, North Caucasus, part of the lands of Rus' located in the steppe, the former lands of Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (sarai translated into Russian means palace). It was a state consisting of semi-independent uluses, united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by Batu's brothers and the local aristocracy.
The role of a kind of aristocratic council was played by the “Divan”, where military and financial issues were resolved. Finding themselves surrounded by a Turkic-speaking population, the Mongols adopted Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnic group assimilated the Mongol newcomers. Formed new people- Tatars. In the first decades of the Golden Horde's existence, its religion was paganism.
The Golden Horde was one of the most large states of its time. At the beginning of the 14th century, she could field an army of 300,000. The heyday of the Golden Horde occurred during the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). During this era (1312), Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then just like the others medieval states The Horde was going through a period of fragmentation. Already in the 14th century. The Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century. The Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (late 15th century) khanates stood out.
Russian lands and the Golden Horde. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The ongoing struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Rus' were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, unlike, for example, Central Asia, the Caspian region, and the Black Sea region.
In 1243, the brother of the great Vladimir prince Yuri, who was killed on the Sit River, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246) was called to the khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden tablet ("paizu"), a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes flocked to the Horde.
To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskaq governors, leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes, was created. Denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the prince being summoned to Sarai (often he was deprived of his label, or even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the rebellious land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the 13th century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.
Some Russian princes, trying to quickly get rid of vassalage from the Horde, they took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were not yet sufficient. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 Grand Duke of Vladimir, understood this well. He set a course for the restoration and growth of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian church, which saw the greatest danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.
In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a population census “recording the number”. Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, and they were in charge of collecting tribute. The size of the tribute (“exit”) was very large, only the “tsar’s tribute”, i.e. the tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. Yasamk (Mongolian zasag - power) - in the language of the Mongolian and Turkic tribes means tribute, usually paid in kind, mainly furs (soft junk, as it was called in Rus'). The constant tribute was supplemented by “requests” for one-time extortions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for “feeding” the khan’s officials, etc. went to the khan’s treasury. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars.
Population census in the 5060s of the 13th century. marked by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, and census takers. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the 13th century. was handed over to the Russian princes.
WITH mid-XIV V. There was a significant increase in monastic land ownership. The Mongols, interested in maintaining their dominance, left land holdings in the hands of the church. Russian princes were also interested in supporting the church. If previously the tax in favor of the church - tithe - was paid in money or in kind, then in the new conditions the princes replaced the tithe with the distribution of land. Land ownership and wealth of the monasteries also grew because, unlike the lands of secular feudal lords, the lands of the monasteries were not divided among the heirs, as was the case after the death of the secular landowner.
The most famous among Russian monasteries was the Trinity Monastery, founded by Sergius of Radonezh (c. 1321-1391) 70 kilometers north of Moscow (now the Trinity-Sergius Lavra). Located in a forested, sparsely populated, secluded area (desert), the monastery grew into the largest religious and economic center. Disciples and followers of the great Sergius in the XIV-XV centuries. built about 100 monasteries of the communal type, i.e. based on joint ownership of the farm and collectivist organization of life in the monastery.
The fight to overthrow gold Horde yoke became in the XIII-XV centuries. main national task. Restoring the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The question was being resolved around which center the Russian lands would unite. First of all, Tver and Moscow laid claim to leadership. Tver Principality as an independent appanage arose in 1247, when it received younger brother Alexander Nevsky - Yaroslav Yaroslavich. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav became Grand Duke (1263-1272). The Tver principality was then the strongest in Rus'. But he was not destined to lead the unification process. At the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. The Principality of Moscow is rapidly rising.
Moscow, which before the Mongol-Tatar invasion was a small border point of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, at the beginning of the 14th century. turns into an important political center of the time. What were the reasons for the rise of Moscow?
Moscow occupied a geographically advantageous central position among the Russian lands. From the south and east it was protected from the Horde invasions by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west by the Tver principality and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were impassable for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. All this caused an influx of population to the lands of the Moscow Principality. Moscow was a center of developed crafts, agricultural production and trade. It turned out to be an important hub of land and waterways, serving both for trade and military operations. Through the Moscow River and the Oka River, the Moscow Principality had access to the Volga, and through the tributaries of the Volga and the system of portages it was connected with the Novgorod lands. The rise of Moscow is also explained by the purposeful, flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who managed to win over not only other Russian principalities, but also the church.
The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was youngest son Alexander Nevsky Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Under him, the territory of the Moscow Principality grew rapidly. In 1301, Kolomna, conquered from the Ryazan prince, became part of it. In 1302, according to the will of the childless Pereyaslavl prince, his possessions passed to Moscow. In 1303, Mozhaisk was annexed from the Smolensk Principality to Moscow. Thus, the territory of the Moscow Principality doubled in three years and became one of the largest in North-Eastern Rus'. Since Mozhaisk is located at the source of the Moscow River, and Kolomna is located at the mouth, with their annexation the entire river came into the possession of the Moscow princes. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was one of the richest and most fertile regions of the northeast, so its inclusion in the Moscow Principality significantly increased the economic potential of the latter. The Moscow prince entered the struggle for the Great Reign.
The struggle of Moscow and Tver for the grand-ducal throne. As a representative of more senior branch, Tver Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich (1304-1319) received a label for the great reign in the Horde. In Moscow at this time, the son of Daniil Alexandrovich Yuri (1303-1325) ruled.
Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky was married to the sister of Khan Uzbek Konchak (Agafya). He promised to increase tribute from Russian lands. The Khan gave him the label to the Grand Duke's throne. In 1315, Mikhail started a war with Yuri, defeated his squad, and captured the khan’s sister, who soon died in Tver. Yuri blamed his wife for his death Prince of Tver. Summoned to the Horde, Mikhail was executed. For the first time in 1319, the Moscow prince received the label of the Great Reign. However, already in 1325, Yuri was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail Tverskoy, Dmitry Groznye Ochi. Khan Uzbek executed Dmitry, but continuing the policy of pitting Russian princes against each other, he transferred the Great Reign to the brother of the executed man, Alexander Mikhailovich (1325-1327).
