The reign of Alexander II became a period that is often called the “era of reforms” that destroyed feudal remnants, a time of radical transformations of Russian society. Unlike his father, he was prepared to govern the state. The emperor received a good education, and his teachers were V. Zhukovsky, M. Speransky, E. Kankrin, who noted in the heir such qualities as goodwill, sociability, ability for science, but on the other hand, a tendency to retreat in the face of difficulties. Alexander II became emperor at the age of 36, with a well-established system of views and experience government activities. Having ascended the throne, the emperor was forced to take the path of reform.

Prerequisites for reforms

The prerequisites for the reforms were the constant threat of peasant revolts and the political and economic crisis. The defeat in the Crimean War not only reduced Russia's international authority to the limit, but also showed the need for reforms in the financial, military, medical, and educational spheres. Another prerequisite was public dissatisfaction with the Nikolaev police regime and the constant threat of social protests. A situation favorable for reforms developed in the country - the emperor was supported by supporters of reforms (P. Valuev, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, D. Milyutin, etc.); the liberals and the revolutionary movement were disorganized and were unable to propose an alternative plan for reform; opponents of reforms after the defeat in the Crimean War did not dare to oppose the reforms. Therefore, in 1856, Alexander II made a famous speech to the Moscow nobility, in which he stated that “it is better to abolish serfdom from above, rather than wait for the time when it itself begins to be canceled from below.”

Abolition of serfdom

The most important event of the reign of Alexander II, for which he received the name “Liberator,” was the reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom. Preparations for the abolition of serfdom began in January 1857 with the creation of another Secret Committee, completely subordinate to the emperor. By November, a rescript had been drawn up, announcing the beginning of the abolition of serfdom and ordering the creation in each province noble committees to develop proposals. This served as the beginning of extensive discussions of the peasant issue in the press. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, which began to consider projects drawn up by provincial noble committees. During the discussions, a project was developed according to which peasants would be given freedom, but without being allocated land. This caused an intensification of the peasant movement in 1858. The government decided to revise the project for the liberation of the peasants and carry out the reform more radically. In order to rework the project, in February 1859, Editorial Commissions were established in St. Petersburg, which included mainly liberals, under the leadership of N. Milyutin. By the autumn of 1859 they had drawn up a draft “Regulations on Peasants”. On February 19, 1861, a reform was carried out that abolished serfdom. Alexander II signed the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom,” according to which peasants were freed from personal dependence. The peasant reform consisted of several parts: the ownership of landowners over peasants was abolished, who could now go to work in the city or be hired by the landowner to work. The landowner lost the right to punish peasants, they became legal entities, that is, they could buy land, real estate, enter into transactions, and open enterprises. However, the peasants remained attached to their place of residence, were bound by a mutual guarantee in paying taxes, and bore duties in kind.

In addition, peasants received arable plots at fairly complex scheme, which also significantly limited their movement. Within two years, statutory charters had to be drawn up - agreements between landowners and peasants, stipulating the terms of the redemption. After this, for 49 years, the peasants became “temporarily obligated” and had to pay the landowner a ransom. Only after this the plots became the property of the peasants. The amount of redemption payments was determined by the size of the peasant quitrent, i.e., it was not the personal dependence of the peasants and not the land that was redeemed, but the duties. This amount, deposited in the bank at 6% per annum, was supposed to bring the landowner an annual income in the amount of labor payments. The state acted as an intermediary between the peasant and the landowner; it paid the landowner, upon concluding a redemption transaction, about 75% of the redemption amount. Peasants were required to annually contribute 6% of this amount to the state for 49 years. Household people were declared free without ransom, but for two years they had to serve their masters or pay quitrent. Serf workers of landowner and state-owned factories and factories were transferred to quitrent and received the right to buy out their former plots. State peasants (except for Siberia and the Far East), who were considered personally free, according to the “Regulations”, retained the lands that were in their use. They could continue to pay the quitrent tax to the state or enter into a redemption deal with the treasury. The “Regulation” divided the provinces into three parts (black earth, non-black earth and steppe lands). Within the provinces, localities were allocated, which were divided into plots between landowners - land owners and their peasants. The distribution norms were established so that the landowner could choose the best plots for his share, including wedging his lands into the middle of the peasant fields. This led to the emergence of “stripes”. The peasants' reactions to the reform varied. For example, in the Kazan province, unrest began due to the spread of rumors that the tsar gave land to the peasants for free, and the ransom was “invented” by the landowners. More than 300 people were killed during the suppression of these unrest. In 1861, more than 1,370 performances were recorded, but later the wave of performances began to decline. In general, the liberation of the peasants was a progressive step that destroyed a feudal relic - serfdom, which led to cash injections into agriculture, undermined the “natural” way of farming and contributed to the development of capitalism.

