Have you visited the ancient ones? Have you tasted exotic Mexican dishes? Have you been diving in the Red Sea? Surely you brought hundreds with you bright photos the people you met and the places you visited. Just a few of these pictures uploaded to the album will give you a lot of pleasant attention. Photos of people you meet on your travels will make you at least good acquaintances with them. Unless, of course, you forget to mark them in the pictures. In my opinion, quite a pleasant afterword to the vacation. However, annoying problems also occur from time to time. The images simply won't load. And then this problem must be solved.
Why isn't the photo loading? Reason #1The fact is that there may be several reasons for such an annoying problem. Therefore, for convenience, we will divide our text into subheadings with different recipes for solving the problem. First of all, pay attention to what format your photos are in. Perhaps the problem is simply your inattention. If the images weigh more than 5 megabytes, they will be too bulky for the site. In this
In this case, it’s easier for you to upload photos to specialized image hosting sites, and on VKontakte you can simply leave a referral link for your friends. Or you will have to compress your image files. But keep in mind that then they will partially lose their quality. Please also remember that you can only upload files with JPEG, GIF and PNG extensions to albums.
Why is the photo loading? Reason #2
Another likely reason could be a conflict between the site and the browser. The latter may have certain settings that do not allow such actions, or may simply be outdated. Try your browser. This might help. To do this, open its settings and find corresponding function. If that doesn't help, try uploading the photo using a different browser.
Why photo? Reason #3
The problem may even be with the quality of your Internet connection. If it's too slow, the pictures won't load. Try opening other sites. If the download is really slow, then check all the programs downloading anything from the Internet. They slow down. Disable them first. If this does not help, contact your provider.
Why does VKontakte not load photos? Reason #4
Most likely, your trouble has already been resolved thanks to one of the previous tips. If not, then the reason obviously lies in the site itself. Write to technical support, clearly explaining your wishes. And they will definitely help you.
The article provides an answer to the question of why photos are not loaded on Odnoklassniki, what the reasons might be, and what to do in such a situation.
This social network is very popular, and users periodically have problems using it. The reason for this may be various circumstances; after reading this material, you will learn how to quickly and effectively overcome them.
Reasons
There are several main factors that can cause a photo to not be added to your page:
- problems with cookies;
- malfunctions and errors in Adobe Flash Player;
- low internet speed;
- browser errors;
- conflict with other programs.
Problems with Cookies
Cookies are special files that are stored in your browser after visiting certain sites. If you do not remove them periodically, your program may become cluttered with information and all sorts of errors will occur. This is one of probable causes, Why .
The solution to the problem depends on the program you are using (if you are logging in from a computer):
- Internet Explorer – click on the icon on the right top corner“Settings”, then select “Internet Options”, click “Delete Cookies”, delete. After this, all files will be erased.
- Opera (Opera mini from your phone) – find the “Tools” section, go to “Advanced”, then select “Manage Cookies”, click “Delete”.
- Mozilla Firefox– “Settings”, “Cookies”, “Delete”.
Problems and errors in Adobe Flash Player
Often users of this social network they ask the question: “Why can’t I add a photo to Odnoklassniki?” If updating the Cookies did not help, then try reinstalling Flash Player, to do this you need to go to the official website https://get.adobe.com/ru/flashplayer/ and download installation file. After downloading, click on the file and complete the installation process.
Low internet speed
Another reason why photos in Odnoklassniki do not load may be the low data transfer speed provided by your provider. An error may also occur when trying to send an image in messages.
Browser errors
If your page on the site throws an error and you cannot load the image, then the reason for this may be a glitch in your browser system. You can solve this problem by reinstalling the program through which you access the Internet. You can also try using a different browser and it will most likely help you smoothly.
Conflict with other programs
Another answer to the question “Photos in Odnoklassniki are not loading, what should I do?”
? may be the elimination of conflict with other systems. Your page on a social network may be affected by a Firewall or antivirus. Try disabling them or changing your settings.
Photos are not loading - what should I do?
The day of the average person today begins not with a cup of coffee, but with scrolling through the VKontakte news feed. However, a blank page without pictures is unlikely to lift your spirits in the morning. In this article we will try to figure out why VKontakte photos are not loading and how to correct this situation.
