Lecture 8 Classical directions and scientific schools of psychology
At the beginning of the 20th century. Several schools arose at once, offering their own approach to highlighting the subject of psychology. The direction that opened a new era in psychology was behaviorism .
The methodology of the new direction was laid down by John Watson (1878 - 1958), (Fig. 20) which he presented in the programmatic article “Psychology from the point of view of a behaviorist” (1913). Some authors with the publication of this article indicate the beginning of an open crisis. As Paul Fresse noted, the article was seminal only because it marked a decisive break with previous concepts.
Psychology will gain the right to be called a science if it develops an objective method. Therefore, he declared the subject of behaviorism to be the study of behavior in an objective way, and its goal to serve practice. The name comes from the word “behavior” this direction(in English behavior).
This concept excluded consciousness from the subject of study of psychology, because it cannot be studied objectively. And in observation nothing is revealed that can only be called consciousness (J. Watson).
As a student of Angell, he viewed behavior as adaptive reactions. Behavior was understood as an objectively observable system of reactions of the body to external and internal stimuli, through which the individual adapts to the environment. The scheme of the relationship between stimulus and response presented by E. Thorndike became the main one in explaining the phenomena under study. In accordance with this, the main goal of behaviorism was “to observe human behavior in such a way that in each in this case given a stimulus (or better yet, a situation), the behaviorist could tell in advance what the reaction would be, or, if a reaction was given, what situation would cause this reaction” (J. Watson), analysis of the structure and genesis of behavior, factors that help or hinder the formation connections between stimulus and response. Behavior change was identified with mental development. This position led to the consideration of the social factor, the environment, as leading in the process of genesis.
Watson's work showed that there are practically no innate acts in the psyche, on several innate reflexes all human behavior is structured. New reactions acquired during consolidation are called skills. Skills are developed through blind trial and error and are an unguided process. Here is one of possible ways issued as the only and mandatory one.
By the mid-20s. Behaviorism became widespread in America. At the same time, it became increasingly clear to researchers that the exclusion of consciousness leads to an inadequate interpretation of behavior. Edward Tolman (1886 - 1959) pointed out this by introducing an internal variable into the scheme - a cognitive map, needs, etc. He set the so-called molar approach to the study of behavior. This marked the beginning of neo-behaviourism.
A separate line in the development of behaviorism is represented by the theory of operant behaviorism by Barres Skinner (1904-1990). While maintaining the two-term scheme of its analysis (stimulus - response), it studies only its motor side. Skinner (Fig. 21) formulates a position about three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex and operant - such reactions that are not caused by stimuli, but are secreted by the body. Reinforcing a response becomes a means of shaping new behavior.
In the 70s behaviorism presented its concepts in a new light. There has been a turn to the study of social behavior and finding factors that guide the acquisition of social experience and norms of behavior. Theories have emerged social learning, social behaviorism. According to George Mead (1863-1931), human formation occurs through the adoption of certain roles that reflect interactions with others. John Dollard (1900 - 1980) turned to the study of antisocial (aggressive) behavior, which was based on a state of frustration. Albert Bandura (1925 - 1988) showed that one of the main reasons psychological characteristics of a person is associated with the tendency to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation may be for the person himself. Thus, a person is not only influenced by external conditions, he must also anticipate the consequences of his behavior through self-assessment.
Behaviorism has not lost its significance to this day, despite serious criticism. Although there have been major modifications to the principles laid down by Watson, the basic principles have remained unchanged. The merit is the provision on the need and possibility of directed training, the development of methods that carry out the learning process, the emergence of training as a method of behavior correction.
At the time when a behavioral “revolt” against the psychology of consciousness broke out in the United States, in Germany another group of young researchers rejected the previous principles of considering consciousness. This group became the core of a new scientific school called Gestalt psychology (from German Gestalt - form, structure).
The core was formed by Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887 - 1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886 - 1941), who met in 1910 in Frankfurt am Main. Discussions regarding Wertheimer's experiments on constructing images of the perception of visible movements (phi-phenomenon) led to the birth of a new direction. The results of studying this phenomenon were presented in the article "Experimental Research visible movement" (1912), which is considered as the beginning of this direction.
