As a matter of fact, it is no secret that the word “Ukraine” (oukraina, outskirts) means “borderland” in Russian. For the first time it is found in Russian chronicles in this meaning, in relation to the Peryaslav principality, which really was the border between Russia and the steppe in 1187 in the Ipatiev Chronicle:
and everyone cried for Pereslavtsi. I love the druzhin. and don’t collect gold. the name will not be spared. but let's have a druzhin. The prince is kind. and strong in the army. and with the courage of a strong show. and filled with all kinds of virtues. ѡ it’s not Ukraine moaning a lot
Regarding the Galician borderland
And he rode and Smolensk in a greyhound, and he came to him Ukraine Galichkoi
[PSRL. - T. 2. Ipatiev Chronicle. - St. Petersburg, 1908. - Stlb. 652-673.]
And regarding the Volyn borderland
Danilo returned the show to the house. and driving with my brother. and under Berestia. and Ougrovesk. and Vereshchin. and Stolp Komov. and all Oukrainou .
[PSRL. - T. 2. Ipatiev Chronicle. - St. Petersburg, 1908. - Stlb. 715-736.]
One should not assume that this term was applied exclusively to modern Ukrainian lands (which, of course, were the Russian borderland, just look at the map of Rus').
And for this reason Andrei from Polochana and his of Ukraine Having driven the missing person and fought for a while, he sat down.
In the summer of 6856 (1348) of June, on Ivan's Day, the Pskov mayor Ilya and the Pskovites rode to the town of Oreshk to help the Novgorodians against the Sveian king Magnush. And at that time Nemtsi destroyed the peace with the Pskovites and, having moved to Norov, fought the Pskov village. And then again, with another of Ukraine came, you fought Ostrovskaya and Izborskaya; and, having arrived near Pskov, burned Zavelichye and repaired a lot of evil and burned the Izborsk volosts
Pskov I Chronicle
IN in this case, there is no doubt that for Russian chroniclers the meaning of the word “Ukraine” is unambiguous - borderland.
This word exists in the same meaning in the 17th century. The most famous map of the Ukrainian borderland of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is the Boplan map of 1648.
It is indicative what the map is called: Delineatio generalis Camporum Desertorum vulgo Ukraine, i.e. General plan desert plains commonly called Ukraine
Naturally, over the years Mongol invasion, then the yoke, and then constant raids, this region, which was once the southern borderland of Rus' on the border with the steppe, became depopulated. The center of this Polish Ukraine itself was approximately the Dnepropetrovsk region. Interestingly, on another map of the same time, compiled by the Blau brothers, these lands already belong to Russia, but are called Ocraina Dikoia (Wild Borderland).
What does NOT apply to Ukraine in the Boplan map: Severshchina, Kiev region, Chernihiv region, Podolia (with Bratslav region), Pokuttya, and Russian Voivodeship (Galicia and Lodomeria). Those. the inhabitants of these regions are NOT Ukrainians.
Russia: formation great power
At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia established itself as a great power. During the 18th century alone, its population increased from approximately 15.6 million people to 37.3 million. This was more than in France and England combined. After the creation of metallurgical enterprises in the Urals in the 18th century, Russia smelted more cast iron and iron than England.
Russia and Ukraine in the 17th century
The most significant changes in the position of Russia and the nature of its development occurred during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (reigned 1645-1676).
During these years, Russia waged almost continuous wars with its traditional opponents - the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Crimean Khanate.
In 1648, a war began between Poland and Zaporozhye Cossack army. In 1649, the Cossacks turned to Russia for help. She was not yet ready to fight, but promised to support the Cossacks with money, weapons and volunteers.
The Zaporozhye army was unique public education, which arose in the 16th century on the vast territory of the middle and lower Dnieper region. These lands, bordering the Crimean Khanate from the south and constantly subject to its raids, and Russia from the north
They were considered to belong to Poland, but she had no real power over them. Peasants from Russian, Polish and Lithuanian lands settled here for decades, escaping the tyranny of the landowners. They mixed with local population, started a household, fought back Crimean Tatars, themselves carried out raids on the Crimea, and sometimes on Polish lands. Ukrainian Cossacks who lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper received money for their service from the Polish crown. The hetman, colonels, and captains they chose were established in Warsaw. The Cossacks who lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper - “beyond the rapids” (hence Zaporozhye) were formally subjects of the Polish crown, but considered themselves independent of it. Their support was a fortified settlement - Zaporozhye Sich.