Uprising in Tver. In 1327, the population of Tver rebelled against the tax collector Baskak Cholkhan (in Rus' he was called Shchelkan), a relative of Uzbek. Outraged by the extortions and violence, the residents of Tver turned to Prince Alexander Mikhailovich for help. The Tver prince took a wait-and-see attitude. The rebels of Tver killed the Tatars. Taking advantage of this, the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich came to Tver with a Mongol-Tatar army and suppressed the uprising. At the cost of the lives of the population of another Russian land, he contributed to the rise of his own principality. At the same time, the defeat of Tver deflected the blow from the rest of the Russian lands.
And today the debate continues about two possible trends in the fight against the Horde. Who was right in the rivalry between the two Principalities XIV V.? Moscow, which was accumulating strength to fight the enemy, or Tver, which opposed the invaders with an open visor? There are supporters of both one and the other point of view.
Ivan Kalita. Ivan Danilovich (1325-1340), having defeated the uprising in Tver, received a label for the Great Reign, which from that time almost constantly remained in the hands of the Moscow princes. Grand Duke managed to achieve a close alliance between the grand ducal power of Moscow and the church. Metropolitan Peter lived for a long time and often in Moscow, and his successor Theognost finally moved there. Moscow became the religious and ideological center of Rus'.
Ivan Danilovich was an intelligent, consistent, although cruel in achieving his goals, politician. Under him, Moscow became the richest principality in Rus'. Hence the prince’s nickname “Kalita” (“money bag”, “purse”). Under Ivan Kalita, the role of Moscow as the center of unification of all Russian lands increased. He achieved the necessary respite from the Horde invasions, which made it possible to boost the economy and accumulate forces to fight the Mongol-Tatars. Ivan Kaliga received the right to collect tribute from the Russian principalities and deliver it to the Horde. Without resorting to weapons, he significantly expanded his possessions. Under him, the Galich (Kostroma region), Uglich, and Belozersk (Vologda region) principalities submitted to the Moscow principality.
Under the sons of Ivan Kalita Semyon (1340-1353), who received the nickname “Proud” for his arrogant attitude towards other princes, and Ivan the Red (1353-1359), the Moscow principality included the Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub lands and the Kaluga region.
Dmitry Donskoy. Dmitry (1359-1389) received the throne as a nine-year-old child. The struggle for the Grand Duke's Vladimir table broke out again. The Horde began to openly support Moscow's opponents.
A unique symbol of the success and strength of the Moscow Principality was the construction in just two years of the impregnable white stone Kremlin of Moscow (1367), the only stone fortress in the territory northeastern Rus'. All this allowed Moscow to repel its claim to all-Russian leadership Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, to repel the campaigns of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.
The balance of power in Rus' changed in favor of Moscow. In the Horde itself, a period of “great turmoil” began (50-60s of the 14th century), weakening central power and the struggle for the khan’s throne. Rus' and the Horde seemed to be “testing” each other. In 1377 on the river. Drunken (near Nizhny Novgorod) the Moscow army was crushed by the Horde. However, the Tatars were unable to consolidate their success. In 1378, the army of Murza Begich was defeated by Dmitry on the river. Vozha (Ryazan land). These battles were a prelude to the Battle of Kulikovo.
Battle of Kulikovo. In 1380, the temnik (head of the tumen) Mamai, who came to power in the Horde after several years of internecine hostility, tried to restore the shaken dominance of the Golden Horde over the Russian lands. Having concluded an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagiel, Mamai led his troops to Rus'. Princely squads and militias from most Russian lands gathered in Kolomna, from where they moved towards the Tatars, trying to forestall the enemy. Dmitry proved himself to be a talented commander, making an unconventional decision for that time to cross the Don and meet the enemy on the territory that Mamai considered his own. At the same time, Dmitry set the goal of preventing Mamai from connecting with Jagiel before the start of the battle.
The troops met on the Kulikovo field at the confluence of the Nepryadva River with the Don. The morning of the battle, September 8, 1380, dawned foggy. The fog cleared only by 11 o'clock in the morning. The battle began with a duel between the Russian hero Peresvet and the Tatar warrior Chelubey. At the beginning of the battle, the Tatars almost completely destroyed the leading Russian regiment and wedged themselves into the ranks of a large regiment stationed in the center. Mamai was already triumphant, believing that he had won. However, there followed an unexpected attack from the Horde from the flank of the Russian ambush regiment led by governor Dmitry Bobrok-Volynpe and Prince Vladimir Serpukhovsky. This blow decided the outcome of the battle by three o'clock in the afternoon. The Tatars fled in panic from the Kulikovo field. For personal courage in battle and military leadership, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.
The defeat of Moscow by Tokhtamysh. After the defeat, Mamai fled to Kafa (Feodosia), where he was killed. Khan Tokhtamysh seized power over the Horde. The struggle between Moscow and the Horde is not over yet. In 1382, using the help of the Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich, who pointed out the fords across the Oka River, Tokhtamysh and his horde suddenly attacked Moscow. Even before the Tatar campaign, Dmitry left Stolipa to the north to gather a new militia. The population of the city organized the defense of Moscow, rebelling against the boyars who rushed out of the capital in panic. The Muscovites managed to repel two enemy assaults, using for the first time in battle the so-called mattresses (forged iron cannons of Russian production). Realizing that the city could not be taken by storm and fearing the approach of Dmitry Donskoy with his army, Tokhtamysh told the Muscovites that he had come to fight not against them, but against Prince Dmitry, and promised not to plunder the city. Having broken into Moscow by deception, Tokhtamysh subjected it to a brutal defeat. Moscow was again obliged to pay tribute to the khan.
