In chemistry, the concept of “molecular mass” is extremely important. Molecular mass is often confused with molar mass. How do these quantities differ and what properties do they have?

Molecular mass

Atoms and molecules - tiny particles any chemical substances A. If you try to express their mass in grams, you will get a number in which there will be about 20 zeros before the decimal point. Therefore, measuring mass in units such as grams is inconvenient. To get out of this situation, you should do something very low mass taken as one, and all other masses expressed in relation to it. This unit is 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom.

Relative molecular mass is the mass of a molecule of a substance, measured in atomic mass units. Molecular mass is equal to the ratio of the mass of a molecule of a substance to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom. It shows how many times the mass of a molecule a certain substance more than 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom.

Rice. 1. Molecular weight table organic matter.

Atomic unit mass (a.m.u.) is equal to 1.66 * 10 to the -24th power and represents 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom, that is, an atom of an isotope of the element carbon whose mass number is 12. A chemical element in nature can have several stable isotopes, therefore, when talking about the relative atomic mass of an element or, as is often said, the atomic mass of element A, the atomic mass of all stable nuclides must be taken into account.

Molecular mass is often confused with molar mass, the unit of which is g/mol. And indeed, numerically these two quantities are absolutely identical, but their dimensions are completely different.

Relative molecular mass can be found by adding together the atomic masses

To calculate the molecular mass of simple and complex substances, it is necessary to find the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms that make up the molecule. For example, the relative molecular weight of water Mr (H 2 O), which, as is known, consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, is equal to 1*2+16=18.

This means that the mass of a water molecule is 18 times greater than 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. And the molecular weight of air is 29.

Rice. 2. Formula relative molecular weight.

Atomic mass

The atomic mass of a chemical element is also one of the most important designations in chemistry. Atomic mass is average value from stable atomic masses natural isotopes of this element, taking into account their relative content in nature (their natural distribution). Thus, in nature there are two stable isotopes of the element chlorine Cl with mass numbers 35 and 37:

Ar(Cl)=(34.97*0.7553)+(36.95*0.2447)=35.45 – this is the value adopted for the element chlorine as its relative atomic mass.

The first calculations of atomic weights were made by D. Dalton. He related the atomic weights of elements to the atomic weight of hydrogen, taking it as unity. However, the weights of the oxygen atom and some other elements calculated in accordance with his principle of “greatest simplicity” turned out to be incorrect.

Rice. 3. D. Dalton.

True atomic masses are minuscule. A hydrogen atom weighs 1.674 * 10 to the -24th power grams, an oxygen atom weighs 26.67 * 10 to the -24th power grams, and a carbon atom weighs 19.993 * 10 to the -24th power grams.

Chemistry. (The entire school course in diagrams and tables) Barabbas N.E.

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The entire school course in chemistry is presented in the form of logical diagrams and informative tables. A visual, clear and schematic presentation of the material allows you to quickly assimilate a large amount of information, facilitate understanding of complex laws, concepts, definitions, generalize and systematize knowledge. The publication will help students prepare effectively for passing the Unified State Exam in chemistry.