Poland's attempts to subjugate all the Cossacks to its power became the cause of the war, which with varying success lasted until 1654. In 1653, the hetman Zaporizhian army Bogdan Khmelnytsky (1595 - 1657) officially turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine “under the high royal hand.” Zemsky Sobor in 1654 he decided to join Ukraine as part of Russia. The agreement signed and approved by the All-Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslavl provided for the preservation of broad rights for the Ukrainian Cossacks, in particular the election of all officials.
The reunification of Ukraine with Russia became the reason Russian-Polish war 1654-1667 It went poorly for Poland, which was also attacked by Sweden. Under these conditions, Russia signed a truce with Poland in 1656 and opposed Sweden, which it saw as a more dangerous enemy.
Meanwhile, the situation in Ukraine has worsened. B. Khmelnitsky's successor, Hetman I. Vygovsky, in 1658 terminated the agreement with Russia and entered into an alliance with Poland and Crimea, they jointly began military operations against Russia. In a difficult situation for yourself Russian government was forced, at the cost of returning all the conquered territories to Sweden, to urgently make peace with her. The problem of accessing Baltic Sea again remained unresolved.
The situation of Russia, whose army suffered big losses, worsened the split of Ukraine into Right Bank and Left Bank. In 1667, Russia concluded a truce with Poland. Right Bank Ukraine remained under her authority.
The war in the south did not end there. In 1672, the armies of Turkey and the Crimean Khanate invaded Ukraine. The outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia proceeded with varying degrees of success. Only in 1681 was a peace treaty signed, according to which Kyiv and Left Bank Ukraine remained with Russia.
Map 2. Ukraine between Poland and Russia
Poland, after the suppression Cossack uprisings 1637 and 1638 received a ten-year period of peace. The Poles, it would seem, completely subjugated the Ukrainian Cossacks.
Poland prospered. Ukrainian lands, especially those on the left bank of the Dnieper, Severskaya land and Poltava, where the land holdings of Polish and Ukrainian magnates loyal to Poland quickly grew, became grain bins of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Access to the Baltic made it possible to expand trade in Ukrainian wheat and livestock, as well as Belarusian timber, tar and potash. This led to the growth of cities such as Warsaw, Vilna, Lviv, Kamenets and Kyiv. This decade was often called the era of the "golden peace". Prosperity, however, was built on shaky foundations, as Polish rule of the Ukrainian people faced conflicts and contradictions of all kinds - political, national, economic, social and religious.
When analyzing Polish policy towards Ukraine and the attitude of Ukrainians towards Polish rule, we should first consider the differences in status different layers Ukrainian society. By 1640 there were almost no Ukrainian magnates left, since almost all Ukrainian aristocratic families had converted to the Roman Catholic faith. Outstanding champion of Greek Orthodoxy in Western Rus', Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky died in 1608. His descendants became Catholics. Prince Jeremiah Vishnevetsky converted to Catholicism in 1632. Among the few Greek Orthodox nobles who had at least some political weight, Adam Kisel is best known. But, although he was Russian. Kisiel felt politically like a Pole.
Extremely many representatives of the small Ukrainian nobility (szlachta) remained Greek Orthodox in faith, but Russian in spirit, although they were faithful to the Polish king and were ready to serve Poland faithfully. In addition, in Ukraine there were a large number of small landowners who did not have the official status of the gentry, but who differed little from it economically and socially. It was from these two groups that the Polish government usually recruited officers and privates among the registered (registered) Cossacks.
The Zaporozhye Cossacks, organized around their Sich, sometimes accepted into their ranks representatives of the Russian-Ukrainian nobility, the majority were ordinary people, occasionally city dwellers, but mostly- peasants who fled from land tycoons.
Thus, the Cossacks represented a link both between the nobility and the townspeople, and between the nobility and the peasants. Most Ukrainian people at that time they were peasants, whose position both in Ukraine and in Belarus was tantamount to slavery.
