Internationalisms- these are foreign language words, mainly scientific and technical terms, formed from ancient Greek and Latin elements (root and affixal morphemes, whole words). They exist not only in the Russian language, but also in all languages whose speakers are in contact with speakers of other languages (for example, the British with the French, the Germans with the Spaniards), which is why they are called internationalisms. For example:
Automobile, democracy, philosophy, republic, telephone, telegraph, millimeter, cosmodrome, etc.
The specificity of internationalisms is that they do not have a “language homeland,” that is, a living and functioning language from which they are borrowed. International words and terms in each of the developed modern languages constitute a significant layer of vocabulary. The constant increase in this layer indicates an ever-increasing tendency towards the creation of a kind of international lexical fund, facilitating mutual understanding between representatives of different languages, states, and cultures.
Throughout the entire period of development of historical linguistics, interlingual relations have always been the focus of attention of researchers. IN different times problems of language contacts and bilingualism were dealt with by L.V. Shcherba, Yu.A. Zhluktenko, A.E. Karlinsky, M.M. Mikhailov, V.Yu. Rosenzweig, L.P. Krysin, U. Weireich, E. Haugen and many, many others. International words, borrowed from one source, have graphic and sound similarities, and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute the common property of a number of languages. Most of them are the result of the parallel enrichment of new languages at the expense of the vocabulary of ancient languages, for example, “democracy”, “synonym”, “philosophy” (from Latin and Greek). Another part of them comes from modern languages, for example, “sonata” (from Italian), “perestroika” (from Russian). International words do not include related correspondences, i.e. words, the presence of which in a number of languages is a consequence of the relationship of these languages and their origin from one language - stems, for example: English. – mother, German – mutter, Russian. - mother.
Internationalisms in the modern Russian language perform the main function - communicative. They are included in syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, participate in word-formation processes and thereby enrich the vocabulary fund of the Russian language.
Distinctive Features internationalisms as a subsystem of borrowings are that the semantic, graphic or phonetic form of a word is represented at least in three languages, amenable morphemic analysis with a synchronic approach, which necessarily has one foreign language component in its structure.
The Russian language is a language created for poetry; it is extremely rich and remarkable mainly for the subtlety of its shades. - P. Merimee.
Dictionaries of foreign words.
1) “A new interpreter, arranged alphabetically, containing various foreign sayings and technical terms found in the Russian language,” 3 vols., (1803-06), N.M. Yanovsky.
2) “30 thousand foreign words that came into use in the Russian language.”, A. D. Mikhelson, (1866, 1869).
3) The most complete is the “Dictionary of Foreign Words” edited by I.V. Lekhina, F.N. Petrova et al. (1941; 13th ed. M., 1986; 19th ed. M., 1990), 23 thousand words. The dictionary gives short explanation words and terms foreign language origin, found in different styles speech, the origin of the word is indicated, in necessary cases the path of borrowing is noted.
4) In 1966, the Dictionary foreign language expressions and words.” A.M. Babkina I.V.V. Shendetsova (2nd ed. L., 1981) and “ Brief dictionary foreign words" (8th ed. M., 1985), containing about 4,500 words and terms. In 1983, “ School dictionary foreign words" (edited by V.V. Ivanov).
5) From latest dictionaries You can note the “Dictionary of Foreign Words and Expressions” Zenovich E.S.E.S. Zenovich, published in 1998 (8000 commonly used borrowed words and expressions).
6) It is especially important to highlight “ Dictionary foreign words" Krysin L.P.L.P. Krysina (M., 1998). Unlike other dictionaries of foreign words, this dictionary contains information about the origin of words, gives derivative words, interpretation of meanings and examples of use, set expressions and analogues. The dictionary includes new borrowings.
Half-hyphen, semi-separate, continuous and separate spelling of words.
Continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings include different grammatical categories of words: complex nouns and adjectives, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, as well as the spelling of particles not with various parts speech. The principles of writing such words are based on the meaning of the word (its meaning), and on the distinction between a word and a phrase, and on taking into account the word’s belonging to one or another part of speech. For example, spelling compound adjectives such as hard-to-reach, fast-cutting, long-lasting and free phrases based on the same words. To write correctly, you need to take into account syntactic feature: if the first component answers the question “how?”, then it is an independent part of speech and is written separately: The children playing in the garden for a long time did not want to go home. – Long-playing records have now been replaced by compact discs. Phrases such as in my opinion, along the wolf's trail, according to summer garden. But if the agreed words from these phrases become adverbs, they are written with a hyphen (dash): in my opinion, in a wolf way, in a summer way (warmth).
There are several rules for writing a word not with different parts of speech, but the general rule is this: if it is not a prefix in the word, it must be written together, if not, it is negative particle, then separately. For example: Unnecessary things (superfluous), stupid action (stupid). – These things are not necessary, as you think, but completely unnecessary. – Your action is not smart, as you think, but rather stupid. When spelling numerals, it is important to take into account their structure: complex numerals are written together, and compound ones - separately: two hundred - two hundred two, seventy - seventy eight.
There is a peculiarity in the spelling of pronouns with not and neither: they are written together without a preposition (no one, no one) and separately with a preposition (with no one, no one). In some cases, the correct spelling of words depends only on knowledge of the basic rules of Russian spelling. Here are the most important ones:
Rules continuous writing
Are being written seamlessly all compound words (Sberbank, trade union), words with prefixes (pre-war, infrared, trans-Iranian), compound nouns, adjectives, adverbs, the first element of which is a numeral (five-year plan, two-story, three-fold). Nouns are written together: compound nouns with the first element agro-, meteo-, aero-, bio-, micro-, neo-; inflected compound nouns with a verbal first part (hold the tree, daredevil, spinner). Compound adjectives are written together if they are formed from nouns written together (plumbing - from water supply), if they are formed on the basis subordinating phrase(railway - railway), if they denote a single concept (often these are terms: rarely used, instant). Adverbs are written together if they are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs (until now, forever, through), from collective numerals with prepositions in or on (double, triple, quadruple), from full adjective or pronouns with a preposition (hard-boiled, closely, draw, with might and main), from short adjectives with prepositions (to the left, dryly, from afar, in vain), from a noun with a preposition (forward, sideways, squatting), by merging prepositions with a pronoun (why, because, therefore, why, why). Negative and indefinite pronouns are written together if there is no preposition between the root and “not” or “neither”: no one, no one, no one, nothing. Prepositions are written together: in view of, as a result of, like, instead of, like, about, over. Conjunctions written together: but, and, moreover, so that, too, also, if, supposedly.