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Content
1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY
1.1. Chemical element 8
1.1.1. Modern representations about the structure of the atom. Structure of electronic shells of atoms
elements of the first four periods: s-, p- and d-elements. Electronic configuration of an atom. Ground and excited states of atoms 8
1.1.2. Periodic law and Periodic table chemical elements D. I. Mendeleev.
Atomic radii, their periodic changes in a system of chemical elements. Patterns of changes in the chemical properties of elements and their compounds by periods and groups 30
1.2. Chemical bonding and structure of matter 33
1.2.1. Covalent chemical bond, its varieties (polar and nonpolar), mechanisms of formation. Characteristics covalent bond(bond length and energy). Ionic bond. Metal connection. Hydrogen bond 33
1.2.2. Electronegativity. Oxidation state and valence of chemical elements 40
1.2.3. Substances of molecular and non-molecular structure. Dependence of the properties of substances on the features of their crystal lattice 41
1.3. Not organic chemistry 45
1.3.1. Classification and nomenclature inorganic substances 45
1.3.2. general characteristics metals of the main subgroups I-III groups in connection with their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D. I. Mendeleev and the structural features of their atoms 46
1.3.3. Characteristic transition elements- copper, zinc, chromium, iron - according to their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D.I. Mendeleev and the structural features of their atoms 47
1.3.4. General characteristics of non-metals of the main subgroups of groups IV-VII in connection with their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D.I. Mendeleev and the structural features of their atoms 49
1.3.5. Characteristic Chemical properties simple substances - metals: alkali, alkaline earth, aluminum, transition metals (copper, zinc, chromium, iron) 53
1.3.6. Characteristic chemical properties of simple substances - non-metals: hydrogen, halogens, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, silicon 71
1.3.7. Characteristic chemical properties of oxides: basic, amphoteric, acidic 106
1.3.8. Characteristic chemical properties of bases and amphoteric hydroxides 109
1.3.9. Characteristic chemical properties of acids 113
1.3.10. Characteristic chemical properties of salts: medium, acidic, basic; complex (using the example of aluminum and zinc compounds). . . 118
1.4. Organic Chemistry 128
1.4.1. Theory of structure organic compounds. Isomerism - structural and spatial. Homologues and homologous series 128
1.4.2. Types of bonds in molecules of organic substances. Hybridization of carbon atomic orbitals. Radical. Functional group 133
1.4.3. Classification and nomenclature of organic compounds 135
1.4.4. Characteristic chemical properties of hydrocarbons: alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, dienes, alkynes 138
1.4.5. Characteristic chemical properties aromatic hydrocarbons: benzene and toluene 148
1.4.6. Characteristic chemical properties of saturated monohydric and polyhydric alcohols; phenol 152
1.4.7. Characteristic chemical properties of aldehydes, saturated carboxylic acids, esters 157
1.4.8. Characteristic chemical properties of nitrogen-containing organic compounds: amines and amino acids 163
1.4.9. Biologically important substances: fats, proteins, carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides) 166
1.5. Chemical reaction 172
1.5.1. Classification of chemical reactions in inorganic and organic chemistry 172
1.5.2. Thermal effect of a chemical reaction. Thermochemical equations 174
1.5.3. Reaction speed, its dependence on various factors 175
1.5.4. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions. Chemical equilibrium. Shift in chemical equilibrium under the influence of various factors 177
1.5.5. Electrolytic dissociation of electrolytes in aqueous solutions. Strong and weak electrolytes 179
1.5.6. Ion exchange reactions 182
1.5.7. Hydrolysis of salts. Wednesday aqueous solutions: acidic, neutral, alkaline 183
1.5.8. Redox reactions. Corrosion of metals and methods of protection against it. . 185
1.5.9. Electrolysis of melts and solutions (salts, alkalis, acids) 188
1.5.10. Mechanisms of substitution and addition reactions in organic chemistry. Rule of V.V. Markovnikov 189
1.5.11. Reactions confirming the relationship various classes 191
2. METHODS OF KNOWING SUBSTANCES AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2.1. Experimental Fundamentals of Chemistry 193
2.1.1. Rules for working in the laboratory. Safety rules when working with caustic, flammable and toxic substances and products household chemicals 193
2.1.2. Scientific methods research of chemical substances and transformations. Methods for separating mixtures and purifying substances 195
2.1.3. Determination of the nature of the medium of aqueous solutions of substances. Indicators 196
2.1.4. Qualitative reactions to inorganic substances and ions. Identification of organic compounds 196
2.2. General methods obtaining substances 203
2.2.1. General methods of obtaining metals. Are common scientific principles chemical production (using the example of industrial production of ammonia, sulfuric acid, methanol) 204
2.2.2. Natural springs and hydrocarbon processing 207
2.2.3. High molecular weight compounds. Polymerization and polycondensation reactions. Polymers. Plastics, fibers, rubbers 209
2.2.4. Reactions characterizing the basic properties and methods of obtaining 212
2.3. Calculations using chemical formulas and reaction equations 217
2.3.1. Calculation of the mass of a solute contained in a certain mass of a solution with a known mass fraction 224
2.3.2. Calculations: volumetric ratios of gases in chemical reactions 225
2.3.3. Calculation of the mass of a substance or volume of gases from a known amount of a substance, mass or volume of one of the substances participating in the reaction 226
2.3.4. Calculation of the thermal effect of the reaction 229
2.3.5. Calculation of the mass (volume, amount of substance) of reaction products, if one of the substances is given in excess (has impurities) 231
2.3.6. Calculation of the mass (volume, amount of substance) of the reaction product, if one of the substances is given in the form of a solution with a certain mass fraction of the dissolved substance 233
2.3.7. Finding the molecular formula of a substance. 234
2.3.8. Calculation of mass or volume fraction yield of the reaction product from the theoretically possible 236
2.3.9. Calculation of mass fraction (mass) chemical compound in the mixture 238