Why photos are not loaded on VK and how to fix the situation
If your photos are not loading in the application on your phone, and instead of colorful pictures you are greeted by a blank page, then fixing this situation is quite simple.
- Technical data. First, check the technical data of the photo. VKontakte allows you to upload pictures no larger than 5 megabytes in size and with the extension JPG, PNG, GIF. If the picture does not meet the requirements, it will not be displayed.
- Internet availability and speed. If there is no internet connection, the images will also not load. Therefore, the next step is to check network access.
- Cache. In some cases, a problem with displaying information can cause an overloaded cache and the working platform simply cannot handle data processing.
This issue is worth dwelling on in more detail. A cache is a system partition that stores information about all operations on the phone. When it fills up, the system begins to slow down and cannot always cope with the load. To clear the cache, you can use special applications or use the built-in function on your phone.
On phones with operating system Android option to clear cache is in general settings. You need to open the Application Manager folder, find VKontakte and clear the cache by clicking on the special button.
What to do if you cannot upload photos to your VK album
Sometimes you may encounter the opposite problem, when you simply cannot upload photos to an album in the application. In this case, also start by checking the technical data. If everything is in order, then use the following instructions:
- Browser problems. First, you should check for an update to your browser, because the program may at the moment download data packets and cannot cope with the load. The next step is to clear the cache. Just like with a phone, the cache gets clogged and slows down the system. Cleaning procedures can be carried out using special programs from a third party developer.
- Adobe Flash Player. Without going into technical details, this program provides graphical reproduction of information in the browser. Check for updates and download if necessary new version BY.
- Insecure connection. Quite often, uploading photos is accompanied by the introduction of viruses, and the VK administration restricts the actions of users who use an unsecured connection.
In order to create a secure connection, go to “Settings”, in the “Security” tab you will see the “Set up a secure connection” item. Here you just need to check the box.
Of course, the cause of this problem may also be the workload of VKontakte servers. In this case, user options are limited, and the feed is often full of unloaded photos.
Man buried in network cables, low section, elevated view
Messages in VKontakte feed are not loading
If messages in your feed and messages are not loading, then the cause of this problem may be the following:
- No connection or low internet speed. In order to check your connection speed, you can use the service http://www.speedtest.net/ru. All you need to do is click the “Start” button and the portal will check the work of your provider.
- Problems with software applications. Try using a different browser, update the software and establish a secure connection. The cause of the conflict may be an overzealous antivirus; disable it for a while and try sending the picture again.
- Technical work on the VK server. In this case, all you can do is wait, since you cannot do anything on your part.
- Download limit. Check the resolution of the graphic file and its size; if necessary, the photo can be converted and reduced in size.
In addition to standard advice, completely unusual and original solutions can help. For example, synchronize the time on your computer with the network. To do this, click on the clock icon, which is located in the lower right corner. A settings window will appear in front of you, in which you need to find the “Internet Time” tab. In this dialog box, you need to check the box next to “Synchronize with time server.” Now click “OK” and try to upload the photo again.
All-Russian scientific and social program
for youth and schoolchildren “Step into the future”
IV regional competition research work
students of grades 2-7 "JUNIOR"
Passport of the word "patriotism"
Nikiforova Ksenia,
MBOU "Lyantorskaya secondary school No. 5",
6th grade
Bayramgulova Gulfiya Shakiryanovna,
teacher of Russian language and literature,
MBOU "Lyantorskaya Secondary School No. 5"
Surgutsky district
2014
I.Introduction:
topic, relevance, problem, object and subject of research 4
Goals and objectives, methods, hypothesis
II. Theoretical review.
Section 1. Etymology of the word 5 Section 2. Meaning of the word “patriot” 6
Section 3. Advantages of patriotism, how to develop patriotism in yourself,
catchphrases about patriotism 6
Section 4. Patriotism in the lyrics of M.Yu. Lermontov,
patriotism in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin. 7
III. Practical part:
Study itself 7
Study Results 8
Analysis of Study 8
VI. Conclusions.
V. List of used literature.
I . Introduction
Have you ever looked at a person's passport? It contains a lot of information: where and when its owner was born, what his name is, whether he has a family, where he lives. A passport is the main document of a Russian citizen.