Reforms of the 60s XIX century

Carrying out the peasant reform required changes in other areas of life. Finance reform. In 1860, the State Bank was created to carry out redemption payments between landowners and peasants. In 1862, the Ministry of Finance became the sole manager of public funds, which independently planned the state budget and, together with the State Council, approved the estimates of individual departments. To control funds, State Control was reformed in 1864, which was now independent of the administration and verified the correctness of spending budget funds. In the provinces, control chambers were established that checked financial statements based on primary documents, and not final reports, as before. Direct taxes were partially replaced by indirect ones.

Reform local government(Zemstvo reform).

On January 1, 1864, zemstvos (all-estate bodies in counties and provinces) were established, whose competence included: local economy, distribution of state taxes, organization of schools, hospitals, shelters, maintenance of prisons and communications. Within the zemstvo there were administrative and executive sectors. Administrative bodies - “meetings of vowels” (deputies) - dealt with economic issues and met once a year. Executive bodies - “zemstvo councils” - were engaged in the execution of decisions of the administrative sector. Funding for the implementation of the regulations was mixed: 80% of the funds came from the state, the rest from local taxes (self-financing). Elections to zemstvo administrative bodies were held on the basis of property qualifications, by curiae. The first curia - deputies from landowners - consisted of owners of land (from 200 to 800 dessiatines) or real estate (worth from 15 thousand rubles). The second curia - deputies from cities - united owners of industrial and commercial establishments (annual turnover of at least 6 thousand. rub.). Elections for the third curia of deputies from peasants are unlicensed, but multi-stage. Zemstvos were elected for three years. The chairman of the zemstvo assembly was to be the leader of the nobility. At the end of the 70s. zemstvos were introduced only in 35 of the 59 Russian provinces. Subsequently, throughout 1870-1880. the competence of zemstvos was gradually curtailed, and the composition became more and more noble. But, despite many shortcomings, the work of zemstvos contributed to the formation of civic consciousness and the solution of some local problems of education and health care. Urban reform began to be developed in 1861. Its project, presented in 1864, was discussed and redone for a long time. On June 16, 1870, it was approved “ City situation", according to which the City Duma was created in cities ( legislature) and City Government ( executive body) chaired by the mayor. The functions of city government were to take care of the improvement of the city, the guardianship of trade, the establishment of hospitals, schools and city taxation. Elections to the City Duma were held in three electoral assemblies based on property qualifications. The first electoral assembly included only large taxpayers, who contributed a third of city taxes, the second - smaller ones, who paid the other third, and the third - all the rest. Each assembly elected representatives to the City Duma. City councils were under the control of government officials. The mayor (elected by the City Duma for 4 years) was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs, they could also suspend the decisions of the City Duma.