Transcript

1 E.V. Savinkina G.P. Loginova CHEMISTRY IN TABLES AND DIAGRAMS Reference manual classes Publishing house AST Moscow

2 UDC 373:54 BBK 24ya721 C13 C13 Savinkina, Elena Vladimirovna. Chemistry in tables and diagrams: reference manual: classes / E.V. Savinkina, G.P. Loginova. Moscow: AST Publishing House, (1) p. ISBN (AST Publishing House LLC) (New school program) ISBN (AST Publishing House LLC) (Preparation for the Unified State Exam) The reference book presents a school chemistry course in the form of accessible diagrams and tables. Visual, simple and convenient presentation of the material contributes to its better assimilation and memorization. The book will provide effective assistance in studying new and reviewing past topics, as well as in preparing for the unified state exam in the chemistry course. Chemistry teachers can use it in their lessons as a reference diagrams. UDC 373:54 BBK 24ya721 ISBN (AST Publishing House LLC) (New school curriculum) ISBN (AST Publishing House LLC) (Preparation for the unified state exam) Savinkina E.V., Loginova G.P. LLC "AST Publishing House"

3 CONTENTS Preface THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY Structure of the atom Table 1. Atom Table 2. Basic principles quantum theory atomic structure Table 3. Energy levels and sublevels Scheme 1. Shapes of orbitals Table 4. Rules for filling atomic orbitals (in the ground state of the atom) Scheme 2. Sequence of filling AO with electrons Table 5. Blocks of elements Table 6. Electronic configurations neutral atoms in the ground state for elements of the first four periods Periodic law D.I. Mendeleev Table 7. Numbers of periods and groups Table 8. Patterns of changes in properties in groups Table 9. Patterns of changes in properties in periods Table 10. Changes in the composition and properties of hydrogen compounds, higher oxides and hydroxides of elements of the 3rd period of the periodic system

4 4 Chemical bond Table 11. Types chemical bond Table 12. Description of a covalent bond Table 13. Mechanisms of formation of a covalent bond Table 14. Multiple bonds Scheme 3. Overlapping orbitals Table 15. Formulas of molecules Table 16. Parameters of a chemical bond Table 17. Valency. Oxidation state Table 18. Determination of oxidation state Table 19. Types crystal lattices Classification of chemical reactions Table 20. Classification by change in the composition of substances Table 21. Classification by state of aggregation substances Table 22. Classification based on reversibility Table 23. Classification based on thermal effect Rate of a chemical reaction Table 24. Basic quantities Table 25. Dependence of the reaction rate on concentration Table 26. Change in the rate of a chemical reaction Chemical equilibrium Table 27. Le Chatelier's principle Table 28. Shift in chemical equilibrium Electrolytic dissociation Table 29. Dissociation products

5 Table 30. Some strong acids and bases Table 31. Degree of dissociation Exchange reactions in solution Table 32. Berthollet’s rules Table 33. Molecular and ionic equations Hydrolysis Table 34. Hydrolysis of inorganic substances Table 35. Reversible hydrolysis of salts Table 36. Medium in solutions acid salts Redox reactions Table 37. Functions of an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent Table 38. Oxidized and reduced forms of some substances Table 39. Types of redox reactions Table 40. Electrochemical voltage series of metals Table 41. A series of non-metals Table 42. Examples of oxidizing agents and reducing agents Table 43. Method electronic balance Table 44. Corrosion inhibition Electrolysis Table 45. Electrodes Table 46. Electrolysis of melts Table 47. Electrolysis of solutions Reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry Table 48. Basic reaction mechanisms

6 Table 49. Mechanism of substitution reaction Table 50. Markovnikov’s rule INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Classes of inorganic substances Table 51. Inorganic substances Table 52. Simple substances Table 53. Position of non-metals in the periodic table of elements Table 54. Complex substances Table 55. Ortho- and metaphors of hydroxides Table 56. Trivial names some oxygen-containing acids and their anions Table 57. Classification of hydroxides and oxides Table 58. Classification of salts Scheme 4. General classification inorganic substances Metals Table 59. Reactions of metals Nonmetals Table 60. Reactions of nonmetals Oxides Table 61. Reactions basic oxides Table 62. Reactions acid oxides Table 63. Reactions amphoteric oxides Bases and amphoteric hydroxides Table 64. Reactions of bases Table 65. Reactions of amphoteric hydroxides