Not only people have a passport. For example, cars have passports - they indicate the most important technical specifications cars Attached are passports and household appliances, audio and video equipment: they tell you what this or that device is intended for and how to use it correctly.
Each word of the language can also be given its own passport. What will be written in it? First, you can indicate the origin of the word. Some words have been living in the language for a long time, they were born in it and belong to it (they are called original), some came from other languages (these are words borrowed).
Secondly, the word has age. There are words - pensioners ( outdated words), but there are only recently born words - youngsters (they are called neologisms).
Thirdly, words can have various areas consumption. Some words are known to everyone, they are understandable to everyone (they are called commonly used
words). Others are known only to the inhabitants of a certain territory ( dialectisms) or people of one specific profession ( terms and professionalisms
).
Finally, words can have a certain stylistic coloring. Some words appear only in colloquial speech(that's what they're called) colloquial words), some are rarely heard, since they are used mainly in books ( book words).
If we sum up all the information about the word, then we will get its passport. However, in order to correctly indicate one or another attribute of a word, you need to do a lot of preliminary work. Each word is unique. Even the words service units speeches have many meanings and shades. IN everyday life we do not think about each individual word, but perceive them together. There are words in the language that hurt and offend. There are words in speech that support us in difficult moment, there are words that inspire noble deeds and even exploits.
There are words - like wounds, words - like judgment, -
With them they do not surrender and are not taken prisoner.
A word can kill, a word can save,
With a word you can lead the shelves with you.
I will explore the word patriotism
Relevance. Currently, there is a need to understand society’s attitude towards patriotism, towards the Motherland, towards the country.
Problem: attitude towards patriotic education in schools.
Object of study: 6th grade school students, teachers, parents.
Subject of research: study of understanding and attitude towards patriotism
Target project: to create a passport of the word “patriotism”, that is, to consider it with different sides.
Tasks:
1.Determine the origin of the word “patriotism”.
2.Analyze semantic properties of this word.
3. The meaning of the word patriotism in dictionaries.
4. Identify words related to the word “patriotism”, synonyms for the word “patriotism”.
5.Check how the word is used in literature.
6.Conduct sociological research(questionnaire) among students. middle school in order to determine: students’ attitudes to patriotism.Research methods:
Questioning of school students, teachers, parents.
Hypothesis:
I assume that the word patriotism is not familiar enough to students, they will have difficulty understanding this word. Thesis: Each word can be given a passport. This can only be done after careful linguistic analysis.
Theoretical review
Section I.
Etymology of the word
Word borrowed directly from French or through German in the meaning of a person devoted and loving his homeland. Borrowing time is defined in different ways. According to some sources - the 16th century. According to others - much later - in Peter I, during whose time the idea of serving the fatherland and, above all, the military was especially strong. Therefore, at the very beginning, patriotism as a trait of a patriot hadthe meaning of military patriotism.
Origins - in Latin word patriota. It goes back to the Greek - patriōtēs – patria descendants, relatives, land of fathers. Therefore, the starting point of the entire etymological chain is patēr- father. Other sources note that, having entered Latin from ancient Greek, it also had the meaning “countryman.”
Main derivative word from the word "patriot" - patriotism. In our time, it means love for one’s Fatherland, devotion to it and the people, readiness for sacrifices and exploits in the name of the interests of the Fatherland. Appeared and figurative meanings- devotion to something, ardent to anything.
Section 2. The meaning of the word patriot
Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Dal Vladimir
patriot
a patriot, a lover of the fatherland, a zealot for its good, a lover of the fatherland, a patriot or fatherlander. Patriotism m. love for the fatherland. Patriotic, fatherland, domestic, full of love to the fatherland. Patrimonial, fatherly, otniy, fatherly, fatherly.
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov
patriot
patriot, m. (Greek patriotes - countryman). a person devoted to his people, loving his fatherland, ready to make sacrifices and perform feats in the name of the interests of his homeland. Soviet patriots vigilantly guard the borders of their native country. The Bolsheviks, exposing the role of social patriots in the war of 1914-1918, pointed out that they, social patriots, were socialists in words and patriots of the imperialist fatherland in deeds. A leavened patriot is a person filled with leavened (see) patriotism.
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.
patriot
1. A person imbued with patriotism. True p.
2. transfer, what. A man devoted interests of some. affairs, deeply attached to something. P. of his plant.
and. patriot, -i.