Judicial reform. On November 20, 1864, judicial reform was carried out. It included the creation of new judicial statutes that introduced common judicial institutions for persons of all classes, with in general legal proceedings, openness and competitiveness of legal proceedings, equal responsibility of all classes before the law, independence of the court from the administration. The country was divided into 108 judicial districts. The new structure of the court included: a magistrate's court, where criminal and civil cases were heard, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies and approved by the Senate; District Court, where serious civil suits and criminal cases were tried by jury. The Senate was the highest court and appellate authority. The preliminary investigation was conducted by bailiffs. The legal profession was introduced. This system was supplemented by volost courts for peasants, consistories for the clergy, courts for the military, high officials, etc. The most important political crimes were under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Criminal Court, which was appointed by the emperor in exceptional cases. In 1863, a law was passed abolishing corporal punishment by court sentences. From corporal punishment Women were completely freed. However, rods were preserved for peasants (according to verdicts of volost courts), for exiles, convicts and penal soldiers. Education and press reform was carried out in 1863-1865. In 1863, a new university charter was issued, which provided universities with broad freedom and self-government. In the summer of 1864, the “Charter of Gymnasiums and Pro-Gymnasiums” was introduced. The reform of public education proclaimed the principle of general and all-class education. In 1865, according to the press reform, censorship was significantly relaxed, and society was given the right to discuss political events. Military reform began in 1857 with the liquidation of the system of military settlements and the reduction of the service life of lower ranks (from 25 to 10 years). In the 60s The management of the fleet and naval educational institutions was reorganized, and over the course of 12 years, reforms were carried out in the army. In 1862, the reform of military administration began. The country was divided into 15 military districts for the purpose of more efficient command and control of troops. The War Ministry and Main headquarters. In 1864-1867 the size of the army decreased from 1132 thousand people. up to 742 thousand while maintaining military potential. In 1865, military-judicial reform began. In the 60s For the rapid transfer of troops, a railway was built to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870, railway troops were created. New regulations have appeared in the army. During the reform of military educational institutions, military gymnasiums and cadet schools were organized for all classes with a two-year period of study. Officer training was improved. On January 1, 1874, the “Charter on Military Service” was published, according to which, instead of conscription, universal military service was introduced. Upon reaching the age of 21, all males were required to perform active service. All this made it possible to create a fairly strong, trained army. Further reform activities were interrupted on March 1, 1881 by the assassination of Alexander II as a result of a terrorist attack.

The future ruler of Russia was born on April 17, 1818 in Moscow. He became the first and only heir to the throne born in the mother see since 1725. There, on May 5, the baby was baptized in the Cathedral of the Chudov Monastery.

The boy got good home education. One of his mentors was the poet V. A. Zhukovsky. He told the crowned parents that he would prepare his pupil not to be a rude martinet, but a wise and enlightened monarch, so that he would see in Russia not a parade ground and a barracks, but a great nation.

The poet’s words turned out to be not empty bravado. Both he and other educators did a lot to ensure that the heir to the throne became truly educated, culturally and progressively thinking person. From the age of 16, the young man began to take part in the administration of the empire. His father introduced him to the Senate, then to the Holy Governing Synod and other highest government bodies. A young man passed by and military service, and quite successfully. During Crimean War(1853-1856) he commanded the troops stationed in the capital and held the rank of general.

The reign of Alexander II (1855-1881)

Domestic policy

Emperor Alexander II, who ascended the throne, inherited a difficult inheritance. A lot of foreign policy and domestic policy issues have accumulated. The financial situation of the country was extremely difficult due to the Crimean War. The state, in fact, found itself isolated, pitting itself against the strongest countries in Europe. Therefore, the first step of the new emperor was the conclusion of the Paris Peace, signed on March 18, 1856.

The signing was attended by Russia on the one hand and allied states on the Crimean War on the other. These are France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia and Ottoman Empire. Peace terms for Russian Empire turned out to be quite soft. She returned Turkey's busy before the territory, and in return received Kerch, Balaklava, Kamysh and Sevastopol. Thus, the foreign policy blockade was broken.

On August 26, 1856, the coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In this regard, it came out highest manifesto. He granted benefits individual categories subjects, suspended recruitment for 3 years and abolished military settlements since 1857, which were widely practiced during the reign of Nicholas I.