Rules hyphenated spelling
Are written via hyphen lexical formations, representing a repetition of the same word (small-small, barely) or a repetition of the same root (day-day, a long time ago, rad-radekhonek); a combination of two synonymous words (unexpectedly-unexpectedly, quietly-peacefully, way-road); complex ordinal numbers if they are written in numbers (183 millionth); ordinal numbers, if they are written in numbers with a grammatical ending (15th, 128th). Nouns are written with a hyphen if a compound word is formed without a connecting vowel (firebird, cafe-restaurant, prime minister), if they are the name political parties and directions (social democracy, anarcho-syndicalism), complex units of measurement (man-day, kilowatt-hour), the name of intermediate cardinal directions (north-east, north-west), if the names of a complex noun contain a verb or conjunction (you love -don’t-love, Ivan-da-Marya), from the floor - followed by genitive case, if the noun begins with a vowel or consonant l or with a proper noun (half an apple, half a lemon, half a Moscow), if the first part of the noun is the foreign language elements ober-, unter-, leib-, staff-, vice-, ex-. Adjectives are written with a hyphen if they are formed from nouns written with a hyphen (social democratic, north-eastern), formed on the basis of a combination of words with coordinating connection(meat-dairy, blue-white-red), indicate quality with an additional shade (bitter-salty, pale pink, bright red). Adverbs are written with a hyphen if they begin with po- and end with - omu, - him, - ki, -i (in Russian, in bearish), as well as adverbs like first, second, etc. Complex prepositions from-for, from-under, on-over, in-for are written with a hyphen. Words with particles somehow, -how, -or, -something, -that, -ta, -s, -de are written with a hyphen (something, come on, etc.).
Borrowed vocabulary and its varieties. Reasons and ways of borrowing. Problems of mastering foreign language vocabulary. Types of borrowed words. Exoticisms and barbarisms. Old Slavonicisms in modern Russian and their types. Dictionaries of foreign words.
IN etymological dictionaries Borrowed vocabulary is also described in the Russian language, for example:
Ivasi- borrowing from Japanese in the first Thursday XX century;
Abbot- borrowed from Art.-Sl. language in the 11th century;
Ideal- borrowing from fr. at the end of the 18th century;
Idea - borrowed from Polish in the 17th century;
Raisin- borrowing from the language Crimea. Tatars in the 16th century;
Porthole- borrowing from English in mid. XIX century
Under borrowing (foreign language vocabulary) any word that came into the Russian language from another language, even a closely related one, in any of the eras of its development is understood.
It should be borne in mind that words formed in Russian from foreign language bases will not be considered borrowings: for example, the actual Russian word ideas -n- from a foreign word idea or the actual Russian word sponsor , formed using the Russian suffix -sk- from a foreign word sponsor. And vice versa, the external familiarity of a word does not yet indicate its originality: the word could have been borrowed from a closely related Slavic language: for example, the word wisdom borrowed from Old Slavonic language, A liberty from Polish.
Thus, native Russian and borrowed vocabulary are contrasted according to the principle: where a word appeared in a given language.
Borrowing from another language can be direct(directly from a language) and indirect(through another language). For example, according to the etymological dictionary N.M. Shansky, word deli (“gourmet”) is not borrowed directly from Greek ( gastronomin), and through the French language ( gastronom).
Direct borrowings in Russian are words omelette (fr. omelette), ring (English) ring), spire (German) spille), etc.
Indirect borrowings are words map (Greek charts via Lat.-Italian charta and floor. map), kimono (Japanese) kimono via fr. kimono), engineer (German) Ingenier via fr. ingenieur and Polish inzynier), etc.
It should be noted that the term borrowing applies only to direct lexical borrowing. In addition to this, there are also so-called tracing paper, which are created in Russian according to a foreign language model ( tracing). So tracing paper is a word that is both original (created in the language itself, on the basis of its word-forming elements) and borrowed (the structure of the word is borrowed as a model). A classic example is the words of the Russian language alphabet And ABC , of which the first is an Old Russian lexical borrowing from Greek ( alphabetos- adding the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet alpha And beta), and the second - a word-formation tracing paper from it: addition Old Russian names first letters of the Russian alphabet az And beeches - originally ABCs > alphabet).
Such tracing papers are called word-forming, because they copy the derivational structure of the word. These are usually words with a pronounced word-formation structure (complex, suffixal, prefixal), for example: insect (word-forming tracing paper from Lat. insectum), consonance (word-formative tracing paper from Greek. symphonia- “consonance”; Wed and later direct lexical borrowing symphony - from Italian simfonia, sunrise also Greek), allegory (derivative tracing paper from Greek: allegory- “allegory”, there is also direct borrowing allegory ) and many more etc. Thus, derivational tracing paper is essentially a morphemic translation of a foreign word into Russian.
In addition to word-forming ones, there are also semantic tracing paper, in which the semantic structure of a foreign word is copied (usually the figurative meaning is borrowed), for example: flat (translation “vulgar” from French) plat), ceiling (translated “maximum height of something” from French. plafond), introduction (semantic tracing paper from French: introduction- “preface”), etc.
There are also semi-tracing paper- copying only part of a word. For example: humanity - half tracing paper with him. Humanitat- “humanity” (formed by borrowing the root part Human- as an adjective stem humane and translation of the German suffix - itat Russian suffix - awn).
Thus, foreign language (borrowed) vocabulary refers only to whole words that came into the Russian language from the languages of other peoples.
Borrowing words from other languages is not uncommon. This has happened, is happening and will always happen, regardless of society’s attitude towards this process. As a result of cultural, economic, political and other connections between peoples, the lexical composition of contacting languages has been and is being replenished with new words from ancient times to the present day.