The meaning of the Kulikovo victory. Despite the defeat in 1382, the Russian people, after the Battle of Kulikovo, believed in imminent liberation from the Tatars. On the Kulikovo Field the Golden Horde suffered its first major defeat. The Battle of Kulikovo showed the power and strength of Moscow as the political and economic center of the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unify the Russian lands. Thanks to the Kulikovo victory, the size of the tribute was reduced. The Horde finally recognized the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands. The defeat of the Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo significantly weakened their power. Residents from different Russian lands and cities walked to the Kulikovo field, and they returned from the battle as the Russian people. Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the Great Reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily (1389-1425) in his will as the “fatherland” of the Moscow princes, without asking for the right to a label in the Horde. There was a merger of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and Moscow.
This process was most active in the 13th-16th centuries, that is, during the period of the existence of Rus' under the influence of the great Golden Horde. It is necessary to pay serious attention to the numerous examples of productive interaction between two state traditions that existed at that time. It was in accordance with Horde customs that the fiscal system, military organization, and ambassadorial customs were rebuilt in Rus'. During the period of Horde supremacy, the financial benefits of the Orthodox Church were based initially on the Yasa (code of laws) of Genghis Khan, and then on the norms of Muslim law (Sharia). The similarity of state administrative orders in the Horde and in Rus' was so significant that in “Zadonshchina” (XV century) Rus' is referred to as the “Zalesskaya Horde”. It is no coincidence that among the Turkic words borrowed into the Russian language there are such as treasury, denga, altyn, tamga (and its derivative customs), yam (from where the coachman, yam service). This indicates at least significant Tatar influence in such important functions states as an organization financial system and mail messages. One can list for a long time the numerous historical names in Moscow (Kitai-Gorod, Arbat, Balchug, Ordynka, etc.) also dating back to Horde times, when Rus' and the Golden Horde actually lived within the framework of a single state- political systems and to some extent they were similar to each other.
Distinctive Features statehood of Rus' during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke:
Preservation of the statehood of the principalities;
The church was playing important role in the activities of the state;
The administration of Kievan Rus has been preserved.
Rus' paid taxes (fees). The collection of taxes was carried out by the prince who was given the khan's label. The holder of this label bore the title of Grand Duke, had powerful political power and military support Golden Horde.
At the end of the 13th century. The taxation system changed: merchants (tax collectors) were replaced by official collectors. The Russian Church was exempt from paying taxes and conscription of people subject to it into the Mongol army. Veliky Novgorod remained autonomous and received the right to free trade.
Russian princes became vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde, who were monitored by the khan's representatives (baskaks). Each prince individually owned his principality and himself collected tribute for the khan. In Kyiv and Pereyaslavl, the Mongols ruled independently.
The Khan decided all legal and financial issues and had the right to announce the mobilization of Russians into the Mongol army.
Judicial system during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus':
The Supreme Court of the Golden Horde - the highest judicial authority, considered disputes between Russian princes;
Mongolian courts heard disputes between Russians and Mongols;
The princes resolved disputes among themselves.
Similar features administrative management Moscow and Mongolian states:
System and procedure of taxation;
Yamsk transport service;
Formation of troops;
Financial-state system.
12. Features political system Novgorod and Pskov.
Novgorod and Pskov lands were located in the north-west of Rus'. Until the 12th century. Novgorod land was part of Kievan Rus. At the beginning of the 12th century, presumably in 1136, the boyars of Novgorod, taking advantage of the uprising of the urban lower classes and peasantry against the prince, seized power and established their political dominance. A republican (feudal) system developed in Novgorod.
The Pskov land was part of the Novgorod Republic until the mid-14th century. In 1348, Pskov, which had grown into a large trade and craft center, separated from Novgorod and also became a feudal republic.
The features of the social and political systems of Novgorod and Pskov were determined by the uniqueness of their economic development. The dominant position was occupied by boyars - feudal lords, large landowners. The Novgorod (Pskov) boyars were closely connected with trade with Western and Russian principalities, crafts, and exploitation of the population of dependent lands.
The intensive development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of a wide middle class of Novgorod-Pskov society, which included “living people”, “countrymen” and merchants. The “living people” included middle feudal lords, who were also involved in trade and usury. “Svoezemtsy” were small landowners who cultivated the land themselves or rented it out. The merchant class united into hundreds (guilds) and traded with the Russian principalities and abroad.
The urban population consisted of merchants and artisans - the “elders” and “black people”.
The Novgorod (Pskov) peasantry consisted of community smerds, lads - dependent peasants working for part of the product on the master's land, mortgagees and slaves.
In Novgorod and Pskov, a form unusual for medieval Rus' developed government- feudal republic.
State administration of Novgorod and Pskov was carried out by the veche - a meeting of full-fledged male residents. Formally there was a meeting supreme body authorities who decided all the most important economic, political, military, judicial and administrative issues. The powers of the veche included the election of the prince. Decisions at meetings had to be made unanimously. There was a veche administration - veche clerks, veche hut.
Real power in Novgorod and Pskov belonged to the boyar council, which included noble boyars and representatives of the city administration. The archbishop presided over the council. The Boyar Council was an organizational and preparatory body. His competence included: preparation of bills, veche decisions, control activities, convening of the veche, preparation of the agenda, selection of candidates for officials elected at the veche, etc.
The armed forces included the prince's squad, the lord's regiment and the city militia.
The highest officials of Veliky Novgorod were the mayor, the thousand, the archbishop and the prince.
The mayor was elected by the veche for one to two years from among the noble boyars. He presided over the meeting, led the boyar council, was in charge of the administration and foreign policy affairs; Together with the prince, he carried out issues of administration, court and command of the armed forces.