But the most important thing in the activities of the new emperor was abolition of serfdom. A manifesto about this was announced on February 19, 1861. At that time, there were 23 million serfs out of 62 million people inhabiting the Russian Empire. This reform was not perfect, but it destroyed the existing social order and became a catalyst for other reforms that affected the court, finance, army, and education.

The merit of Emperor Alexander II is that he found the strength to suppress the resistance of opponents of the changes, which were many nobles and officials. In general public opinion the empire sided with the sovereign. And the court flatterers called him Tsar-Liberator. This nickname has taken root among the people.

A discussion of the constitutional structure began in the country. But the question was not about a constitutional monarchy, but only about some limitation of absolute royal power. It was planned to expand the State Council and create Total commission, which would include representatives of zemstvos. As for the Parliament, there was no intention of creating it.

The emperor planned to sign the papers, which were the first step towards a constitution. He announced this on March 1, 1881 during breakfast with Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich. And literally a couple of hours later the sovereign was killed by terrorists. The Russian Empire was once again unlucky.

At the end of January 1863, an uprising began in Poland. At the end of April 1864 it was suppressed. 128 instigators were executed, 800 were sent to hard labor. But these speeches accelerated peasant reform in Poland, Lithuania, and Belarus.

Foreign policy

Emperor Alexander II pursued a foreign policy taking into account the further expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire. The defeat in the Crimean War showed the backwardness and weakness of weapons in ground army and in the navy. Therefore, a new foreign policy concept was created, which was inextricably linked with technological reforms in the field of weapons. All these issues were supervised by Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov. He was considered an experienced and efficient diplomat and significantly increased the prestige of Russia.

In 1877-1878, the Russian Empire fought with Turkey. As a result of this military campaign, Bulgaria was liberated. She became independent state. IN Central Asia were annexed huge territories. The empire also included the North Caucasus, Bessarabia, Far East. As a result of all this, the country has become one of the largest in the world.

In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to America (for more details, see the article Who Sold Alaska to America). Subsequently, this caused a lot of controversy, especially since the price was relatively low. In 1875, the Kuril Islands were transferred to Japan in exchange for Sakhalin Island. In these matters, Alexander II was guided by the fact that Alaska and the Kuril Islands are remote, unprofitable lands that are difficult to manage. At the same time some politicians criticized the emperor for annexing Central Asia and the Caucasus. The conquest of these lands cost Russia great human sacrifices and material costs.

The personal life of Emperor Alexander II was complex and confusing. In 1841 he married Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse (1824-1880) of the Hessian dynasty. The bride converted to Orthodoxy in December 1840 and became Maria Alexandrovna, and on April 16, 1841 the wedding took place. The couple have been married for almost 40 years. The wife gave birth to 8 children, but the crowned husband was not distinguished by fidelity. He regularly took on mistresses (favorites).

Alexander II with his wife Maria Alexandrovna

Her husband's infidelities and childbirth undermined the empress's health. She was often sick, and died in the summer of 1880 from tuberculosis. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

Less than a year had passed after the death of his wife, and the sovereign entered into an organic marriage with his longtime favorite Ekaterina Dolgoruka (1847-1922). The relationship with her began in 1866, when the girl was 19 years old. In 1972, she gave birth to a son from the emperor, named George. Then three more children were born.

It should be noted that Emperor Alexander II loved Dolgorukaya very much and was very attached to her. By a special decree, he bestowed the surname Yuryevsky and the titles of His Serene Highness on the children born from her. As for the environment, it disapproved of the organic marriage with Dolgoruka. The hostility was so strong that after the death of the sovereign, the newly-made wife and their children emigrated from the country and settled in Nice. There Catherine died in 1922.

The years of Alexander II's reign were marked by several attempts on his life (read more in the article Attempts on Alexander II). In 1879, the Narodnaya Volya members sentenced the emperor to death. However, fate protected the sovereign for a long time, and the assassination attempts were thwarted. It should be noted here that the Russian Tsar was not known for cowardice and, despite the danger, appeared in public places either alone or with a small retinue.