By counting borrowed words, scientists were able to obtain interesting data. Thus, in the German language there are only several tens of thousands of borrowed words, in English - more than half of its vocabulary. This phenomenon was not alien to ancient languages: in Latin, for example, there are more than 7,000 borrowings from Greek. The Old Russian language received a very large percentage of borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language. However, in the modern Russian language (not counting derivative words), according to experts (for example, F.P. Filin), as already mentioned, only about 10% foreign words.
What are reasons for borrowing?
First of all, they should be divided into extralinguistic And intralinguistic.
To extralinguistic (non-linguistic, external reasons borrowings) include the following:
1) Already mentioned contacts of peoples (historical and geographical). So, in the Russian language there are many borrowings from Turkic languages according to certain historical and geographical reasons(neighborhood, trade relations, clashes, conquests, etc.), for example, such long-familiar words as tub, bazaar, booth, dunce, badger, head, bashlyk, shoe, snowstorm and many more etc. Live communication with our northern neighbors (Norwegians, Swedes, Finns, Danes) led to the borrowing of words related to fishing, so important for the northerners: herring, sprat, flounder, smelt, navaga. From there came such words as sleds, tundra, snowstorm. Many borrowings from the languages of the countries Western Europe carried out into the Russian language through the Polish language border country: carriage, map (game), dwarf, Catholic, apartment, keys, colony, commissar, contract and many more etc. Through the same Polish and other European languages, words from now “dead” languages - Latin (via Greek) and ancient Greek - penetrated into the Russian language. Basically, these are words from the field of science and culture, terminology, including linguistic, which have become international(international): summary, lecture, vocabulary, linguistics, formula, dictatorship, culture, grammar, democracy, dialogue, monologue, reader, era and many more etc.
2) The need to nominate new subjects and concepts. So, if the “second bread” - potatoes - had grown earlier in Russia, it would have originally Russian name, however, it was “imported” in the 18th century, and with it the name potato (later transformed in colloquial speech into Russian proper potato ) - from Italian tartufolo via German Tartuffel > Kartoffel. The names of many other products that became commonplace and even beloved in Rus' were also borrowed ( biscuit, steak, borscht, bagel, broth, waffle, jelly, sausage, compote, cutlet, coffee, pretzel, lemonade, pasta, pate, sardines, sauce, soup, cake, kebab and many more etc.).
3) The priority of the nation in any field of activity. For example, in the Peter the Great era, many words on naval and industrial-economic topics were borrowed from the Dutch and German languages: army, buoy, ballast, exchange, fire hose, brig, harbor, general, director, map (geographical), buckshot, receipt, jacket, valve, blade, berth, cook, team, commandant, congress, office, pilot, sailor, uniform, mouthpiece, patent, raid, yardarm, steering wheel, mechanic, dachshund, flag, fleet, boat, spy, font, stamp, navigator and many more etc. Later (from the 18th century) many words from the sphere of fashion and art were borrowed from French and Italian: actor, aria, poster, ballet, balcony, bureau, bravo, bracelet, cello, wardrobe, conductor, jacket, vest, juggler, costume, libretto, medallion, short story, play, piano, director, prompter, frock coat, tenor, phrase etc. Remember how Pushkin complained about this in “Eugene Onegin”: “But trousers, tailcoat, vest“All these words are not in Russian...”
4) Authority of the country of the source language or language fashion. For example, the abundance of borrowings from the English language (especially Americanisms) during the period of perestroika (late 20th century) was largely due to the fascination with the United States. The same thing was observed in the 18th century in connection with the fascination with France - the entire “high society” spoke French (read “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy), and many French words “settled” in the Russian language during this period.
5) Historically determined increase in certain social strata accepting foreign words. Such a social stratum in the already mentioned 18th century was Russian nobility, which introduced a lot of French borrowings into the Russian language.
Intralinguistic (linguistic) reasons for borrowing include the following:
1) Lack of an equivalent word in the native language for a new subject or concept ( player, hamburger, scotch tape, hospice, blazer, monitoring idr . ).
2) The trend towards using one(even if borrowed) words instead of descriptive phrases native language(hotel for auto tourists - motel, press conference for journalists - briefing, figure skiing - freestyle etc.: tour, cruise- traveling along a circular route, camping- camp for autotourists, sniper- a sharp shooter). Borrowing in in this case allows you to “save” language resources and express thoughts more concisely.
3) The need for detail, clarification of the corresponding meaning, delimitation of related concepts, their shades of meaning by attaching them to different words ( cosiness - comfort, murderer - killer, image - image, hospital - hospice, fashion designer - couturier, jam - jam etc.).
4) Trend towards replenishment of expressive means, leading to the emergence of foreign language stylistic synonyms ( service - service, limitation - limit, creative - creative, performance - presentation etc.).
5) Increasing the prestige of foreign words in comparison with the original or long-developed borrowed ones - false “beauty” ( prostitute, exclusive, shopping tour, pediculosis, suicide, pluralism etc.).
A borrowed word is rarely preserved unchanged in the borrowing language. Finding itself on new soil, a foreign word adapts to another language phonetically, grammatically and semantically and, therefore, changes.
Thus, a foreign word is adapted to the phonetic structure of the Russian language: deafening, softening, reduction, loss of length or brevity, elimination of consonant groups, etc. Adaptation to grammatical structure Russian language - acquisition or change of gender, number, addition of Russian formative affixes, etc. Changes in word formation and semantic structure words (morphological simplification, semantic narrowing, etc.). For example, cupcake in Russian it is singular, in English it is plural and has many meanings (flatbread, tile, tablet); tie in Russian - masculine, in German - middle, etc.
This process of adapting to another language is called adaptation (assimilation). The degree of these changes depends on the time of borrowing and the scope of its use. Thus, old borrowings denoting everyday concepts have long since become “Russianized”, and sometimes it is difficult to recognize “foreigners” in them. For example, words like notebook, sail or pencil, bazaar, robe, beet, or the same “Russian” personal names - Andrey, Victor or Elena, Maria do not differ from native Russian words either in pronunciation or inflection (they are declined according to the same types of declension), a lot of derivatives are formed from them in the Russian language: notebook, sailing, pencil, market - 2(meaning “noise, hubbub”), negligent, beetroot, Andryushka, Vitenka, Alenka, Masha.
However, some borrowings retained “traces” of foreign origin, signs by which they can be identified.