Tysyatsky was elected at a meeting from noble representatives of the aristocracy. He dealt with issues of trade and commercial court, headed militia and resolved other management issues, helping the mayor.
The archbishop was elected from among monks who came from the boyar environment. He was the keeper of the state treasury, the controller of trade measures and weights. The main role of the archbishop was reduced to primacy in the church hierarchy.
The prince was invited to reign by citizens. His candidacy was previously discussed at the boyar council and then submitted for approval in the veche. The main goal The prince was responsible for organizing the defense of the republic from external enemies. Military, judicial and administrative activities the prince carried out this together with the mayor.
The territory of the Novgorod state was divided into pyatinas, the administration of which was built on the principles of local autonomy. Each pyatina was assigned to one of the five ends of Novgorod: Plotnitsky, Slovensky, Zagorodsky, Nerevsky or Goncharsky. Pyatina were divided into volosts, volosts into graveyards. The center of Pyatina's self-government was the suburb.
One of the suburbs was Pskov, which grew into an independent political center around which the Pskov state was formed. Government organization Pskov was similar to Novgorod: a veche system, an elected prince, two sedate posadniks, six “ends”, 12 suburbs.
In the 13th century The peoples of Rus' had to endure a difficult struggle with foreign invaders. Hordes of Tatar-Mongol conquerors fell on Rus' from the east. From the west, Russian lands were subjected to aggression by German, Swedish and Danish knights - crusaders. The outcome of the heroic struggle against the invaders determined for a long time historical destinies peoples of our country, had a huge impact on their further economic and state-political development, led to significant changes in ethnic and political map Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The most destructive for Rus' was the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol conquerors. The Horde yoke slowed down for a long time economic development Rus', destroyed it agriculture, undermined Russian culture. The Tatar-Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the political and economic life of Rus'. Due to the destruction of cities, their death in fires and the capture of skilled artisans, they disappeared for a long time complex species crafts, urban construction stopped, fine and applied arts fell into decline. Serious consequences The yoke was the deepening disunity of Rus' and the isolation of its individual parts. The weakened country was unable to defend a number of western and southern regions, which were later captured by Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. A blow was dealt to the trade relations of Rus' with the West: trade relations with foreign countries were preserved only in Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk.
The Tatar-Mongol invasion led to a sharp decline in the country's population, especially urban population. Many people were killed, and no less were taken into slavery. In some destroyed cities and villages, life has never been restored. The death of many princes and warriors, professional warriors and feudal lords stopped the development of feudal agriculture.
The restoration of destroyed cities and villages was greatly hampered by two long-standing factors. Firstly, a significant part of the country's national income went to the Horde in the form of tribute. Secondly, according to the testimony of a major historian-researcher, specialist in the history of the Golden Horde V.L. Egorov, until the middle of the 14th century. more than 20 military attacks by Golden Horde detachments of various sizes were carried out on the lands of northeastern and southwestern Rus', and for a long time, extremely weakened after the defeat, Rus' actually alone held back the constant onslaught of the Mongols and even significantly constrained their further expansion, while bearing considerable losses (Egorov V.L. The Golden Horde: Myths and Reality. M., 1990).
However, with all the dire consequences for Rus', the Golden Horde invasion in Rus' also had some features that contributed to the fact that the Russian people, under conditions of yoke, not only preserved their national independence, but also found the strength to forever expel the conquerors from their native places.
Unlike the countries of Central Asia, the Caspian region and the Northern Black Sea region, the Tatar-Mongols refused to directly include Russian lands in the Golden Horde and create their own permanent administration on them. Rus''s dependence on the Tatar-Mongol khans was expressed mainly in heavy tribute. At the end of the 13th century. under the pressure of popular anti-Horde protests, the Horde were forced to transfer the collection of tribute to the Russian princes. Then the Baskaks (tribute collectors) were recalled from Russian cities, which further reduced the Horde’s ability to directly interfere in the internal political life of Rus'. This feature of the Horde yoke was explained not so much by the lack of favorable natural conditions in Rus' for extensive nomadic cattle breeding of the Tatar-Mongols, but by the heroic struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders both during Batu’s invasion and throughout the entire period of the Horde yoke.
In addition, the Tatar-Mongols tried not to openly encroach on the spiritual way of life of the Russian people, and above all on the Orthodox faith, although they destroyed churches. To some extent, they were tolerant of any religion, outwardly and in their own Golden Horde they did not interfere with the performance of any religious rites. Not without reason, the Horde often considered the Russian clergy their allies. Firstly, the Russian church fought against the influence of Catholicism, and the Pope was an enemy of the Golden Horde. Secondly, the church in Rus' in the initial period of the yoke supported the princes who advocated coexistence with the Horde. In turn, the Horde freed the Russian clergy from tribute and provided church servants with letters of safe conduct for church property. Later, the church played a significant role in uniting the entire Russian people to fight for independence.
For a more specific idea of the nature and scale of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, we should at least briefly dwell on historical moments associated with them.
At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Tatar-Mongols began to conquer China in 1215. They managed to capture it all northern part. From China they brought the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, from among the Chinese, the Tatar-Mongols received a cadre of competent and experienced officials. In 1219, Genghis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. The consequences of the Tatar-Mongol conquest of Central Asia were extremely severe; most of the agricultural oases perished; they were populated by nomads, who essentially destroyed the traditional forms of farming in these places.
Following Central Asia, Northern Iran was captured, after which Genghis Khan’s troops carried out a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.
Relations between Russia and the Polovtsians during this period were very peculiar. Along with the Polovtsian raids on Rus' and the campaigns of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians, there were lively economic, political, cultural relations. Some of the Polovtsian khans converted to Christianity, some of the Russian princes married the daughters of Polovtsian khans, even the wife of Yuri Dolgorukov was a Polovtsian.