7 Acids Table 66. Reactions of acids Table 67. Reduction products in aqueous solutions of anions of oxidizing acids (nitric and concentrated sulfuric) with various metals Salts Table 68. Reactions of medium salts Table 69. Reactions of acid salts Table 70. Reactions of basic salts Table 71. Reactions complex salts (hydroxo complexes) Table 72. Decomposition of nitrates (depending on the position of metals in the stress series) Table 73. Decomposition of ammonium salts Relationship between classes of inorganic substances Table 74. Transformations of inorganic substances ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Structure of organic substances Table 75. Theory of the structure of organic substances A. M. Butlerov Table 76. Types of organic compounds Table 77. Carbon-carbon bonds Table 78. Carbon atom Table 79. Types of hybridization Table 80. Composition organic molecules Table 81. Classes of organic compounds.. 73 Table 82. Isomers Table 83. Mutual influence atoms in molecules

8 8 Nomenclature of organic substances Table 84. Components of the names of organic compounds Table 85. Names of carbon chains Table 86. Designation of the degree of saturation of bonds Table 87. Names of characteristic groups of organic compounds Table 88. Names of some aromatic compounds Table 89. Names of some hydrocarbon radicals Table 90. Numerical prefixes (indicate the number of identical structural elements) Table 91. Compiling the name of a substance Hydrocarbons Table 92. Classification of hydrocarbons Table 93. Reactions of saturated hydrocarbons Table 94. Reactions unsaturated hydrocarbons Table 95. The reactions of aromatic hydrocarbons Table 96. Hagalenacan reactions oxygen -containing organic compounds Table 97. Alcohols and phenols Table 98. Reactions of alcohols and phenols Table 99. Carbonic compounds Table 100. Reactions of aldehydes and ketones Table 101. Carbon acids Table 102. Carbonic acid reactions Nitrogen-containing organic compounds Table 103. Amines Table 104. Reactions of amines

9 Table 105. Names of some natural amino acids Table 106. Properties of amino acids Biologically important substances Scheme 5. Fats Table 107. Carboxylic acids included in fats Table 108. Carbohydrates Table 109. Levels of structure of protein molecules Table 110. Chemical properties of proteins Table 111. Color reactions of proteins Interrelation of organic compounds Table 112 Catalysts used in organic chemistry Scheme 6. Genetic connection organic compounds METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE IN CHEMISTRY Working with substances and chemical equipment Table 113. Basic rules for working in chemical laboratory Table 114. Chemical glassware and equipment Table 115. Basic techniques for working in a chemical laboratory Table 116. Rules for using substances in everyday life Scientific methods for studying chemicals and transformations Table 117. Research methods Table 118. Methods for separating mixtures

10 Table 119. Coloring of indicators Table 120. Qualitative reactions to cations Table 121. Qualitative reactions to anions Table 122. Detection of gases Table 123. Recognition of organic compounds Methods for obtaining substances Table 124. Methods for obtaining simple substances Table 125. Methods for obtaining oxides Table 126. Methods for the production of bases and amphoteric hydroxides Table 127. Methods for the production of acids Table 128. Methods for the production of salts Table 129. Methods for the production of saturated hydrocarbons Table 130. Methods for the production of alkenes Table 131. Methods for the production of alkynes (acetylene) Table 132. Methods for the production of arenes (benzene) Table 133. Methods of obtaining monohydric alcohols Table 134. Methods of obtaining polyhydric alcohols Table 135. Methods for producing phenols Table 136. Methods for producing aldehydes and ketones Table 137. Methods for producing carboxylic acids Industrial production substances Table 138. Methods for producing metals Table 139. Metallurgical methods Scheme 7. Blast furnace process

11 Table 140. Some industrial processes Table 141. Products of fractional distillation of oil Table 142. Chemical refining of oil Table 143. Production high molecular weight compounds(polymers) Table 144. Classification of polymers Table 145. Polymers based on ethylene and its derivatives Calculations using chemical formulas and reaction equations Table 146. Relationships between quantities in solution Table 147. Preparation of solutions Table 148. The most important quantities for calculations Table 149. Relationships between values ​​Normal physical conditions Table 150. Stoichiometric laws Table 151. Calculations using reaction equations Table 152. Finding the molecular formula of a substance APPENDICES Table 1. Periodic table of elements D.I. Mendeleev Table 2. Chemical elements: atomic number, atomic mass(rounded), electronegativity Table 3. Solubility inorganic compounds in water

12 PREFACE To help schoolchildren and teachers, a manual is offered, which is a generalized presentation in visual tables and diagrams of all the basic rules, laws, formulas and calculations for the course of organic and inorganic chemistry. All major areas of chemistry taught in the classroom are included. This is the structure of the atom, the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev, the structure of the periodic system of chemical elements, types of chemical bonds, substances and mixtures, classes of inorganic compounds, classification of chemical reactions, rate of chemical reactions and chemical equilibrium, reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry, metals and non-metals and their properties, chemical properties of complex substances, relationships between classes of inorganic substances, organic substances and their structure, composition of organic molecules, isomers, nomenclature of organic substances, hydrocarbons, their classification and properties, nitrogen-containing organic compounds, biologically important substances, structure and properties of protein molecules , carbohydrates, the relationship of organic compounds. In addition, the manual describes the basic rules and methods of work in a chemical laboratory, gives the characteristics of chemical