1) Phonetic: for example, initial “a”, “e” ( A ghent, uh poha), sound and letter “f” ( f onar); combinations “ke, ge, he; kyu, gyu, pyu, byu; gya", not characteristic of the Russian language ( ke gl, ge RB, s heh ma, kyu vet, gyu ys, pyu re, byu st, gya ur); vowel combinations ( n ia Nino, p oe t, d uh t, t ea tr, g eo logy, in ia duk, t wow years); double consonants ( va NN ah, ka ss ah, pre ss, bo ss, That NN a, bah ll ast); some groups of consonants “ks”, “kz”, “cht”, “shp”, “sht”, etc. ( bo ks, ryu short circuit ak, ma Thu A, sp ig, pcs ab) etc. At the same time, many phonetic features are characteristic of borrowings from certain languages: for example, the initial “sht” is characteristic of words from German language (assault, stroke, adit), and the combination “j” - words from the English language ( jazz, jam, jumper, cottage). A curious phonetic feature of Turkisms is, for example, the so-called. synharmonism, i.e. vowel harmony, repetition of the same vowel, usually "a" or "u" ( market, sundress, pencil, pocket. chest, sheepskin coat).
2) Orthoepic: for example, “hard” pronunciation before “e” ( T emp, T ent, with T end, shi n spruce, shrap n spruce) or lack of reduction of unstressed ( With He e, p O this) etc.
3) Grammar: indecency ( coat, muffler, meringue, cap, bureau, bet, dash, kimono etc.). It is usually associated with a phonetic feature: final stressed vowels, characteristic of the French language.
4) Derivational (morphological): some well-known foreign language affixes: Latin and Greek prefixes (re-, anti-) and suffixes (-um, -us, -tsia, -tor, -ent, -ura): re gress, anti pathia, captivity mind, bldg. mustache, air tion, ora torus, assistant professor ent, agent hooray; English and French suffixes (-ing and -er): mit ing, press ing, lead er, conductor er, chief er etc..
5) Semantic: some foreign words contain an exotic national-cultural component in their semantics, because They call the concepts of “foreign culture”, which have no equivalents in Russian culture and the Russian language. That's why such foreign words are called - exoticisms. Most often these are the names of monetary units of other countries ( yen, ecu, peso, soldo), clergy ( lama, bishop, curé), national clothes (sari, kimono, turban, veil), dishes ( bowl), buildings ( haklya, yurt, yaranga, hacienda), food ( consommé, shurpa, lavash, churek, samsa), "overseas" fruits ( kiwi, mango) and other concepts and phenomena ( safari, grand, motel etc.).
Thus, the degree of mastery of foreign language vocabulary is different. Completely unmastered, unadapted borrowings are often even transmitted using the graphics of the source language (usually in Latin) or transliterated. Such words are considered not borrowed, but simply foreign inclusions, or barbarisms. For example, A.S. Pushkin: “At the end of the letter put vale” or “Before him there is a bloody roast-beef” (“Eugene Onegin”).
As already mentioned, the Russian language has borrowed vocabulary from different languages: Western European (English, German, French, etc.), Slavic, Turkic. There are rare borrowings from Japanese and Chinese.
A special group is represented by ancient borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language - Old Slavonicisms, or just Slavisms, as G.O. called them. Vinokur, who dedicated his article “On Slavicisms in the modern Russian literary language” (1947) to them.
Old Slavonicisms are borrowings, because were “adopted” by the Old Russian, or East Slavic language (back in the days Kievan Rus) from another language Slavic branch, Old Slavonic, or Old Bulgarian, belonging to South Slavic group. L.P. Yakubinsky, a famous Russian linguist, well said that the Old Church Slavonic language for the Russian was “an alien language, but not completely alien”: after all, for a number of centuries these languages “cooperated” and interacted. The Old Church Slavonic language became the literary (written) language of the Slavs with the light hand of the founders of Slavic writing, the Bulgarian brothers Cyril and Methodius, who translated liturgical books from Greek into the Slavic (Old Church Slavonic) language. Since it was initially used primarily for the needs of the church, on Russian soil this language received the name Church Slavonic. But then it began to be used much more widely and influenced business writing, literature, and even oral speech.
Old Slavonicisms still retain their signs, distinguishing them from equivalent Russian words:
1) phonetic - disagreement: combinations - ra-, -la-, -re-, - le- between consonants ( V ra ta, st ra lady, m ra k, n ra in, in ra G), corresponding to Russian full-voice combinations - oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -barely-(V oro ta, st oro f, m oro ka, n oro in, in oro G); initial ra-, la- (ra wailing, la dia, ra prominent) in place of the Russians ro-, lo- (ro st, lo dka, ro prominent);combination railway and sound sch (neve railway ah, chu railway oh, mo sch b) in place of the Russians and And h(neve and ah, chu and oh, mo h b) etc.;
2) derivational - some prefixes ( from - instead of Russian You-, WHO - in accordance with Russian for-, bottom-/bottom-, corresponding to the Russian prefix With-, pre-, pre-, through- etc.) and suffixes with the meaning of abstraction: - action, -zn, -ynya (from take, WHO burn, nis fall, pre step, excessive, sue word, life know, countries action, proud ynya ); difficult words with component good -, good - and under . (good sculpting, good detel, good like, good detel);
3) semantic- many Old Church Slavonicisms have a special meaning associated with religion. For example, lord, Seraphim, angel, prophet, saint etc.
The bulk of Old Church Slavonicisms entered the Russian language with the adoption of Christianity (late 10th-11th centuries) and during the so-called period. second South Slavic influence (late XIV-XV centuries) from written texts. You will learn more about Old Church Slavonicisms in the special course “Old Church Slavonic Language”.