The request of the Polovtsians to help them in the fight against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Tatar-Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes who promised to participate in the battle sent their troops. The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and warriors died. As a result of this battle, the Polovtsian state was destroyed, and the Polovtsians themselves became part of the state created by the Tatar-Mongols.
In 1231, the Tatar-Mongols invaded Transcaucasia. By 1243, Transcaucasia was completely in the hands of invaders. The consequences of this invasion for Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan were as severe as for Central Asia.
In those same years, another significant part of the Tatar-Mongol troops began to conquer Rus'. In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan Tatar-Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. In the battle near Kolomna, many Russian soldiers died, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the conquerors approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, they sent a detachment to Suzdal, which took this city and burned it. Then, on February 7, Vladimir was taken. During the assault, the city was set on fire, many people died from fire and suffocation, including the bishop and princess. The survivors were taken into slavery. As a result, the entire Vladimir-Suzdal land from Rostov to Tver was devastated. On March 4, 1238, the battle took place on the City River, which ended in the defeat of the Russian squad. The fate of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was decided. Meanwhile, another detachment of Tatar-Mongols besieged Torzhok, and on March 5 the city was taken. From here the invaders moved north to Novgorod. However, before reaching a hundred miles, the Tatar-Mongol troops were forced to turn back. The reasons for the retreat of the enemy troops and the salvation of Novgorod from the pogrom were not only the mud, but also the bleeding of the enemy troops in previous battles. However, the very next year (1239), the Tatar-Mongols began new trip to Russian land. Murom, Gorokhovets, and then Batu's troops moved south. In December 1240 Kyiv was taken. From here the Tatar-Mongol troops moved to Galician-Volyn Rus. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich, in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and in 1242 he reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, the conquerors entered Western Europe significantly weakened as a result of the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Tatar-Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', then Western Europe experienced only an invasion and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.
One of the main reasons for the defeat of Rus' was the then existing feudal fragmentation. The Russian principalities were defeated one by one by the enemy. An important circumstance was that the invaders, who had previously conquered Northern China and Central Asia, used destructive military equipment in the fight against Russia, including battering machines that pierced the walls of Russian fortresses, as well as stone throwers, gunpowder and vessels with hot liquids.
The consequences of this invasion for Rus' were extremely difficult. First of all, the population of the country sharply decreased, many people were killed and taken into slavery. Many cities were destroyed, Kyiv was deserted, with no more than 200 houses left. Of 74 cities in Rus' in the XII-XIII centuries. about 50 were devastated by the invaders, in 14 of them life did not subsequently resume, and 15 turned into small villages.
After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Rus' became a country dependent on the Golden Horde. A system developed in which the Grand Duke had to receive approval from the Horde, a “label” for the great reign.
The resistance of the masses to the Horde policy of oppression intensified; strong unrest, for example, occurred in the Novgorod land. In 1257, the Novgorodians refused to pay tribute. However, Alexander Nevsky, who considered it impossible under those conditions to openly clash with the Horde, restrained the uprising of the masses. In 1262 in all major cities Russian land (in Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Ustyug Veliky, in Vladimir) popular uprisings, many tribute collectors were killed. Frightened by the popular movement, the Horde hurried to transfer a significant part of the tribute collection to the appanage Russian princes. Thus, popular movement forced the Horde to go, if not to completely abolish labor, then to significantly limit it.
Speaking about the Mongol-Tatar invasion, about the aggressive successes of the Golden Horde in that period of history, one should at least briefly characterize the Golden Horde itself, its formation, state structure, the main stages of its political history and aggressive campaigns. These points are important for correct understanding the nature of the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' and its consequences. The Golden Horde was one of the ancient states of the Middle Ages, whose vast possessions were located in both Europe and Asia. Her military power and aggressive foreign policy constantly kept not only their neighbors in suspense, but also distant neighbors. The monarchs of many countries sought to establish friendly relations with her and maintain them as long as possible. In the extensive literature published in different countries, there are not only true, but also fictional stories about huge state nomads. These stories, which continued to exist after his disappearance, have survived to this day. Thirty years before the appearance of nomadic hordes under the walls of Russian cities, in 1206 a kurultai (congress) of the steppe aristocracy gathered on the banks of the Central Asian Onon River. At the congress the issue of electing supreme ruler. He elected Temutjin, who went down in history as Genghis Khan, the first ruler of a united Mongolia. Before his death, in 1227, Genghis Khan managed to lay the territorial foundation of a huge new empire, which included not only the peoples living in the immediate vicinity of Mongolia, but also China and Central Asia, and the steppes west of the Irtysh. In the second half of the 13th century. vast expanses from the shore Pacific Ocean to the Danube came under the rule of the Mongols. The capital of Mongolia, founded by Genghis Khan, was Karakorum. But already in the 60s. XIII century the empire broke up into separate parts (uluses). Its capital was moved from Karakorum to Khanbanlyk (present-day Beijing), and the ruling dynasty itself, in the Chinese manner, began to be called Yuan.
In the steppes north of Lake Balkhash and Aral Sea From the Irtysh to the Yaik (Ural) the ulus of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, stretched. His heirs constantly made attempts to expand their father's holdings. In 1235, at the kurultai, it was decided to provide powerful support to the sons of Jochi - Orda-Ichen and Batu in the conquest of Eastern Europe. Their troops were reinforced by detachments of several more Mongol princes and the best commander of Genghis Khan, Subedey, who defeated the Russian-Polovtsian forces on the Kalka River in 1223. The entire campaign was led by Jochi’s second son Batu, who was called Batu in Russian chronicles.
From the autumn of 1236 until the spring of 1242, this huge army reached the Adriatic coast, which caused panic at the courts of the Pope and even the French king. However, here the conquerors unexpectedly stopped and began to slowly retreat to the east. By the end of 1242, all their troops settled down for the winter in the Black Sea and Caspian steppes. It was this territory that became the core of the future state, known to us as the Golden Horde. The countdown of its political history begins in 1243. Then Grand Duke Yaroslav was the first of the Russian rulers to arrive at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan for a label to reign.