As for religion, the compromise of 1632 greatly strengthened the status of the Greek Orthodox Church in Western Russia. Although the Orthodox did not actually receive all the rights and privileges stipulated in the conditions that were promised to them, the Russian clergy were satisfied with their position. Petty clergy, However, whose social level was closer to the peasantry, was subjected to oppression and insults from the Polish magnates and officials, and it could well be expected that it would take the side of the Cossacks and peasants in any future unrest.
Indeed, the situation in Ukraine is ripe for such unrest. Dissatisfaction grew among both peasants and Cossacks. A look at the circumstances of the life of the peasants reveals a situation that is strange, as it may seem at first glance: corvee labor was easier on the recently conquered border lands than in northern regions Ukraine and Belarus. Then why are these peasants from the left bank and border areas of the right bank of the Dnieper in to a greater extent inclined towards rebellion than the rest, whose situation was much more difficult? The reasons were mainly purely psychological. New settlers in most cases were people more energetic and proactive than those who lived there permanently. In addition, the environment itself in the border lands was different due to the presence of free people - the Cossacks. Any attempt on the part of the estate owners to burden their peasants caused greater indignation among the new settlers than in those areas where dependence had existed for a long time. Moreover, in the new lands, on the border of the steppe zone, it was comparatively easier for the offended peasant to flee from his master and join the Cossacks “beyond the [Dnieper] rapids.” Peasants from the left bank could even flee to the Don Cossacks.
After the suppression of the 1638 uprising, several units of Polish soldiers were stationed in Ukrainian lands as a precaution against possible unrest. The behavior of these soldiers irritated the population just as much as the oppression of the masters. Always in need of money due to their lavish lifestyle, landowners often farmed out the sources of income from their lands and various structures on their lands, such as watermills, distilleries, taverns and river ferries, to the Jews, who in Poland and Lithuania traditionally provided financial support. support for kings and nobles and have long become necessary due to their business enterprise. As a result, for many Ukrainian peasants, Jews began to be identified with the oppressive Polish regime. When the revolutionary explosion broke out, the Jews found themselves between two opposing forces (Ukrainians and Poles), and their fate was tragic.
Dissatisfied with the fact that only peasants were under their power, the magnates after 1638 tried to convert the Cossacks “excluded from the register” (vypischiki) into peasants. The registered Cossacks themselves were subject to strict discipline and were subject to harassment from both Polish and their own officers (petty officers).
Despite all this, the foundation of Polish rule seemed quite solid. However, underlying popular discontent manifested itself in a number of peasant riots in both Western and Eastern Ukraine in 1639 and in subsequent years. These were not yet symptoms of deep-seated indignation in Ukraine. Such riots failed to develop into general unrest only because of the lack of interaction between peasants in various locations, as well as between the Cossacks and peasants.
In 1646, the King of Poland gave the Cossacks a reason for general unrest, albeit unintentionally. Vladislav IV was an ambitious man and he was irritated by the rule of the Sejm. He was looking for a suitable opportunity to enhance his royal powers and raise the respect for the crown.
Vladislav's most cherished project was the war against Turkey. In these plans he was supported by Chancellor Jerzy Ossolinski, appointed in 1643. In 1645, under pressure from the Turks, Venice asked for help from some European countries, including Poland. Without informing the Sejm of his plans, Vladislav agreed to support Venice in the war against the Turks, but demanded substantial subsidies. He intended to use this money to strengthen the Polish regular army and mobilize the Cossacks. In his military plans, he intended first to attack the vassals of the Turkish Sultan - the Crimean Tatars.
Vladislav had a high opinion of the Cossacks as a fighting force. They supported him even when he, as crown prince, waged a war against Moscow in 1617-1618. and again during the capture of Smolensk in 1632-1634. In April 1646, at the invitation of the king, four delegates from the elders of the registered Cossacks: three esauls - Ivan Barabash, Ilya Karaimovich and Ivan Nesterenko But - and the Chigirin centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky - arrived in Warsaw and were received top secret by the king and chancellor Ossolinsky. Since no minutes of their meeting have survived, the exact content of these negotiations is unknown, however, from available sources it can be assumed that Vladislav promised to increase the number of registered Cossacks from one thousand to a much larger figure (twelve, or maybe even twenty thousand). It was alleged that the king presented Barabash with a decree of similar content, certified by his own seal (and not the seal of the state).