But on March 1, 1881, the autocrat’s luck changed. The terrorists carried out their murder plan. The assassination attempt was carried out on the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg. The body of the sovereign was mutilated by the bomb thrown. On the same day, Emperor Alexander II died, having taken communion. He was buried on March 7 in the Peter and Paul Cathedral next to his first wife Maria Alexandrovna. On Russian throne Alexander III entered.

Leonid Druzhnikov

Born on April 29, 1818. Being the son of Nicholas 1 and heir to the throne, he received an excellent, comprehensive education. Alexander's teachers were Zhukovsky and military officer Merder. His father also had a noticeable influence on the formation of the personality of Alexander 2. Alexander ascended the throne after the death of Nicholas 1, in 1885. By that time, he already had some experience in governance, since he acted as sovereign during his father’s absence in the capital. This ruler went down in history as Alexander 2 the Liberator. AND short biography Alexandra 2 wouldn't be complete without mentioning him reform activities.

The wife of Alexander 2 in 1841 was Princess Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, better known as Maria Alexandrovna. She gave birth to 7 children to Nikolai, the 2 eldest died. And since 1880, the tsar was married (in a morganatic marriage) to Princess Dolgorukaya, with whom he had 4 children.

The domestic policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of them was the peasant reform of Alexander 2, according to which in 1861, on February 19, serfdom was abolished. This reform created an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and entailed the implementation of 2 bourgeois reforms by Alexander.

In 1864, by decree of Alexander 2, a zemstvo reform. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institution of district zemstvo was established.

In 1870, an urban reform was carried out, which had a positive impact on the development of industry and cities. City councils and councils were established, which were representative bodies of government. Judicial reform Alexandra 2, held in 1864, was marked by the introduction of European legal norms, but some features of the previously valid judicial system For example, a special court for officials was retained.

The next one was military reform Alexandra 2. Its result is universal conscription, as well as army organization standards close to European ones. During the financial reform of Alexander 2, the State Bank was created, and official accounting was born. The logical conclusion of reform activity was the preparation of the first Russian history official draft of the Constitution.

Overestimate the importance liberal reforms Alexander 2, which are sometimes called “revolution from above” is difficult. The result of the reforms of Alexander 2 was active development machine production, the emergence of new industries in Russian industry, but not only. The significance of the reforms is that social life the country has become more liberal, has seriously changed and political system. This naturally led to the intensification of the social movement under Alexander II.

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1. In the spring of 1864, the North Caucasus was subordinated, where for a long time unsuccessful military operations took place. The same year was marked by the subjugation of Turkestan and the pacification of Poland. Brought glory Russian weapons war with Turkey 1877 - 1878 quite significantly increased the territory of the country. But Russia lost Alaska, which was sold to the United States for a relatively small amount of 7 million 200 thousand dollars.

The reign of Alexander 2 was overshadowed by many attempts on his life. The first of them was committed in Paris, on May 25, 1867. The second assassination attempt took place in St. Petersburg, in 1879. This was followed by an explosion attempt imperial train August 26, 1879 and the explosion in the Winter Palace on February 5, 1880.

The great reforms of Alexander 2 were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 On that day, Tsar Alexander 2 intended to sign a project of large-scale economic and administrative reforms Loris-Melikova. The assassination attempt on Alexander 2, committed by the Narodnaya Volya member Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor. Thus the reign of Alexander 2 came to an end. His son ascended to the Russian throne,

Brief plan:

The heir to the Romanov dynasty, Alexander Nikolaevich, was born April 29, 1818 in Moscow. Years of reign from 1855 to 1881. After his father, Nicholas 1, became emperor in 1825, he was first in line to the throne, as he was the eldest son.

Being a direct heir, Alexander from an early age prepared for the role of a state ruler. He received an excellent education without leaving the royal chambers. Among his teachers were such well-known names as Speransky, Zhukovsky, Kankrin and others.