To have an idea of the power and strength of this state, it is enough to imagine its territory at that time. General area Golden Horde in the 13th century. outlined by the following boundary lines. The eastern borders of the Golden Horde included Siberia with the border rivers Irtysh and Chulyman, which separated the possessions of the Jochids from the metropolis. The outlying areas here were the Barabinsky and Kuludinsky steppes. The northern border in the vastness of Siberia was in the middle reaches of the Ob River. The southern border of the state began in the foothills of Altai and ran north of Lake Balkhash, then stretched west through the middle reaches of the Syr Darya, south of the Aral Sea, to the Khorezm ulus. This region of ancient agriculture constituted the southern ulus of the Golden Horde with its center in the city of Urgench. On the western shore of the Caspian Sea, the border city belonging to the Jochids was Derbent, which is referred to in eastern chronicles as the “Iron Gate”. From here the border stretched along the northern foothills of the Caucasus Range to the Taman Peninsula, which was entirely part of the Golden Horde. Throughout the 13th century. The Caucasian border was one of the most turbulent, since the local peoples were not yet completely subjugated to the Golden Horde and offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors.
The Tauride Peninsula also formed part of the Golden Horde from the beginning of its existence. It was after inclusion in the territory of this state that it received a new name - Crimea, after the name of the main city of this ulus. However, the conquerors themselves occupied in the XIII-XIV centuries. only the northern, steppe part of the peninsula. Its coast and mountainous regions at that time represented a number of small feudal estates, semi-dependent on the conquerors. The most important and famous among them were the Italian city-colonies of Kafa (Feodosia), Soldaya (Sudak), Chembalo (Balaclava).
To the west of the Black Sea, the border of the state stretched along the Danube to the Hungarian fortress of Turnu-Severnaya, which blocked the exit from the Lower Danube Lowland. The northern borders of the state in this area were limited by the spurs of the Carpathians and included the steppe spaces of the Prut-Dniester interfluve. It was here that the border of the Golden Horde with the Russian principalities began. It passed approximately along the border between steppe and forest-steppe. The border between the Dniester and Dnieper stretched in the area of modern Vinnitsa and Cherkasy regions. In the Dnieper basin, the possessions of the Russian princes ended between Kyiv and Kanev. From here the border line went to the area of modern Kharkov, Kursk and then went to the Ryazan borders along the left bank of the Don. To the east of the Ryazan principality, from the Moksha River to the Volga, there was a forest area inhabited by Mordovian tribes. The vast region of modern Chuvashia in the 13th century. was completely under the rule of the Golden Horde. On the left bank of the Volga, the Golden Horde borderland stretched north of the Kama. Here were the former possessions of Volga Bulgaria, which became an integral part of the Golden Horde. Those living in the Middle and Southern Urals The Bashkirs also formed part of the Mongol state. They owned all the lands in this area south of the Belaya River.
Extensive borders indicate that the Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages. From an ethnic point of view, it was a very motley mixture of the most different nations, among them are representatives of the Volga Bulgarians, Russians, Burtases, Bashkirs, Mordovians, Yasses, and Circassians enslaved by the conquerors. There were also Persians, Armenians, Greeks, Georgians, and Azerbaijanis here. But the bulk of the population of the Golden Horde were the Kipchaks who lived in the steppes before the arrival of the conquerors, or, as the Russians called them, the Polovtsians.
In literature, for a long time there was a debate about the concepts of “Mongol” and “Tatar”, their relationship, and identity. In this regard, we note that the names “Mongols” and “Tatars” are widely used even now, when they characterize the population of the Golden Horde as “Mongol-Tatars.”
The ethnonym "Mongols" was widely known in ancient Central Asia. It was used as the self-name of several tribes united by Genghis Khan in single state. However, historically, wherever the Mongol troops of Genghis Khan and his heirs appeared, they were called Tatars. This is due exclusively to the Chinese chronicle tradition, from the 12th century. persistently called all the Mongols, including Genghis Khan himself and his immediate circle, “black Tatars.” However, neither the Genghisids themselves nor the Mongol armies that appeared in Europe under the leadership of Batu had anything to do with the Tatars. They called themselves exclusively Mongols, and their state - Mongolian. As for the Tatars themselves, they were in the XII - early XIII centuries. lived along the northern border of China, guarding the approaches to the Great Chinese wall from raids by nomads, including the Mongols. For this service, the Chinese emperors gave the Tatar leaders an annual allowance in silver and various goods. The name "Tatars" in medieval Chinese historiography corresponded to the European concept of "barbarians". That is why the Chinese extended the ethnonym “Tatars” to other tribes that lived to the north of the Tatars themselves. However, they called the latter “white Tatars”, i.e. more cultured, involved in the fruits and achievements of Chinese civilization, and the Mongols living in the northern steppes, forests and mountains were called “Black Tatars,” which had a derogatory connotation, emphasizing their savagery.
According to the scientific version of Professor V.L. Egorov, the Tatars were never allies of the Mongols and never participated in their campaigns of conquest, but, on the contrary, were constantly at enmity with them (Egorov V.L. The Golden Horde: myths and reality. M., 1990). Russian and Western European chronicles usually used the ethnonym “Tatars” in relation to the population of the Golden Horde, although a number of scientists and travelers who visited in the mid-13th century. The Golden Horde noted that the founders of the Jochi dynasty called themselves Mongols. In the works of major Russian historians of the pre-October period V.N. Tatishchev and N.M. Karamzin, the name "Mongols" is considered as belonging to two separate peoples. In their opinion, a significant part Mongol troops consisted of Tatars, so the very name “Tatars” was used in relation to the conquerors. This point of view was established in science in the 19th century. In the 20s This century the phrase "Tatar-Mongols" was introduced. Other sources indicate that there were practically no Tatars in the troops of Genghis Khan, and especially Batu. Be that as it may, however, the phrase “Mongol-Tatars” or “Tatar-Mongols” remains in literature to this day, although modern Tatars have nothing to do with the people who lived in the middle of the century on the border with China (Egorov V.L. Decree op. 15).