13 ships and equipment, provides examples of calculations based on formulas and reaction equations, as well as examples qualitative reactions. The appendix to the manual contains D.I. Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements and a table of the solubility of inorganic compounds in water. A brief and succinct presentation of the material will help students independently or with the help of a teacher repeat their school chemistry course and successfully prepare for the unified state exam in grade 11. The structure of the manual corresponds to the structure of the codifier of content elements in chemistry for compiling control measurement Unified State Exam materials and corresponds to the logic of learning and repetition school course chemistry. The following abbreviations are used in the manual: conc. concentrated solution, n. u. at normal conditions, very good div. very dilute solution, practically practical, diss. dilute solution, theoretical theoretical.

14 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM Atom Table 1 Electrons (e) Nucleus protons (p +) neutrons (n ​​0) Mass number (A) total number protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus Charge of the atomic nucleus (Z) equal to the number protons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in the atom A = N(n 0) + N(р +) Z = N(р +) = N(e) Table 2 Basic provisions of the quantum theory of atomic structure discreteness of electron energy dual (wave-corpuscular) nature of the electron impossibility of determining the electron trajectory (uncertainty principle) 14

15 Energy levels and sublevels Table 3 Energy levels (EL) Energy sublevels (ESU) Number of electrons 1 1s 2 2 2s 2p 3 3s 3p 3d 4 4s 4p 4d 4f Atomic orbital(AO) characterizes the region of space in which the probability of an electron having a certain energy being located is greatest. Orbital shapes Scheme 1 s-orbital p-orbital 15

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Periodic law.

The properties of chemical elements, as well as the forms and properties of compounds of elements, periodically depend on the charge of the nuclei of their atoms.
1. Serial number element - equal to charge nucleus and number of electrons.
2. Period number - number of levels.
3. Group number - valency (maximum positive degree oxidation).
4. Metallic properties elements increase from top to bottom and from right to left. These properties are exhibited by elements with a small number of valence electrons.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Basic concepts and laws of chemistry.
Atomic-molecular science.
Mol. Molar mass substances.
Chemical reactions.,
Law of conservation of mass of matter.
The law of constancy of the composition of matter.
Gas laws.
Periodic law of D.I.Mendeleev.
The structure of the atom.
Model of the state of an electron in an atom.
Periodic law.
Chemical bond.
Covalent bond.
Ionic bond.
Polar molecules. Non-polar molecules.
Metal connection.
Hydrogen bond.
Crystal cell. Types of crystal lattices.
Structural formulas.
Oxidation state.
Valence.
Rate of chemical reactions, chemical equilibrium.
Activation energy.
Concept of catalysis and catalysts.
Reversible and irreversible reactions.
Chemical balance. Le Chatelier's principle.
Solutions. Theory electrolytic dissociation.
Numerical expression of the composition of solutions.
Solubility of substances in water.
Thermal phenomena during dissolution.
Electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
Theory of electrolytic dissociation. Mechanism.
Dissociation of acids, bases and salts in aqueous solutions.
Degree of dissociation. Ion exchange reactions.
Dissociation of water.
The most important classes of inorganic compounds.
Oxides.
Acids.
Hydroxides.
Salt.
Redox reactions.
Theory of redox reactions.
Drawing up equations of redox reactions.
Influence of the environment on the nature of reactions.
Classification.
Electrolysis.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Hydrogen.
Hydrogen compounds.
Alkali metals. Group I. Main subgroup.
Alkaline earth metals. IIA group. (Calcium).
Group III A elements (Aluminum).
Group IV A elements (Carbon, silicon).
Elements of the UA group (Nitrogen, phosphorus).
Group VI elements. Chalcogens (Oxygen, sulfur).
Group VIIA elements. Halogens (Chlorine).
Elements of side subgroups.
Chromium subgroup.
Iron subgroup.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Aromatic hydrocarbons.
Oxygen-containing organic compounds.
Alcohols.
Phenols.
Aldehydes.g.
Polycondensation.
Ketones.
Carboxylic acids.
Esters.
Nitrogen-containing organic compounds.
Amines.
Aniline.
Amino acids.
Squirrels.

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