The secret plans of Vladislav and Ossolinsky soon became known to the magnates and caused great indignation. At a meeting in 1646, the Sejm imposed a ban on any increase in the composition of the regular Polish army and began to threaten Ossolinsky with removal from office. Vladislav was forced to abandon this part of his project.
At the next meeting (1647), the Sejm turned its attention to Vladislav's interest in the Cossacks and decided to put an end to his military preparations once and for all. They specifically voted that the number of registered Cossacks could not be increased without the approval of the Sejm. Because of these decisions, the senior officers of the registered Cossacks - Barabash and Karaimovich - abandoned attempts to increase Cossack register today and decided to keep the whole matter secret. However, it turned out to be impossible for them to stop the spread of rumors and gossip among ordinary Cossacks, especially because their colleague in the delegation to Vladislav, centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky, did not want to miss the opportunity to strengthen the Cossack army.
The medieval culture of Ukraine was quite specific. In many ways we can say that medieval Ukrainian culture is shining example“border” culture: West and East, civilization and savagery, striving forward and obscurantist inertia of views, rabid religiosity and secular aspiration of ideas are intricately mixed here. Such a motley combination that characterized the culture Ukraine XVII century, arose due to a number of circumstances.
- TO XIV century Ukrainian lands finally freed from Tatar-Mongol yoke, that is, much earlier than the “Great Russian” territories. True, the indigenous inhabitants of the former Kievan Rus not appropriate: the country was plundered, the productive forces, namely the rich and educated princes and boyars, were largely destroyed. In addition, a holy place is never empty, and the vacated territory was occupied by representatives of more developed neighboring countries - Poland, Lithuania, Hungary. The leading role, apparently, was played by the Lithuanians, who in the ethnographic and cultural sense were a people “younger” than Eastern Slavs(who even in the lands of Ukraine preferred to call themselves Russians); therefore, the Lithuanians preferred “not to introduce new things, not to destroy the old,” that is, they did not abolish the habitual Russian way of life and ancient Russian legislation, but on the contrary, they actively accepted the fundamentals Slavic culture and even converted to Orthodoxy. But under the influence of their western neighbors, the Lithuanians accepted European enlightenment, and gradually the economic, political and cultural life of Ukraine was largely reorganized in a European manner.
- The development of the people's liberation movement, which is predominantly peasant-Cossack in nature. Ukrainian lower strata of the population belonging to East Slavic people, felt conquered. Lithuanians and Poles, as well as the polarized “Russian” elite, in the opinion of the peasants, appropriated their property to the Orthodox people funds and manage them unjustly, at least not in the interests of the “autochthonous” population. Peasants and Cossacks for the most part were illiterate, ignorant and superstitious people, which left an imprint on the cultural life of Ukraine.
- Some isolation of Ukrainian lands from the centers of European cultural life. The creative, philosophical and technological achievements of European civilization came to Ukraine with a certain delay. In general for this entire region Eastern Europe There is a strict gradation according to the level of civilization. IN Belarusian lands In the 16th century, the European Renaissance dominated with might and main; at the same time, Ukraine was mastering, for the most part, culture late Middle Ages, and in Russia gloomy and hopeless reigned early Middle Ages, and in some areas almost primitive communal system. Because of this, a kind of cultural filtering took place: European culture penetrated into Ukraine and Belarus in a “Polished” form, and then, in the 17th century, it penetrated into Moscow State already in a Ukrainized form: Simeon of Polotsk, Pamvo Berynda and many other Moscow “learned people” came to Moscow from Ukraine.
Polemical culture of Ukraine XIV – XVII centuries
Due to the prevailing circumstances, the medieval culture of Ukraine was highly controversial. Outstanding monuments of Ukrainian literature are represented mostly by polemical works in which the advantage of Orthodox faith over the Catholic (or vice versa), the Uniates who concluded the so-called Union of Brest were cursed or, conversely, supported.