New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
patriot
He who loves his fatherland, is devoted to his people, is ready to make sacrifices and heroic deeds in the name of the interests of his Motherland.
decomposition One who is devoted to something, loves something passionately.
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
voluntary organization patriots
underground Komsomol youth group during the Great Patriotic War in the village. Alekseevka, Zaporozhye region. in 1942 (approx. 40 people). Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis.
union Polish patriots
UNION OF POLISH PATRIOTS (UPP) mass anti-fascist organization in 1943-46. Founded by V. Vasilevskaya, A. Lampe, A. Zavadsky and others. Organizer (1943) of the Polish Army. In 1944, members of the SPP joined the Polish Committee of National Liberation.
Union of Russian Patriots
in 1943-48 (after 1946 - Soviet patriots), created by Russian emigrants and their children in France (one of the leaders is G.V. Shibanov); members of the Resistance Movement. After 1945 they played an active role in re-emigration.
Synonyms
Love of fatherland, loyalty, loyalty, loyalty.
Patriot, patriot, patriotism, patriotic, patriotic, patriotic, patriotic, patriotic, patriotism, patriotic,
Section 3.
Benefits of Patriotism
Patriotism gives strength from the realization that hundreds of generations of his ancestors stand invisibly behind a person.
Patriotism gives joy - from awareness of the merits and successes of one’s country.
Patriotism gives responsibility - for the family, the people and the Motherland.
Patriotism gives confidence through a sense of involvement in the fate of the country.
Patriotism gives you freedom to act for the good of your country.
Patriotism gives respect to the history, traditions and culture of the country.
Manifestations of patriotism in everyday life.
1.Liberation wars. It was patriotism, as the basis of cohesion in the face of the enemy, that helped peoples win the most terrible wars in case they were not aggressive.
2.Military service. Willingness to defend the Motherland from an external enemy is an integral sign of patriotism; the person who chose military service- shows patriotism.
3. National customs and traditions. An example of an “everyday” manifestation of patriotism can be the unique national costumes of different nations.
How to develop patriotism in yourself
1. Family education. Parents who show love and respect for their country, and instill these feelings in their children, raise their children to be patriots.
2. Interest in national culture and traditions. In order to love your people, you need to know them; By consciously studying the history of his people, a person cultivates patriotism.
3.Awareness. Patriotism involves pride in one's country's achievements; interest in information related to all aspects of the life of society and the country creates the basis for the development and manifestation of patriotism.
4. Traveling around your country. The best remedy get to know and love your homeland.
Catchphrases about patriotism
Don't ask what your homeland can do for you - ask what you can do for your homeland.
John Kennedy -
It seems to me that the feeling of love for own people is as natural for a person as the feeling of love for God.
Patriarch Alexy II -
A patriot is a person serving his homeland, and the homeland is, first of all, the people.
Nikolai Chernyshevsky -
My friend, let’s dedicate our beautiful souls to the Fatherland
Alexander Pushkin -
It is important that you are willing to die for your country; but it is even more important that you are ready to live life for its sake. - Theodore Roosevelt
–Russia can do without each of us, but none of us can do without her; woe to the one who thinks this, double woe to the one who actually gets along without it.
There is no happiness outside the homeland, everyone should take root in their native land .
A foreign land will not become your homeland.
The highest patriotism is a passionate boundless desire for good .
Love for the homeland is not an abstract concept, but a real spiritual force that requires organization, development and culture.
In a decent person is nothing more than the desire to work for the benefit of one’s country, and comes from nothing else than the desire to do good - as much as possible and as much better as possible.
Section 4.
Patriotism in the lyrics of M.Yu. Lermontov
One of the main works of Lermontov, where patriotism is manifested, is the poem “Motherland”.
“I love my fatherland, but strange love!
My reason will not defeat her.”
In these lines the author writes about true patriotism to your homeland. It is precisely by the words “but strange love” that we understand the hidden patriotism that should be in every person.