For several centuries, a kind of “bilingualism” existed in Russian writing: Old Russian and Old Church Slavonic. During their functioning in the Russian language, Old Church Slavonicisms have undergone semantic transformations, in most cases losing the former “religious” content characteristic of many of them. At the same time, some of them displaced Old Russian equivalents from use (for example, the word good - the original Russian root was preserved only in the toponym Bologoe), or disagreed with them in meaning (cf. citizen And city dweller), or became stylistic variants of Russian words ( voice - voice). In modern Russian, that is, Old Church Slavonicisms turned out to be different in use. G.O. Distiller in the said article (See* Appendix 1. Reader. Text No. 5) classified them from this point of view. Briefly this classification comes down to three types:
1) Old Church Slavonicisms, which are actively used in the Russian language as neutral, stylistically uncolored vocabulary, i.e. they have lost their bookish character ( captivity, delirium, moisture, time, brave, cave, sweet, environment), displacing the corresponding native Russian words into the passive ( full*, bered*, vologa*, veremya*, good*, pechera*, sweet*, sereda*). Let's call these “Russified” Old Slavonicisms genetic(i.e., recognized as such only by origin).
2) Old Church Slavonicisms, which are also widely used in the Russian language (albeit with a certain touch of bookishness) along with the corresponding native Russian words, with which they somewhat diverged in meaning. For example, st ra on(cf. Russian side), neve railway A(cf. original ignorant), G ra Zhdanin(cf. original city dweller), To ra soft(cf. short), V la there is(cf. parish), n ra V(cf. temperament), n ra X(cf. powder) etc. Let's call them semantic Old Church Slavonicisms, because they differ from the corresponding original Russian words in their semantics (for example: chapter books -"section", but headache -"body part") Note that such Slavicisms have a more abstract meaning than the corresponding Russianisms (cf.: pour out bile And pour out the water, protect out of trouble And fence off the area brief speech And short rope etc.).
3) Old Church Slavonicisms, which are not actively used, being supplanted by the corresponding original Russian words. For example, m la milk,G la s, s la then, but sch b, b re g, h re yes, g ra d, d re in(cf. primordial young, gold, voice, night, city, shore, row, tree). They meet only sometimes - in artistic speech, How stylistic device, preserved in phraseological units and proverbs, bear the color of obsolescence and bookishness. Let us therefore call them, following G.O. Vinokur, stylistic Old Church Slavonicisms.
Examples of the use of Old Church Slavonicisms in language and speech:
A) in phraseological units: both old and young; voice crying in the wilderness; day and overnight; tree knowledge; parable in tongues wagging; reins boards; a storehouse of wisdom etc.;
B) in poetry: there is Tsar Koschey over gold wastes away; on breg sandy and empty; h re the waters come out clear; hail stands on an island; fingers light as a dream; there they plunged into cold dream; an eagle sits above him young; show off , hail Petrov , my spring gold days, etc. There are a lot of them in the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Prophet” (see practical tasks).
The origin of words, including those from the Old Church Slavonic language, can be found out, as already mentioned, from etymological dictionaries. Foreign words, especially those that have recently entered the Russian language and have not yet been mastered or have been poorly mastered, are described in special dictionaries of foreign words.
The most popular of them are considered to be “Dictionary of Foreign Words”, ed. I.V. Lekhin and F.I. Petrova (1939), reprinted several times, “Dictionary of Foreign Words and Expressions” by A.M. Babkin and V.V. Shendetsov, also republished several times (essentially it is a dictionary of barbarisms). There is also a “School Dictionary of Foreign Words” (1893), reprinted twice (the last reprint in 1993).
In recent years, many modern dictionaries of foreign words of explanatory and etymological type have appeared. : « Large explanatory dictionary of foreign words" in 5 volumes (1995), "Dictionary of new foreign words" by N.G. Komleva (1995: with translation, etymology and interpretation), “Dictionary of Foreign Words” by I.A. Vasyukova (1998), “ Newest dictionary foreign words and expressions" (2001), etc.
Particularly interesting is the “Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words” by L.P. Krysin (1999), including mastered borrowings not only from “foreign” languages, but also from the languages of the peoples of the former USSR. L.P. Krysin has repeatedly addressed the problem of foreign borrowings in the modern Russian language, the flow of which literally poured in at the end of the twentieth century in connection with the political and economic events that took place in the country. This dominance of foreign words is compared by many to an environmental disaster. You can get acquainted with the opinion of scientists on this matter in the popular book by L.P. Krysin “Ecology of the word, or Let’s talk about the culture of Russian speech”, as well as in the monograph “Russian language of the late twentieth century” (see list of references).
Among the borrowed vocabulary, a special class of so-called internationalisms stands out. The increasing trend of globalization of many aspects of life and the mastery of an increasing number of people in the languages of global communication contribute to an increase in the number of internationalisms and, consequently, an increase in interest in international vocabulary on the part of linguists.
If lexical borrowing in general occurs in almost all areas human activity, then internationalism, as a type of borrowing, is characteristic of mass information, scientific, official business speech. The English language and internationalisms based on it have become undividedly dominant in the fields of science and international business. The mass information side of the language is especially saturated with internationalisms, which is often explained by the increased susceptibility of the means mass media to new trends in language. The media are a kind of conductor of international vocabulary into all other areas of the language [Khapilina 2005:25].
Undoubtedly, what borrowings and internationalisms have in common is that they are in the system of the receiving language in to the same degree are subject to processes of individualization and nationalization.
A.E. Rytsareva as general characteristics borrowings and international vocabulary identifies the following: language contact as the cause of occurrence, borrowing to fill a gap in the receiving language, borrowing to clarify concepts existing in the receiving language, adaptation to the system of the receiving language, the presence and implementation of a pragmatic component in lexical meaning[Rytsareva 2002:8-9].
Considering the features of the use of international anglicisms in the territory European continent, it is necessary, first of all, to indicate the reasons for their borrowing and the main areas of use. The areas most susceptible to internationalism traditionally include socio-economic, socio-political, scientific, technical and cultural.
- - Socio-economic terms are often replaced by Anglo-American equivalents, since nowadays European world focuses primarily on the USA and English speaking countries. This is facilitated by direct contacts with foreign partners who speak English, foreign companies and other structures.
- - Scientific and technical terminology also operates a large number internationalisms. This is often influenced by the priorities of English as a language " international communication» on the Internet.
- - Terminology in the field of culture is influenced by American culture due to the great influence of American cinema and music.
- - Socio-political vocabulary is replete with a large number of internationalisms thanks to the ever-increasing political influence USA in the world.
It is these groups of vocabulary that contain greatest number“concepts of an international nature” requiring semantically precise names. Thus, the main reason for using international vocabulary can be associated with the need to nominate new objects and phenomena in these areas.