Alexander received the imperial crown March 3, 1855. Along with the rights to the throne, he also inherited the unresolved problems of the Crimean War, as well as society dissatisfied with the Decembrist exile of 1825. Alexander 2 managed to deal with them quite successfully. That is why the period of his reign is called “liberation”.

Wars under Alexander II

During the reign of Alexander II, Russia reached great success in the military field. And this despite the fact that the emperor’s government activities began with the rapid conclusion of the Crimean War, as a result of which the country found itself in political isolation. France, Austria and Prussia created an anti-Russian coalition after the defeat of Russia. The rapprochement with Prussia occurred in 1864, when an uprising broke out in Poland, which was suppressed with the help of Russian troops.

In 1864, the victory of Russia ended the almost 50-year Caucasian War. As a result, lands were annexed to the Russian Empire North Caucasus and its influence in these regions strengthened. There was also a massive migration of people from the central part of Russia to the Caucasus.

Reforms

Reign of Alexander 2 historians pre-revolutionary Russia called nothing less than the “era of great reforms.” It's about not only about the breakthrough decision for the country to abolish serfdom - the emperor also became famous for his successes in foreign policy.

Peasant reform

When studying the biography of Alexander II, one cannot help but mention his historical nickname “Liberator”. His Russian Emperor received after signing the manifesto “On the Abolition of Serfdom” on March 3, 1861. Despite the fact that preparations for this step had been carried out over previous decades (during the reign of Alexander 1 in the 1820s), final decision was made by Alexander 2.

The reform of 1861 is controversial. On the one hand, Alexander 2 removed the shackles of serfdom from the state, and on the other, he brought it to a social and economic crisis. The table shows the positive and negative aspects Peasant reform.

Generally peasant reform, although it had been in preparation for more than twenty years, did not bring the expected reassurance to the public.

Liberal reforms

1. Zemstvo reform 1864 became a direct continuation of peasant reforms. Its essence was to create a system of local self-government for the liberated peasants. Zemstvo assemblies were organized, the members of which included landowners, peasants, officials and the clergy. The local taxation system developed.
2. Urban reform 1870 was a necessity due to the emergence of capitalism and the expansion of cities. Within its framework, the City Duma was formed, where the mayor was elected - the executive body public administration. Voting rights were granted only to property owners who were able to pay taxes. Hired workers, doctors, engineers, teachers, and officials without their own housing were deprived of the right to vote.
3. Military reforms The 60-70s improved the living conditions of the military. Alexander 2 signed decrees on the abolition of corporal punishment, the reorganization of the military training system, and the transformation of the military administration system. Military courts were created, copying the activities of city courts. On January 1, 1874, a decree on universal conscription was issued, which replaced conscription. Benefits were also added: only sons and the only breadwinners in the family were exempt from service. In general, there was a modernization of the army.
4. Educational reforms laid the foundation for the development of women's education. The development of public education continued.

The significance of the reforms turned out to be very tangible. Russia entered into new way development. This affected all spheres of life in the country.

Judicial reform

The judicial reform of 1864 outlined completely new directions for the development of legal proceedings and the judicial system. The bourgeois system had a huge influence on the formation of the new judicial system.

The main changes in this area were:

• Independence of the court from the administration;
• Publicity;
• Adversarial nature of the court (presence of prosecution and defense, provision of independent facts from both sides, and making a decision taking into account all factors);
• Creation of a jury trial;
• The principle of irremovability of judges (The position held by a judge is, as a rule, for life. A judge cannot be removed or transferred to another locality against his will).

Emperor's mother

Alexander II's mother, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was the wife of Russian ruler Nicholas 1. She suited her stern and military-obsessed husband perfectly. With her cheerful and cheerful disposition, the young empress smoothed out all the barbs of Nicholas’s character and balanced the alliance. She was received very warmly at court, appreciating her stateliness and belonging to an illustrious family. Despite health problems caused by numerous psychological shocks, Alexandra Fedorovna, following the results of her reign, was remembered by everyone as a graceful and invariably cheerful woman.