The poem “Motherland” became one of the masterpieces not only of M.Yu. Lermontov, but also all Russian poetry. Nothing, it seems, gives such peace, such a feeling of peace, even joy, as this communication with rural Russia. This is where the feeling of loneliness recedes. M.Yu. Lermontov paints a people's Russia, bright, solemn, majestic, but despite the general life-affirming background. Why love for your home country the poet wore this controversial nature? First of all, on the one hand, for him Russia is his Motherland, where he was born and raised. Such Russia M.Yu. Lermontov was loved and glorified. On the other hand, he saw Russia as a country ruled by rude, brutal power, suppressing all human aspirations, and most importantly, the people's will, and therefore patriotism, because people's will this is patriotism. M.Yu. Lermontov puts forward something so unusual for those times that it is necessary to emphasize this unusualness several times: “I love the Fatherland, but with a strange love,” “but I love for what, I don’t know myself,” “with a joy unfamiliar to many.” This is some kind of exceptional love for Russia, which seems to be not fully understood by the poet himself. It is clear, however, that this love manifests itself in relation to people's, peasant Russia, to its open spaces and nature.
Patriotism in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin.
Many works of A.S. Pushkin are “filled” with great patriotism for their homeland.
So what does it teach us great poet? I think that first of all - love for your homeland, big and small. One of the main features of Pushkin’s work was patriotism. Every line of his poems is imbued with ardent love for Russia, for the Motherland. Here are Pushkin’s lines dedicated to Moscow:
Moscow! There is so much in this sound
For the Russian heart merged,
How much resonated in him.
The homeland for Pushkin is both the inconspicuous rowan trees growing near the house and the rickety fence:
I love the sad slope
There are two rowan trees in front of the hut,
Gate, broken fence.
Paintings native nature are present in almost all chapters of Eugene Onegin. These are groves, meadows and fields, among which Tatyana Larina’s life flows. I am amazed at how the nobleman Pushkin understands and feels Russians folk songs how their sad melodies penetrate into the soul of a merry fellow and an optimist: “Something familiar is heard in the coachman’s long songs.” For Pushkin, the role of impressions associated with Patriotic War 1812.
In 1814 he writes one of the most remarkable poems Lyceum period"Memories in Tsarskoe Selo". Its main theme is the recent victory of Russia over Napoleon. Oh, how proud young Pushkin is of his homeland, his people!
Practical part.
Research methods:
1. Questioning of 6th grade students in October.
In order to study understanding and attitude towards patriotism, we conducted a survey. A questionnaire was developed containing eleven questions, seven of which required a simple answer “yes” or “no”, the remaining four questions required a thoughtful attitude.
The text of the questionnaire is given below.
12. Do national customs and traditions of the peoples of Russia influence the formation of patriotic attitudes?
Work results:
The survey was conducted with 71 students.
1.Are you familiar with the word “patriotism”?
2.What does the word “patriotism” mean?
Frequently repeated answers were: “love for the Motherland,” “a person is proud of his country,” “serves its interests,” “loves the country,” “makes the country better,” “works for his country.”
3. Do you think patriotism is a mandatory quality for every person or does it need to be cultivated?
“yes” - 50 students answered, “no” - 15 students answered, “I don’t know” - 6 students.
4.If you think that patriotism should be cultivated, in what ways, in your opinion, should this be done?
“yes” - 40 students answered, “no” - 5 students answered, “I don’t know” - 26 students
The answers were the following: “tell about Russia”, “teach responsibility”, tell children “ Russia is the best country in the world”, “help others”, “serve the Motherland”, “join the army”...
There were no answers from a different perspective.
5. Do you think the role of school is great in instilling patriotism?
“yes” - answered 49 students, “no” - answered 22 students.
6. Do you consider yourself a patriot?
“yes” - answered 41 students, “no” - answered 30 students.
7. Is it necessary patriotic education at school?
“yes” - 43 students answered, “no” - 21 students answered, “I don’t know” - 7 students.
8. Would you like to leave Russia?
“yes” - answered 11 students, “no” - answered 60 students.
9.Are you proud to live in Russia?
“yes” - answered 67 students, “no” - answered 4 students.
10. Do you believe in the revival of Russia?
“yes” - answered 63 students, “no” - answered 8 students
11.Are you ready to devote your life to the prosperity of your Motherland?
12. Do national customs and traditions of the peoples of Russia influence the formation of a patriotic attitude towards their country?
“yes” - answered 61 students, “no” - answered 10 students.