The controversy, however, did not develop into a general cultural confrontation: thus, one of the most educated Ukrainians, Prince Ostrozhsky, patronized the activities of Orthodox writers and artisans, including the printer and gunsmith Ivan Fedorov, who escaped from wild Tatar Moscow. Orthodox artists tried to combine Byzantine icon painting canons with the achievements of European fine arts, and also mastered civil painting itself.
Old Ukrainian churches of the ancient Russian model and newly built churches in the Renaissance and Baroque styles passed to the Orthodox, then to the Catholics, then to the Uniates. Behind this polemical culture Ukraine was hiding an acute political struggle between the indigenous Ukrainian population and the Europeans, who were perceived as invaders.
Scholasticism marched in the same ranks with polemics. Founded by Peter Mogila " fraternal schools", one of which by the second half of the 17th century grew into the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, concentrated their activities in scholastic disputes, in which they were largely mired.
The real goal of scholastic disputes is the desire to prevent “spiritual sabotage”: by scrupulously examining religious doctrine, human rights in accordance with “ holy scripture", educated Orthodox priests they tried, overcoming primitive savagery, to determine for believers the maximum “civilization dose” that would allow the person who took it to still be called Orthodox.
Culture of Ukraine XVII – XVIII centuries
Ukrainian culture in these centuries was subject to mutual influence with Moscow culture. On the one hand, scientists, writers, architects and artists willingly came to the Moscow state and were even specially invited by Alexei Mikhailovich, again with the same purpose: to perceive European civilization as if “bypassing” Catholic and Protestant missionaries.
On the other hand, having joined Russian state, Ukraine also adopted the subsequent Russian culture, reshaped by Peter in a Western way. And the so-called “Ukrainian Baroque,” which culturally represented nothing more than the early Renaissance, sharply turned into the present Baroque in the 18th century. This was apparently started by Mazepa, who in his letter to Peter asked to send him the architect Osip Startsev from Moscow.
Video: History of Ukrainian culture
The second half of the 17th century in the history of Ukraine. The second half of the 17th century in the history of Ukraine was filled with desperate disputes regarding the social structure of the country, socio-economic problems, and the struggle of the ruling hetmans with numerous contenders for the hetman's mace.
Most of Khmelnitsky's successors did not have his popularity and authority, or managerial talent. Therefore, these rulers were constantly looking for “patrons” for Ukraine, easily succumbing to the influence of predatory neighbors or adapting to changing circumstances. They ruled for the most part for a short time. Many of them were guided not so much by state interests as by their own interests.
The consequence of this was foreign intervention and the seizure of Ukrainian lands, political crisis, economic devastation and civil war. Ukrainian society split almost immediately after Khmelnitsky's death. His successor, Ivan Vygovsky, faced with manifestations of the aggressive policy of Muscovy, was forced to seek an alliance with the recent enemy of the Ukrainians - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 1658, he defeated a 150,000-strong army near Konotop. Moscow army, and then concluded the Gadyach Treaty with Poland, which provided for the autonomy of Ukraine. But the hetman was unable to take advantage of this agreement, since the Cossack elders rebelled against him, accusing him of “selling Ukraine to the Poles.” This event caused fratricidal war, which only in 1659 cost Ukrainians about 50 thousand lives, and Vygovsky himself - the hetman’s mace.
The civil war, now subsiding, now flaring up with new strength, burned in Ukraine during 1656-1665 and 1668-1689. Describing these events in a letter to King John Casimir, the Polish magnate Potocki testified: “... the Ukrainians are eating themselves, one village is at war with another, the son of the father, and the father is robbing the son.” After Vygovsky’s abdication, power in Ukraine, with the support of the Moscow Tsar, passed to Bogdan Khmelnitsky’s son, Yuri. This 18-year-old boy, very young and not possessing the talent of a ruler, and also in poor health, immediately signed a new version of the Pereyaslav Agreement with Moscow, which was actually enslaving for the Ukrainians.
From now on, Russian garrisons were stationed in all major cities Ukraine, and the hetman, deprived of the right to conduct foreign policy without tsarist permission, turned into a puppet, a toy in the hands of foreigners. It was under Khmelnitsky’s heir that Ukraine lost its integrity.