Children of Alexander II

The emperor's first wife, Maria Alexandrovna, gave Alexander two eight heirs. Ekaterina Dolgorukova, who became the emperor’s second wife, after the wedding had the opportunity to legitimize the relationship of her four children with Alexander.

Wife

Alexander 2, like his uncle Alexander 1, was a flighty man when it came to women. Starting from adolescence he fell in love with young ladies-in-waiting. At the age of 22, he married Princess Maximilian of Hesse, who in Orthodoxy became Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna.

According to the stories of contemporaries of the imperial couple, this marriage, which lasted 40 years, was reliable and happy. But it was not without intrigue. Maria Alexandrovna was strongly supported and protected by Alexander's father Nikolai, while the emperor's mother opposed the marriage, hinting at the ignoble origin of her daughter-in-law. And Alexander Nikolaevich himself spoke negatively about his wife’s friends, as well as her “stuffy” character.

After the death of his wife, the emperor tied himself marriage ties with his closest favorite - Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova.

Who killed Alexander II

7 attempts were made on Alexander 2. What happened on March 13, 1881 turned out to be “successful.” On that day, the emperor was traveling from the Horse Guards Manege to Winter Palace along the Neva. The carriage was blown up twice. Alexander was not injured from the first explosion: he managed to get out of the cart and went to the wounded. The second bomb hit its target - the emperor’s legs were blown off and he died from his injuries several hours later. On the site where Alexander 2 was killed in St. Petersburg, the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood has now been erected.

Immediately after the monarch died, people began to fear that the country would be turned over by revolutions and social change. But this did not happen. The regicides were tried by those who killed the emperor-liberator, then executed. There were no protests or popular unrest. There was a lull.

The assassins of Alexander II were members secret society « People's will» Zhelyabov, Kibalchich, Rysakov, Mikhailov. The process was led by 27-year-old noblewoman Sofya Perovskaya. All of them were hanged on the parade ground of the Semenovsky regiment.

Results of the board

Alexander II was called a great reformer, humanist and liberator, but this did not prevent the development of the People's Will opposition. Social movements, directed against the monarchy during this time only strengthened their position. He was killed in many ways because of the incorrect nature of the reforms, which were supposed to bring peace, not destruction.

Based on the results of the board, the following key points stand out:

• Abolition of serfdom - peasants received freedom without land
• Creation of rural and urban self-government bodies
• Reorganization of the military system, which led to a reduction in the size of the Russian army and improved living conditions for the military
• Strengthening Russia's role in the international arena
• Annexation of the territory of the North Caucasus and strengthening of influence in this region
• Selling Alaska

INTRODUCTION

IN lately Russian society became interested in the history of the reforms of the 1860-1870s. When Russia has embarked on the path of radical transformations, people look with particular passion not just at the past of their country, but precisely at those periods when the state was at a turning point and had to choose a path further development countries. In today's interested look at the events of the second half of the 19th century centuries have their own positive aspects. It is definitely needed, because, as has long been known, “the wisdom of science and its leaders lies, first of all, in the ability to learn lessons from the historical past.”

THE PERSONALITY OF ALEXANDER II AND THE FIRST YEARS OF HIS RULE

Personality of Alexander II

Alexander II is the All-Russian Emperor, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. Born in Moscow on April 17, 1818 on Bright Wednesday, at 11 o’clock in the morning in the Bishop’s House of the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin, where all Imperial family arrived in early April to celebrate Easter. A 201-gun salvo was fired in Moscow. Although at that time Nikolai Pavlovich was not yet the heir to the throne, it was possible to foresee that supreme power will go to him, since both Alexander I himself and his brother Constantine were childless. Therefore, the replenishment of the Royal House was greeted with general rejoicing.