There are students who take part in organizing national concerts and holidays and are proud of it: Lyudmila Sengepova, national ensemble “Pimochki”
VI. Conclusions.
In the course of the work done, I was able to collect a lot of information about theoretical significance the words "patriot".
Of course, the lack of resources, and most importantly, experience, did not allow us to do all the work on our own: we had to turn to the work of linguists, as well as resort to the help of Internet resources. As a result, I managed to create a passport for the word “patriotism.” This isn't all the information about the word, but like any passport, this one will have blank pages that I hope to fill over time.
Conclusions:
Most students understand the meaning of the word “patriotism”, are proud that they live in Russia, and honor national traditions, believe in the revival and prosperity of Russia. Our hypothesis was not confirmed.
The word “fatherland” meant among the ancients the land of the fathers, terra patria. The fatherland of each person was that part of the earth which was sanctified by his home or national religion, that land where the remains of his ancestors were buried and where their souls lived. A small fatherland was a small fenced expanse of land belonging to a family, where there were graves and a hearth; the great fatherland was the civil community with its prytaneum, its heroes, the sacred fence and the entire territory, the boundaries of which were outlined by religion. “The sacred land of the fatherland,” the Greeks said. And this was not an idle word: this land was truly sacred for people, because their gods lived here. State, civil community, fatherland - these words were not abstract concepts, like those of our contemporaries, it was a whole, consisting of local gods, daily worship and beliefs that dominated the soul.
This explains the patriotism of the ancients, that strong feeling that was for them the highest virtue and to which all other virtues were attached. Everything that could be most dear to a person was connected with the fatherland. In him he found his well-being, his security, his right, his faith, his god. By losing him, he lost everything. It was almost impossible for private benefit to diverge from public benefit. Plato says: “The Fatherland gives birth to us, feeds and educates us,” and Sophocles: “The Fatherland preserves us.”
Such a fatherland was not only a place of residence for a person. Let him leave these holy walls, cross the sacred boundaries of the region, and for him there is no longer any religion, nor any kind of social union.
Everywhere outside his fatherland he is outside right life, outlaw; Everywhere outside the borders of his fatherland he is deprived of gods, deprived of spiritual life. Only in his homeland does he feel the dignity of a person and has his responsibilities; only here can he be a human person.
The Fatherland binds a person to itself with sacred bonds; one must love him as one loves religion, one must obey him as one obeys God. “You need to give yourself completely to him, put everything into him, dedicate everything to him.” One must love him in glory and in humiliation, in prosperity and in misfortune; love him both for his good deeds and for his severity. Socrates, unjustly condemned to death by his fatherland, nevertheless loves him just as much. He must be loved, as Abraham loved his Lord, to the point of being ready to sacrifice his own son to him. The main thing is to be able to die for the fatherland. A Greek or a Roman does not die out of devotion to one person or out of a sense of honor, but for the fatherland he gives his life, because an attack on the fatherland is an attack on religion; and here a person really fights for his altars, for his hearths, pro aris et focis, because if the enemy captured the city, then his altars were overthrown, the hearths were extinguished, the graves were desecrated, the gods were exterminated, and the cult was destroyed. Love for the fatherland is the piety of the ancients.
Exile was not only a prohibition to stay in the city and removal from the borders of the fatherland, it was at the same time a prohibition of cult; it contained that modern peoples called excommunication. To expel a person meant, according to the formula adopted by the Romans, to excommunicate him from fire and water. By fire here we must understand the fire of sacrifices, and by water - purifying water. Exile placed a person, therefore, outside of religion. In Sparta, too, if a person was deprived of the rights of a citizen, then he was excommunicated from the fire. The Athenian poet puts into the mouth of one of his characters a terrible formula that strikes the exile: “Let him flee,” the verdict read, “and let him never approach the temples, let none of the citizens speak to him and take him into their home; let no one allow him to participate in prayers and sacrifices, let no one give him purifying water.” Every house was desecrated by his presence. A person who accepted an exile became unclean from contact with him. “Whoever eats or drinks with him, or who touches him,” the law said, “will have to purify himself.” Under the weight of this excommunication, the exile could not take part in any religious ceremony; for him there was no longer any cult, no sacred dinners, no prayers; he was deprived of his share in the religious heritage.