But opinions are divided on whether internationalisms can be considered borrowings. Representatives of one of extreme points perspectives take internationalism beyond the limits of borrowing [Budagov 1965]. According to S.N. Khalilova, internationalism, as a product of a process, differs from borrowing. Internationalism becomes internationalism when it is borrowed or extended into languages from a third system. Further distribution further enhances its internationality. A borrowed word is a lexical unit that penetrates from the source language into only one, that is, the second system of languages: with further spread, the borrowing turns into internationalism [Khalilova 1989:21].
Analysis of the works of linguists such as V.V. Akulenko, Yu.A. Belchikova, V.V. Vinogradov, I.F. Protchenko, M.I. Fomina, M.N. Shansky et al. show that the terms “international vocabulary”, or “internationalism”, or “Europeanism” do not have a clear understanding [Sidorenko 2005:18].
Some authors, according to V.V. Akulenko, narrow this concept even more strongly, relating it only to the previously noticed and especially authoritative Greek-Latin terminology. It is often overlooked that internationalisms are an interlinguistic synchronic category, which manifests itself only in the case of contact and comparison of languages. Naturally, their mention in lexicologies of modern languages is to a certain extent formal in nature: indeed, in one language this phenomenon can neither be established nor fully understood. In historical lexicology, the analysis of lexical internationalisms is usually replaced by the study of the results of the most important of the diachronic processes associated with them - lexical borrowing, as a result of which the specifics of internationalisms remain unclear [Akulenko 1976:51].
Following V.V. Akulenko, D.N. Shmelev understands internationalisms as words represented in different, and not the closest related languages, many of which go back to ancient languages - ancient Greek and Latin, being directly borrowed from the latter, or created later on the basis of Greek and Latin word-forming elements [Shmelev 1977:265].
First of all, internationalism refers to terminological vocabulary that has been included in the international language fund. So, according to M.I. Fomina, the main function of foreign words is to serve as the basis of international vocabulary, a variety of which are various kinds of international terms [Fomina 2001:153].
As I.B. points out. Golub, great place as part of borrowed vocabulary they occupy common words from the field of science, politics, culture, art, known not only in Russian, but also in other European languages. She denotes such words with the term Europeanism, or internationalism [Golub 2001:104].
The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary interprets “internationalisms” as words that coincide in their external form (taking into account the natural correspondences of sounds and graphic units in specific languages), with a fully or partially coinciding meaning, expressing concepts of an international nature from the field of science, technology, politics, culture, art and functioning in different, primarily unrelated (at least three) languages [LES 2002:197].
According to S.G. Sidorenko, the most adequate content of the concept of “internationalism” is reflected in the article of the Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary, since the definition is given on the basis of several criteria: the degree of prevalence of the word - in at least three languages; functioning of the word in immediate language environment, similarity in graphic form, partial or complete semantic coincidence; spheres of functioning - science, culture, technology, politics, art; social significance words - “expressing the concept of an international character” [Sidorenko 2005:20].
We, in turn, agree with the opinion of A.E. Rytsareva that international vocabulary, despite a number of differences, is a special case of borrowing. From her point of view, the emergence of international vocabulary is directly related to the scale of the spread of the language, its global position and status. From the end of the 18th century to the present day, the main source of international vocabulary has been the English language [Rytsareva 2002:81].
Internationalisms have become generally accepted forms of semantic embodiment in large areas the most important concepts modern culture. Related to this is their role in all major ways of overcoming the language barrier. Their appearance and expansion in vocabulary language contributes to its more effective use in the processes of international information exchange. And yet, during codification literary languages and standardization of terminological systems, the fact of the internationality of one or another element cannot be absolutized. A new element, even of an international nature, turns out to be necessary only when interlinguistic tendencies towards its emergence coincide with the own internal needs and capabilities of the language itself. Numerous evidence can be found in the history of any literary language.
Thus, in language, as in all other spheres, the international does not oppose the national, but is embodied in it. This explains the fact that the internationalization of language dictionaries is one of the natural and the most important ways their original development [Akulenko 1976:63].
From all of the above, we can conclude that international words are defined according to the following criteria:
- 1) they express the concepts of various sciences, technology, politics;
- 2) they have a single source language;
- 3) in all languages in which they exist, they have the same meaning, i.e. they are international in meaning;
- 4) along with the great similarity of international words in different languages, each language reveals features of their phonetic and morphological form, as well as meanings determined by the national specifics of of this language[Gikal 2005:42].
Thus, we can conclude that in lately The influence of the English language is steadily growing due to the process of globalization, which ultimately leads to a large amount of international vocabulary in European languages, which in turn proves that English is increasingly becoming the language of international communication.
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains many words (originating mainly from the ancient Greek and Latin languages) that were also included in other European languages - designed in accordance with phonetic and morphological norms these languages.
Let's take, for example, the word revolution. In Latin revolution means “rolling back”, “circulation” (volvo - I swing, I rotate; prefix re– means resumption of movement or movement in the opposite direction). In Russian the word revolution known since the 18th century, first with the meanings “cancellation”, “change”, and how political term– much later. Yes and in French, from which this word came to us, for centuries (until the 18th century) it was used not in a political, but in an astronomical sense, when talking about the rotation of celestial bodies. Currently, this is a socio-political term in Russian, French, and many other languages. Compare:
Ukrainian – revolution
Belarusian – revaluation
Bulgarian – revolution
Serbo-Croatian – revolution
Slovenian – revolution
Czech – revoluce
Polish – rewolucja
French – ( la) revolution
Italian – ( la) rivoluzione
Spanish – ( la) revolution
English – ( a) revolution
German – ( die) Revolution
Of course, in each language the word sounds differently, for example, in German it will be [di revolution], in English - [e revolution], in French - [la revolution], in Czech – [revolyutse], etc.
Words borrowed from the Russian language that exist with the same meaning in many other languages (both related and unrelated) are called international words or internationalisms. These words, created mainly on the basis of Greek and Latin morphemes, are for the most part terms of science, technology, literature, art, socio-political life, economics, sports, for example: atom, idea, space, biology, tractor, chassis, culture, literature, tragedy, music, planet, magnet, theater, climate, democracy, despot, autonomy, arena, globe, deputy, doctor, demonstration, agitation, aggression.