Having completed their bloody campaigns of conquest, the Tatar-Mongol troops, burdened with huge convoys with looted goods and crowds of prisoners, settled at the end of 1242 in the vast steppes between the Danube and Ob. The new owners of the Kipchak steppes began not only to debug own state, but also by establishing relationships with surrounding neighbors. Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, became the supreme partner by right of inheritance. He remained on the throne of the Golden Horde for 14 years (1242-1256). The first priority when organizing internal structure The state for Batu was the distribution of land plots (uluses) to the steppe aristocracy in accordance with military positions. At the same time, the formation of state apparatus, aimed solely at collecting taxes and tribute. It was also necessary to establish a system of political dominion over peoples territorially not included in the Golden Horde. First of all, this applied to Rus'. Batu managed to accomplish all this in the shortest possible time.
However, with all the power of the army and the splendor of the Khan’s court, the Golden Horde in politically was not an independent state, but formed part of a single empire ruled from Karakorum.
Obedience consisted of the obligatory transfer to Karakorum of a portion of all taxes and tribute collected. To accurately establish this amount, special officials, the so-called “chislenniks,” were sent to census the population. In Rus', “numerals” appeared in 1257. The Khans of the Golden Horde did not have the right to confirm Russian Grand Dukes on the Vladimir throne, but could only appoint holders of lower ranks. That is why the Russian princes Yaroslav and his son Alexander Nevsky were forced to make a long journey from Rus' to Mongolia. The capital of the Golden Horde was Sarai (near modern Astrakhan).
Real terror was used against the Russian princes, which was supposed to intimidate them and deprive them of even the thought of opposing the ruler of Sarai. Many Russian princes were killed, in particular, in 1387 Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy was killed. Punitive Golden Horde detachments appeared every now and then in Rus'. In a number of cases, the intimidated Russian princes themselves brought tribute to the khan's headquarters.
When merciless military pressure was replaced by no less heavy, but more sophisticated - economic pressure, the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus' entered a new stage.
In the spring of 1361, a tense situation developed in the Golden Horde. The situation was aggravated by civil strife, the struggle for dominance between individual khans. One of central figures in the Golden Horde during this period it becomes Mamai. Pursuing an energetic policy, he was able to achieve the liquidation of all the isolated feudal lords of the territory that belonged to them. was needed decisive victory, which would not only guarantee the unification of the state, but also provide greater opportunity to manage vassal territories. There were not enough resources and strength for such a decisive turn. Mamai demanded both from the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, but was refused. Rus' began to prepare for the fight against Mamai.
Despite all the terrible hardships, losses and losses, the Russian farmer, with his hard work, created the material basis for consolidating forces for liberation from Tatar-Mongol oppression. And finally the time came when the united regiments of northeastern Rus', led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, entered the Kulikovo field. They challenged the Tatar-Mongol rule and entered into open battle with the Horde.
The growing power of northeastern Rus' was demonstrated already in 1378, when on the Vozha River (a tributary of the Oka) the Grand Duke of Moscow defeated a large Mongol-Tatar detachment and captured prominent military leaders of Mamai. In the spring of 1380, having crossed the “great” Volga, Mamai and his hordes invaded the Eastern European steppes. He reached the Don and began to wander around its left tributary - the Voronezh River, intending to go to Rus' closer to autumn. His plans were of a particularly sinister nature: he wanted to carry out not just a raid for the purpose of robbery and increasing the size of tribute, but to completely capture and enslave the Russian principalities.
Having learned about the impending threat, Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich hastily took measures to strengthen Moscow, Kolomna, Serpukhov and other cities. Moscow becomes the organizing center for preparing resistance to the new invasion. Soon numerous princes and governors of the nearest principalities arrive here.
Dmitry Ivanovich energetically began to form the Russian army. An order was sent out to assemble in Kolomna on August 15.
On August 18, Dmitry Ivanovich visited the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and received the blessing of Abbot Sergius of Radonezh for the battle with the Horde. This elder, the founder of the monastery, who with his ascetic life gained enormous authority among various segments of the population, played a prominent role in the social and spiritual life of Rus'.
On August 27, the army left Moscow for Kolomna, where a combined arms review took place, at which a governor was assigned to each regiment. The Grand Duke takes his first decisive step towards the enemy - he crosses the Oka - the main southern defensive line Rus' against nomads.
Conducting constant reconnaissance, the Russians were well aware of the location and intentions of the enemy. Mamai, believing in his complete superiority, made a serious miscalculation in this regard. He was taken by surprise as his plans were thwarted by the quick actions of the Russians.
How many warriors gathered under Russian banners before the Battle of Kulikovo? According to prof. N.A. Khotinsky, set out in the book “History and Geography of the Battle of Kulikovo” (M., 1988. P. 29), “ancient written sources They brought to us opposite information on this matter: from the clearly exaggerated figure of 400 thousand to 150 thousand fighters. Probably, a more realistic number of troops was indicated by A.N. Tatishchev, estimating it at approximately 60 thousand people. The majority of modern military historians are inclined to the same opinion, determining the total number of Russian troops at 50-60 thousand warriors. The Horde regiments apparently numbered 80-90 thousand soldiers. The regiments of almost all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' came to the Kulikovo field."
Mamai's army of thousands was defeated in 1380 on the Kulikovo Field. Rus' celebrated victory. However, two years later, the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, at the head of a huge army, unexpectedly attacked Rus', which had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Battle of Kulikovo. The Horde were able to capture Moscow. On August 26, 1382, Moscow was completely ruined and devastated.