We must take into account that for the ancients God was not omnipresent. If they had some vague idea about the deity of the entire universe, then they did not consider this deity to be their providence, they did not turn to him with prayers. The gods of each person were those gods who lived in his house, in his city, in his region. The exile, leaving behind his fatherland, also left his gods. He did not find a religion anywhere that could console him and take him under its protection; he no longer felt the protective providence over him; the happiness of prayer was taken away from him. Everything that could satisfy the needs of his soul was removed from him.
Religion was the source from which civil and political rights flowed; The exile lost all this, losing his fatherland. Excluded from the cult of the civil community, he was at the same time deprived of his home cult and had to extinguish his hearth. He no longer had ownership rights to his property; all his property and land were taken away in favor of the gods or the state. No longer having a cult, he no longer had a family; he ceased to be a husband and father. His sons were no longer under his authority; his wife was no longer his wife and could immediately choose another spouse. Look at Regulus, captured by his enemies; Roman law likens him to an exile. When the Senate asks his opinion, he refuses to give it, because the exile can no longer be a senator; when both his wife and children rush to him, he pushes away their embrace, because the exile no longer has a wife or children.
Thus, along with the loss of the religion of the civil community and the rights of a citizen, the exile also lost his home religion and family. He no longer had a hearth, a wife, or children. After death, he could not be buried either on the land of the civil community or in the grave of his ancestors, because he had become a stranger.
It is not surprising that the ancient republics almost always allowed the guilty to flee from death. Expulsion did not seem to be an easier execution than death. Roman jurists called it the most severe punishment.
Municipal spirit
What we have learned so far about ancient institutions, and especially about ancient beliefs, can give us an idea of \u200b\u200bthe deep difference that has always existed between the two civil communities. Even if they were very close, next to each other, they were always two completely different societies, and between them lay something greater than the distance that now separates the two cities, greater than the boundaries that separate the two states; they had different gods, different religious
rituals, different prayers. It was forbidden for a member of a neighboring community to participate in the cult of a civil community. They believed that the gods rejected the worship of anyone who was not their fellow citizen.
True, these ancient beliefs gradually softened and changed over time, but they were full force in an era when societies took shape, and the imprint of these beliefs remained on them forever.
The following two things are easily understood: firstly, such a religion of its own, inherent in each city separately, was supposed to establish a strong and almost unshakable system; and indeed, it is amazing how long this social system lasted, despite its shortcomings and all the possibility of disintegration. Secondly, this very religion should have made it completely impossible for many centuries to establish any other social form other than the civil community.
Each civil community, due to the requirements of religion itself, had to be completely independent. Each civil community had to have its own special laws, since each had its own religion, and laws stemmed from religion. Each had to have its own supreme justice, and there could be no court higher than the court of the civil community. Each had to have its own religious festivals and its own calendar; the months of the year could not be the same in two cities, since each had its own special religious rites. Each civil community had its own banknotes; At first, coins were usually marked with religious emblems. Each had its own measure and weight. Nothing in common was allowed between the two communities. The division was so deep that it was difficult to even imagine the possibility of marriage between residents of two different cities. Such a union always seemed strange and for a long time was even considered illegal. The legislation of Rome and Athens apparently resisted recognizing it. Almost everywhere, children born from such a marriage were considered illegitimate and were deprived of citizenship rights. In order for a marriage between residents of two cities to be legal, there must have been a special agreement between these cities (jus connubii, éπιγαμ iα).
There was a line around the territory of each civil community sacred boundaries, this was the border of her national religion and the domain of her gods. On the other side of the border, other gods reigned and rituals of a different cult were performed.
The most striking characteristic feature of the history of Greece and Italy before the Roman conquest is the fragmentation carried to the extreme limits and the spirit of isolation of each civil community. Greece never succeeded in forming a single state; neither the Latin, nor the Etruscan cities, nor the Samnite tribes could ever form into a dense whole. The ineradicable fragmentation of the Greeks was attributed to geographical properties their countries and said that the mountains cutting through the country in all directions established natural boundaries between the various regions; but between Thebes and Plataea, between Argos and Sparta, between Sybaris and Croton there were no mountains. There were none between the cities of Latium and between the two cities of Etruria. Physical properties Countries have some influence on the history of peoples, but the influence of beliefs is incomparably more powerful. Something more impenetrable than mountains lay between the regions of Greece and Italy; sometimes there were sacred boundaries, sometimes there was a difference of cults; it was a barrier that the civil community erected between its gods and strangers. She forbade foreigners to enter the temples of her city deities; she demanded that her gods hate foreigners and fight against them.