International words can be created not only on the basis of the vocabulary of one language. It often happens differently: for example, a stem is taken from one language, and a word-forming element is taken from another language, or stems from different languages are used. This is how the word is formed automobile: from ancient Greek autos(himself) and Latin m?bilis(mobile, easily moving).
The process of creating new special words(terms) both in Russian and in other languages does not stop. For this, Greek and Latin stems and word-forming elements are still often used, for example: auto-, anti-, bio–(Greek); air, inter-, trance-(lat.). Ancient Greek and Latin word-forming affixes “work” well not only in the Russian language, they have long become international.
Leftovers from the goats
Why are the words so similar to each other? space And cosmetic? Do they have some common source, or is the similarity between these words explained only by coincidence?
The etymology of both words can be revealed only from the material of the ancient Greek language. Ancient Greek verb kosmeo means “to arrange, prepare, put in order” or “decorate”. Therefore the word cosmos has the meaning “orderliness, order”, “world order, universe, peace” and “decoration”. For the first time the word cosmos in the meaning of “world, creation, universe” was used by the famous ancient Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras (VI century BC). And the meaning of “decoration, outfit” was known back in the time of Homer, i.e. 200-300 years before Pythagoras.
Ancient Greek adjective kosm?tikos meant “giving a beautiful appearance, decorating”, and the combination of words kosm?tik? techn? or just kosm?tik? meant "the art of decoration." This is where the origins of Russian words are located. cosmetics And cosmetic. As for the word space, then it goes back to another ancient Greek adjective - kosmikos with the meaning “worldwide, universal, relating to space.”
What's happened tragedy, we all know. What is the etymology of this word? IN Ancient Greek(and the tragedy, as you know, was born in Ancient Greece) word tragos meant "goat" ode -“song” (hence the word in Russian ode). So the word tragodia literally meant “song of the goats.”
What relation could goats have to the theater? It turns out that it is the most direct. The most ancient theatrical performances were inextricably linked with the cult of the Greek god of fertility Dionysus. First stated various legends about Dionysus in the form of a dialogue between the choir and its leader - the luminary. The chorus usually consisted of satyrs - the goat-footed companions of Dionysus. The actors portraying satyrs, these half-humans, half-goats, were dressed in goat skins. The singing of a choir of goat-footed satyrs is called tragodia. Dionysus was no longer glorified later, and the word tragedy left. And it has survived to this day.
Another “goat” word that came into the Russian language, this time from the Italian language, is the word capriccio(traditionally: capriccio). At the heart of this musical term, as, by the way, is the basis of the word caprice(which came to Russian from French, and French caprice comes from Italian capriccio, which literally means “caprice”), is the Italian word capra[kapra] - “goat”. What do they have in common? capriccio And whim? The free nature of the music, full of unexpected turns, seems to convey the capricious habits of the goat. And a whim is, if you like, a manifestation of a goat’s character.
Hidden borrowings
One form of borrowing is tracing paper(structural borrowings). Calques are given very little attention in etymological dictionaries, but in vain. In the history of language, tracing paper has always played and continues to play a significant role.
What is tracing paper? As you know, this is the name of transparent paper that is used to make copies of drawings and drawings. This word can also refer to the copy itself, made using transparent paper.
And in the language there are copies of foreign words, also called calques. Essentially, tracing is one of the methods of borrowing, but words (or expressions), strictly speaking, are not borrowed, but, as it were, “copied” - created from original linguistic elements according to the model of foreign words (expressions). Derivational tracing paper is a translation of the morphemes of a foreign word; semantic (semantic) tracing paper - the acquisition of a new meaning by an original word under the influence of a foreign word.
German word Wasserfall[v?surfal] “waterfall”, consisting of two parts – Wasser(water) and Fall(fall), was not borrowed by the Russian language. But the structure of this word was completely copied in the Russian word waterfall. Thus, what is borrowed is not the word itself, not its material shell, but the semantic-word-formation model (composition based on words of the same meaning), built, however, on Russian, and not on borrowed material. It is customary to say that in the process of tracing one borrows internal form words (not the outer shell, the outer form).
Latin word objectus[ob?ktus] “object, phenomenon” came to us in the form of direct borrowing - object, and also in the form of a tracing paper copy item, Where pre- is a translation of the Latin prefix ob-, A -met(from the word throw – throw) reproduces another part of the Latin word (from jacio throw, throw).
There are especially many cripples of this kind in grammatical terminology: subject, predicate, case, declension, interjection, pronoun, adjective, noun – all these are copies of Latin words, which, in turn, are tracings of ancient Greek grammatical terms. This “two-stage” tracing can be visualized using the example of one well-known term:
A) Greek: onomastik? ptosis;
b) Latin: nominativus casus;
c) Russian language: nominative(Greek ptosis and lat. case means "fall").
Calques are very often found in toponymy. So, Finnish names of lakes Heinajärvi And Kivijärvi were exactly copied in Russian titles Sennaya Lake And Stone Lake. City name Pyatigorsk is a tracing from the Turkic name of the mountain located near the city Beshtau(from besh – five and tau – mountain).
Not only can tracing individual words, but also whole expressions or combinations of words. For example, the expression presence of mind is a tracing paper from French presence d'esprit[presence desprit], struggle for existence - tracing paper from English struggle for life[stragle fo: life], smash completely(enemy) – tracing paper from German aufs Haupt Schlagen[aufs haupt schlagen], etc.
You need to know that there are different types of tracing paper. For example, when calculating words such as waterfall or item, New words were created in the Russian language, copying the corresponding German and Latin words. Until that time, these words did not exist in the Russian language at all.
Russian word wing, like German Flügel[flugel] and English wing[wing], once meant only “bird’s wing.” A new meaning - “flank of the army” - these words received under the influence of the Latin word ala[ala]. Semantic tracing paper appeared.
Another type of cripple is a free translation of a foreign word (as opposed to an exact translation of elements, as in the words waterfall, subject etc.). For example, german word Vaterland[fatherland] "fatherland", consisting of Vater(father) and Land(land, country), only approximately conveys the model of the Latin word patria[patria] "fatherland". Only the connection with the word is copied here pater[pater] "father", and the Latin suffix formation ( patr-i-a) was replaced by a collocation typical of the German language, and the German Land V Latin word there is no correspondence.