After the capture of Moscow, Tokhtamysh's hordes scattered throughout the area, plundering and killing, burning everything in their path. But this time the Horde did not rampage for long. In the Volokolamsk region, they were unexpectedly attacked by Prince Vladimir Andreevich with an army of seven thousand. The Tatars ran. Having received a message about the strength of the Russian army and remembering the lesson of the Battle of Kulikovo, Tokhtamysh began to hastily go south. From that time on, the Horde began to fear an open clash with the Russian army and began to act with great cunning and caution, trying in every possible way to inflame the internecine struggle of the Russian princes. The heavy burden of tribute, although in a smaller volume than Mamai demanded, again fell on Rus'. Does this mean that the fruits of victory in the Battle of Kulikovo were completely lost? Of course not! Thanks to her, Mamai’s plan for the complete enslavement of Rus' was not carried out either by him or by the subsequent rulers of the Horde. On the contrary, from that time on, the centripetal forces in the unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow became increasingly stronger. After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' strengthened its faith in its national forces, which played an important role in her eventual victory over the Horde. From that time on, the Russians stopped looking at the Horde as force majeure, as an inevitable and eternal punishment of God. Dmitry Ivanovich, nicknamed “Donskoy” for his victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, led a generation of people who overcame the age-old fear inspired by Batu’s invasion. And the Horde themselves, after the Battle of Kulikovo, stopped looking at the Russians as unrequited slaves and gift givers.
After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' irreversibly began to strengthen, its dependence on the Horde weakened more and more. Dmitry Donskoy already emphasized his independence from the khan’s will and, violating the order established by the Horde, in his spiritual testament he transferred the right to the great reign of Vladimir to his eldest son Vasily Dmitrievich. Since then, a method of transferring supreme power in northeastern Rus', independent of the Horde, has become the hereditary right of the Moscow princely family. A strong and experienced enemy was crushed on the Kulikovo Field. Although the Horde continued their campaigns of conquest later, they were never able to fully recover from the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo. Its consequences largely predetermined future fate hordes. 1395 - practically last year existence of the Golden Horde. The agony of the collapse of this once powerful state lasted until the middle of the 15th century. In place of the Golden Horde, new ones appeared political entities. 200 years later, after the creation of the Golden Horde by Batu Khan, it broke up into the following components: Great Horde, Astrakhan Khanate, Kazan Khanate, Crimean Khanate, Khanate of Siberia, Nogai Horde. They all existed separately, fighting and making peace with each other and with their neighbors. The history of the Crimean Khanate lasted longer than others, which ceased to exist in 1783. It was the last fragment of the Golden Horde, which came from the Middle Ages into modern times.
For Rus', the victory on the Kulikovo Field over a strong and cruel enemy was of great importance. The Battle of Kulikovo not only significantly enriched Russian army military-strategic experience of major battles, but also affected the entire subsequent political history of the Russian state. The victory on the Kulikovo Field cleared the way for national liberation and consolidation of Rus'.
The success of the Mongol invasion in 1237-1240 marked the beginning of Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde. Numerous defeats of the Russian troops, the fall of Ryazan, Vladimir, Moscow, Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Chernigov and many other cities led to the fact that the Russian princes were forced to recognize the power of the Mongol rulers over themselves. At first, Rus'’s dependence on the Golden Horde was only political: Russian self-government was preserved, but from now on the princes went to the Horde to receive a label for reign from the Mongol ruler. Subsequently, tribute was imposed on Rus'.
Now the dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde is usually called the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, the meaning of this term must be treated with caution. First of all, it appeared already in 1479, and became widespread only in the 16th century and was invented not by Russians, but by Poles. In addition, although tribute was imposed on Rus', although the princes were highly dependent on the Mongol khans, nevertheless, it cannot be said that dependence on the Golden Horde was so humiliating for the Russian people. First of all, the Mongol-Tatars did not take away our faith, and faith is cornerstone self-awareness of the people. By the way, this is why the holy prince Alexander Nevsky chose to have the protection of Khan Batu rather than help Western states: the West demanded to abandon Orthodoxy and convert to Catholicism. Secondly, they left the Russian princes to manage their lands themselves and took care mainly of receiving tribute in full. Moreover, many princes tried to use connections in the Horde in conflicts among themselves. This, for example, was the basis for the foreign and domestic policies of Ivan Kalita, who managed to make the Moscow principality the most important in Rus' and laid the foundation for the unification of Russian lands. The Mongol-Tatars did not keep troops on our territory, but their invasions brought a lot of grief. However, military campaigns, as a rule, were only a consequence of disobedience, but the khans preferred to punish it extremely cruelly.
Since the 14th century, Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde began to gradually weaken. Russian princes increasingly began to successfully “show their teeth” Mongol khans, and Dmitry Donskoy, who defeated Mamai in the famous Battle of Kulikovo, became the first prince in 140 years to transfer grand-ducal power to his son Vasily without receiving the khan's label for reign. The weakening of the dependence of the Russian principalities was a consequence of the weakening of the Golden Horde itself: the internecine wars of the khans and the fragmentation of the Horde into several parts could not but affect the military and political force Mongol-Tatars.
Historians have different assessments of Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde. According to many, the Mongol-Tatar yoke significantly slowed down the historical development of the Russian people. In their opinion, it was because of him that we fell behind in many respects. European countries and only with the coming to power of Peter the Great the Russian state managed to slightly eliminate this backlog. Others, on the contrary, believe that dependence on the Golden Horde was more of a blessing than a misfortune. Thus, Karamzin believed that the Mongol-Tatar yoke played a very important role in the development of Russian statehood, and Klyuchevsky believed that the Horde largely prevented fratricidal civil strife in Rus'. Lev Gumilyov considered the relationship between Rus' and the Golden Horde political union, beneficial primarily for Rus', and believed that they should be called “symbiosis.”