On this basis, the ancients could not only establish, but also imagine any other organization other than the civil community. For a very long time neither the Greeks, nor the Italians, nor even the Romans themselves could come up with the idea that several cities could unite together and live on equal rights under one control. Between two civil communities there could be an alliance, a temporary agreement in view of perceived benefit or to avoid danger; but this was not a complete union, because religion made each city a separate whole, which could not be part of any other. Isolation was the law of the civil community.
How, given the beliefs and religious customs that we have seen, could several cities unite to form one state? Human association was understood and seemed correct only if it was based on a religious basis. The symbol of this association was to be a sacred meal taken together. Several thousand citizens could still, perhaps in extreme cases, gather around one prytaneum, read prayers together and eat sacred dishes together. But try, with such customs, to make one state out of all of Greece! How can sacred dinners and all those religious ceremonies be performed at which all citizens must be present? Where will the prytaneum be placed? How to perform the ritual of annual cleansing of citizens? What will happen to the inviolable borders that once forever separated the area of the civil community from all other territory? What will happen to the local cult, to the deities of the city, to the heroes of each region? The hero Oedipus, who was hostile to Thebes, was buried on the soil of Athens. How can the religion of Athens and the religion of Thebes be united together in one cult and under one administration?
When these beliefs weakened (and they weakened only very late in the minds of the people), then it was no longer time to establish new state forms. Separation and isolation were already sanctified by habit, benefit, strengthened by old anger, memories of the previous struggle. There was no going back to the past.
Each city greatly valued its autonomy - this is what he called the totality, which meant its law, its cult, its governance - all its religious and political independence.
It was easier for one civil community to subjugate another than to annex it to itself. Victory could have made the same number of slaves out of all the inhabitants of a given city, but it was powerless to make them fellow citizens of the victors. To merge two civil communities into one state, to merge a victorious people with a defeated people and unite them under one government - this is a fact that never occurs among the ancients, with one single exception, which we will talk about later. If Sparta conquers Messene, it is not to make one people out of the Messenians and Spartans; she expels or enslaves the vanquished and takes their lands for herself. Athens does the same in relation to Salamis, Aegina, Melos.
No one ever thought of giving the vanquished the opportunity to enter the civil community of the victors. The civil community had its own gods, its own hymns, its own holidays, its own laws, which were for it the precious heritage of its ancestors; and she was careful not to share them with the vanquished. She did not even have the right to do this: could the Athenians allow the inhabitants of Aegina to enter the temple of Pallas Athena? so that they honor Theseus with the cult? took part in sacred dinners? so that they, as prytanes, maintain the sacred fire on the public hearth? Religion forbade this. And therefore the defeated people of the island of Aegina could not form one state with the Athenian people. Having different gods, the Athenians and Aegineans could not have the same laws or the same authorities.
But couldn’t the Athenians, leaving at least the conquered city intact, send their authorities to its walls to rule? Such a fact would be absolutely contrary to the principles of the ancients: only a person who was a member of it could govern a civil community. In fact, the official at the head of the civil community was supposed to be the religious head, and his main duty was to perform sacrifices on behalf of the entire civil community. Therefore, a foreigner who did not have the right to perform sacrifices could not be a government official. Without performing any religious duties, he had no legal authority in the eyes of people.
Sparta tried to install its own harmonists in the cities, but these persons were not rulers; they did not judge and did not appear at public meetings. Having no legal connection with the population of the cities, they could not stay in them for long.
As a result, it turned out that each winner was given one of two things: either destroy the conquered city and occupy its territory, or leave him its complete independence; there was no middle ground. Either the civil community ceased to exist, or it remained
a sovereign state. Having its own cult, it had to have its own administration; only by losing one thing did she lose the other, and then her very existence ceased.
This complete and unconditional independence of the ancient civil community could only cease when the beliefs on which it was based finally disappeared; Only after concepts had changed and several revolutions had swept over the ancient world, only then could the idea of a more extensive state governed by different laws emerge and be realized. But for this, people had to find different principles and a different social connection than was the case in ancient centuries.