According to the Treaty of Andrusovo signed in 1667 between Russians and Poles, the left bank part of the state remained under the rule of Muscovy, and the right bank again became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. As for the lands on which the Zaporozhye Sich was located, they came under dual Polish-Moscow control. This was the first, but unfortunately not last case division of our country.
The Ukrainian people experienced the terrible consequences of this political catastrophe for almost 300 years. Leaving the hetman's position, Yuri Khmelnytsky entered a monastery. Meanwhile, Ukraine was engulfed by the hetman's whirlwind. In a short period of time, the hetman's mace was in the hands of Pavel Tyuri, and again Yuri Khmelnitsky - on the Right Bank, and Yakov Somko, Ivan Bryukhovetsky, Demyan Mnogohreshny and Ivan Samoilovich - on the Left Bank. Most of these political figures were proteges of either the Russian Tsar or the Poles and unquestioningly followed their instructions, further worsening the life of the Ukrainian people.
Tried to change the position. He carried out a number of reforms that had a positive impact on the situation within the country. Was just as balanced foreign policy hetman. Taking advantage of Bohdan Khmelnitsky’s long-standing idea, Doroshenko entered into an alliance with Turkey. Then, in the fall of 1667, a united army of Cossacks and Turks attacked Galicia. Polish army, which forced King John Casimir to grant the hetman broad autonomy. Having gained a foothold on the Right Bank, he moved with his army to the left bank of Ukraine, removed Ivan Bryukhovetsky from the hetman’s post and united the entire state under his rule.
The military exploits of Ivan Sirko are sung in many Cossack thoughts, folk songs and legends. Exactly with his name historical tradition also connects the famous answer of the Cossacks to the Turkish Sultan Mohammed IV to his demand to submit Ottoman Empire. In a letter to him, the Cossacks, in particular, wrote: “You will not be the sons of Christians under you, we are not afraid of your army, we will fight you with land and water...” According to legend, having received this letter, the Sultan issued a special firman ( decree) so that in all mosques they pray to Allah for the death of Ivan Sirko.
A significant role in these events was played by the Cossack elders, among whom Bohdan Khmelnitsky’s comrades-in-arms, Ivan Bohun and Ivan Sirko, especially stood out.
Having devoted their entire lives to the fight against the enemies of the Ukrainian people, they took part in decisive battles with foreign invaders. In particular, Ivan Sirko’s dedication to the cause of liberating the people from oppression, extraordinary courage, and organizational and military talent is evidenced by the fact that the Cossacks elected him Kosh chieftain eight times. This Cossack leader was highly respected in the army. During his life, he took part in more than a hundred military campaigns and was defeated only once. And they also loved him because he was simple origin- originally from the Cossack settlement of Artemovka near Merefa, in the Kharkov region. (There are other assumptions regarding Sirko’s birthplace: the village of Grushevka in the Dnepropetrovsk region or Podolia - now Vinnytsia region.)
But, despite the support of Ivan Sirko and other Cossack leaders, he was unable to maintain the positions he had won. Soon, contenders for the hetman's position rose up against him, instigated by the Russians, Poles and Tatars.
The internecine struggle flared up again, about which Sirko spoke with bitterness: “Now we have four hetmans: Samoilovich, Sukhovey, Khanenko, Doroshenko, and there is nothing good from anyone: they sit at home and only shed Christian blood for the hetmanship, for the estates, for the mills " Due to internal disputes and political attacks on Ukraine in 1686 after the conclusion between Russia and Poland of the so-called “ eternal peace"she was again and for a long time divided between neighboring states. I. Ya. Frankona called the agreement of 1686 a “wild treaty”, which legitimized the existence of “two Ukraines” for almost 100 years. By the way, in order to retain Kyiv, the Russian Tsar paid the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 146 thousand gold rubles for it. The Left Bank, which the Ukrainians called the Hetmanate, and the Russians called Little Russia, came under the rule of Moscow; The Right Bank went to Poland. All that was left in the hands of the Turks was Northern Bukovina, and the population of the western Carpathians was under the rule of the Hungarians. As for Zaporozhye Sich, then in late XVII century, it gradually lost its significance as a stronghold of the Cossacks and completely came under the wing of the Russian Empire.