The Emperor was educated at home. Alexander Nikolaevich was educated by V. A. Zhukovsky and outstanding teacher that time Karl Karlovich Merder. When the child grew up, Count M. M. Speransky began to teach him law, and to study military affairs, Nikolai Pavlovich placed his son in cadet corps. All educators sought to develop noble impulses, love for people, compassion and responsiveness in the prince. Merder, for example, during walks, often went with the Grand Duke into the poor houses of residents on the outskirts of the capital, and the young man always, at the sight of grief and hardship, tried to provide all possible help. Zhukovsky's education system not only gave general knowledge then accepted extensive set of items and four foreign languages, but also purely special knowledge: about the state, its laws, finances, foreign policy and formed a worldview system. The basic principles of raising the Tsarevich looked like this:

• - Where am I? Nature, its laws. In this part of the program, science subjects are related to the idea of ​​“God in Nature.”
• - Who am I? The doctrine of man, united by Christian doctrine.
• - What was I? History, sacred history.
• - What do I owe? Private and public morality.
• - What am I meant for? Revealed religion, metaphysics, the concept of God and the immortality of the soul.

Alexander felt unprepared for his future activities, for the throne. By nature, endowed with versatile abilities, excellent memory, a sober and sound mind, a sympathetic heart, a cheerful disposition, and goodwill towards people, Alexander, however, did not have an internal need for systematic mental activity, did not have a strong will, and had no inclination for the mission to reign ahead of him. , which Nicholas I called “duty” and steadily instilled in his son. But coming of age and taking the oath reconciled him with his destiny. By the age of 19, traveling around Russia, he writes to his father “what he feels in himself new strength to strive for the work for which God has ordained me.” His attitude towards public policy was quite consistent with the official direction Nicholas era. The knowledge gained was supported by numerous travels. First of royal family he visited (in 1837) Siberia, and the result of this visit was a mitigation of the fate of political exiles. Later, while in the Caucasus, the Tsarevich distinguished himself during an attack by the highlanders, for which he was awarded the order St. George 4th degree. In 1837-39, at the request of Nicholas I, he went on a trip to Europe with educational purpose. He traveled around Switzerland, Austria, Italy, and stayed for a long time in Berlin, Weimar, Munich, Vienna, Turin, Florence, Rome and Naples. From the age of 16, Alexander successfully took part in management affairs, first sporadically, and then systematically. At the age of 26 he became a “full general”, had a professional military training. IN recent years the reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels he repeatedly replaced his father.

A big role in the life of Alexander II was played by a visit to Darmstadt, where he met Princess Maximiliana-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt (born July 27, 1824), the adopted daughter of Duke Louis II of Hesse, who soon became the wife of the crown prince, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna. He had seven children: Alexandra, Nikolai, Alexander, Vladimir, Maria, Sergei, Pavel (the first two died - a daughter in 1849, heir to the throne in 1865). He was married for the second time (1880) in a morganatic marriage to Princess E. M. Dolgorukaya (Princess Yuryevskaya), with whom he was connected since 1866, from this marriage he had 4 children. Alexander II's net worth as of March 1, 1881 was about 11,740,000 rubles. (securities, State Bank tickets, shares of railway companies). He donated from personal funds in 1880. 1,000,000 rub. for the construction of a hospital in memory of the Empress.

Alexander II ascended the throne after the death of his father on February 19 (March 3), 1855 at the age of 36. He was to go down in history under the name of the Liberator. Already on the day of coronation, August 26, the sovereign's new manifesto was marked by a number of favors. Recruitment was suspended for three years, all government arrears, charges, etc. were forgiven; were released, or at least the sentences of various criminals were commuted, including an amnesty declared for political prisoners - the surviving Decembrists, Petrashevites, participants Polish uprising 1831; the admission of young Jews to recruits was canceled, and recruitment between the latter was ordered to be carried out at general principles; free travel abroad was allowed, etc. But all these measures were only the threshold of the reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II.