Finally, special kind tracings represent semi-tracing paper. This is the case when one half of a foreign word is borrowed, and the second is copied (translated). Compare, for example, the words TV And TV. The first word is simply borrowed by us from the English language, where the word televisor was artificially composed from Greek t?le"far" and Latin visor“he who sees, the seer.” The second word is more difficult. In English "television" would be television[television]. Here the second half of the word is derived from Latin visio[visio] “ability to see, vision.” In the beginning English word was borrowed into Russian in a Latinized form: television. In addition, in English-Russian dictionaries the end of the first half of the 20th century. you can find a tracing paper translation: farsightedness. Eventually the word became established in the language TV, which is a semi-calque: the first half of the word ( television) is borrowing, and the second ( -vision) – tracing paper translation.
Who creates tracing papers in the language? Who is engaged in copying foreign words and expressions in order to enrich the vocabulary and phraseology of their native language? It must be said that the authors of most cripples, both in Russian and in other languages, are unknown.
However, not all tracing papers are “anonymous”. There are many cripples in the Russian language, the authors of which are well known to us. A large number of cripples were created by M.V. Lomonosov in the process of developing domestic scientific terminology. Thanks to Lomonosov, such words as hydrogen And oxygen, movement, phenomenon And observation, item, acid And experience. All these words have become so firmly established in the Russian language that it is even difficult to believe in their foreign-language background. We saw above exactly how the process of tracing these words took place, using the example of the word item.
Naturally, both the degree of proficiency in a non-native language and the linguistic sense of the authors of cripples may turn out to be insufficient high level. This often leads to the creation of unsuccessful, and sometimes simply erroneous, cripples. In some cases, these tracing-errors disappear from the language, and in others, in spite of everything, they safely continue to exist.
Yes, in monuments Old Russian writing are mentioned repeatedly sea beds. Parallel Greek texts in appropriate places they talk about whales. Old Russian translators Greek word k?tos[kitos] etymologically associated with the verb keitai[kite] “lies”; ancient greek e[e:] and ei[ey] in Middle and Modern Greek are pronounced the same way: like [and]. This is how the erroneous tracing arose: lying down.
The Lithuanian “whale” was also unlucky in this regard. Tracing a German word Walfsch[wallfish] with the literal meaning of "whale-fish", Lithuanians connected the German Wal"whale" with Welle[vele] “wave” or wallen[valen] “to worry (about the sea)" and formed tracing paper: bangzuve[bangjuwe:] – with banga[banga] "wave" and zuvis[zhuvis] "fish".
However, you should not think that erroneous tracings are always bad. Here, for example, are the words of Famusov addressed to Chatsky (A.S. Griboedov. “Woe from Wit”): “My dear, you are not at ease.” Expression out of place is a literal translation from French, where the words il n'est pas dans son assiette[il ne pa dan son asyet] mean: “he is not in (his) mood”, “he is not in the spirit.” What do these words and phraseological units have in common? out of your element? The whole point is that French word assiette has two different meanings: “position, arrangement” and... “plate”. Therefore, the translation of the French expression is simply incorrect. But, as they say, a word is not a sparrow; if it flies out, you won’t catch it. Expression have the pip has firmly entered the Russian language, and the peculiarities of its literal Russian meaning have led to the fact that it is increasingly used not in the sense of “being out of sorts.” For example, one humor writer, speaking on television for the first time, said that he was used to reaching his audience through books, but here, in the studio, he felt out of place. At the same time, the writer smiled sweetly, showing with all his appearance that he was in a great mood. And the expression have the pip in this situation it roughly meant “to be out of your usual element”, “to feel shy in an unusual environment.”
Quite a few new cripples were at one time proposed by purists who fought against the penetration of foreign language vocabulary into the Russian language. Since tracing paper borrows only the semantic and word-formation structure of a foreign word, fighters for the purity of the Russian language considered this a lesser evil than direct borrowing. However, among the cripples proposed by the purists, it turned out large number so unsuccessful that they did not take root in the language. For example, in the 19th century. A. S. Shishkov’s attempt to introduce the word into the Russian language quiet thunder, copied Italian piano[piano] (from forte - loud and piano quietly), only led to ridicule of the author of this tracing paper. Nor did such tracing-papers, proposed at different times, enter the Russian language as selfish(egoist), wisdom(philosophy), prescience(forecast), scribe(library), wake-up call(instinct), rozhekorcha(grimace), etc.
The sad experience of purists proves that one cannot artificially impose on a language one or another way of replenishing its vocabulary and that when tracing words one must have a subtle linguistic sense, know when to stop and, of course, have a sense of humor.
Folk etymology
Etymologists know how to smile, despite the seriousness of the science they deal with. Some of them even collect funny stories, without which probably not a single serious matter can be done.
According to scientists, people usually begin their etymological exercises in early childhood. But such childish formations as horn(alarm), planer(plane), digger(scapula), hammer(hammer), mazelin(vaseline), caused by the natural desire to somehow comprehend every incomprehensible word, are typical not only for childhood. Examples of re-interpretation of words are easy to find in everyday speech: spinjak(blazer), semi-clinic(clinic), semi-kindergarten(front garden), etc. In all these cases, incomprehensible words foreign origin“corrected” and “adjusted” to some famous words and roots: word blazer turned into spinjak, because it was connected to the back, the word clinic – V semi-clinic(i.e. half clinic), and front garden – V semi-kindergarten(i.e. half kindergarten).
The ancient Romans called such etymological comparisons “bull” or “cow” etymology. Since “etymologies” of this kind often arose among the people, these false interpretations were later called “folk etymology” (as opposed to scientific etymology). True, the term “folk etymology” is not entirely successful, because it sounds like some kind of disdain for the people, and most importantly, a significant part of “ folk etymologies"Arose not at all among the people. Etymological research by many writers is known; even academicians did not deny themselves such an exciting activity (for example, the 18th-century academician and philologist V.K. Trediakovsky; in the 20th century - poet and writer, an excellent expert on the Russian language S. Ya. Marshak) .