Gestalt psychology significantly transformed the previous understanding of the structure of consciousness and higher mental processes. Main idea was that the primary data of psychology are integral structures (gestalts), which in principle cannot be derived from the components that form them. The properties of parts are determined by the structure into which they belong. In accordance with this understanding of the subject, a method is proposed. They proposed a phenomenological method that allows an observer to see a naive picture of the world, not burdened by preconceived ideas about its structure. Study reactions as they are, study experience that has not been analyzed, preserving its integrity.
W. Köhler (Fig. 22) suggests that physical world, just like the psychological one, is subject to the Gestalt principle. Mental images are isomorphic to physiological processes in the brain (brain fields) that arise as a result external influences. The principle of isomorphism was considered by Gestalt psychologists as an expression of the structural unity of the world. With this provision, Köhler anticipated certain provisions general theory systems
The works of Gestalt psychologists laid new approaches to various problems - perception, thinking, needs and volitional actions, affects, personality. In solving issues of perception and thinking, many patterns and rich phenomenological material were discovered. Discovered by Köhler and Wertheimer (Fig. 23), the phenomenon of “insight” (from the English insight - insight) as a restructuring of the situation, combining conditions into a certain structure corresponding problematic situation revealed human activity when solving problems. A person does not adapt to the situation, does not endlessly search for the right solution, but actively transforms discrete events and gives them meaning.
Kurt Lewin (1890 - 1947) (Fig. 24) in understanding the reasons for personality activity in the article “Intentions, will and needs” (1926) outlines the main provisions of field theory and dynamic theory of personality. This work is of fundamental importance, because turns to the experimental study of areas of mental life that are most difficult to experimentally study (needs, affects, goal formation, will). The research conducted by him and his students introduced a complex into psychology the most important concepts characterizing behavior related to achieving goals: the target structure and target levels of the individual, real and ideal goals, level of aspirations, the search for success and the desire to avoid failure, etc.
Also, many representatives of this direction paid considerable attention to the problem of the mental development of the child, since in the study of the development of mental functions they saw evidence of the correctness of their theory. Within the framework of this direction, essentially for the first time, the principle of the integrity of the study of man was revealed.
Fruitful research within this school continued until the 30s. social changes that occurred in Germany forced scientists to leave the country. Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka, Levin emigrated to America. Here theoretical research has not received significant progress. By the 50s. interest in Gestalt psychology wanes. However, the ideas of Gestalt psychology influenced the transformation of the original behaviorist doctrine and prepared the ground for neobehaviorism, the development of Gestalt therapy by F. Perls, and the concept of self-development by A. Maslow.
The first theory that addressed the study of personality was psychoanalysis (depth psychology). In the development of this direction important role belongs to Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). This direction arose in the early 90s. XIX century from medical practice treatment of patients with functional mental disorders. The methods of J. Charcot and M. Bernheim, with whom he practiced, made a great impression on Freud and contributed to such an understanding of the origin of neuroses and their treatment, which formed the core of his future concept. He began to understand neurotic diseases as the pathological functioning of “scarred” affects, strong, but delayed in the unconscious area of experience. While studying these affects, he discovered one of the defense mechanisms, proposed a new method of therapy and a research method, which he called psychoanalysis. It is based on the doctrine of the unconscious.
The first version of the system representation mental life as having deep structure, represented by three levels: conscious, preconscious and unconscious with censorship between them, appeared in the work “The Interpretation of Dreams” (1900). It is conventionally considered the birth of this trend.
The source of assumptions about the unconscious was the study of facts that are normal manifestations of mental life, but are not amenable to conscious control (forgetfulness, slips of the tongue, dreams, erroneous actions). They themselves open up to consciousness, but their causes do not. Adhering to the position of psychological determinism, Freud (Fig. 25) believes that there is a psychological structure, the manifestation of which is these facts. And he calls it unconscious. The question of the content and essence of the unconscious has led to the identification of drives with which our socialized consciousness cannot be reconciled, repressed from consciousness as unacceptable by its nature. He considers the main of these drives to be sexual drive (libido) and, under the influence of the events of the First World War, adds the drive to death (mortido). They are the starting point of mental life and true psychic reality. Drives are charged with a certain amount of energy, which creates tension in the body, accompanied by displeasure and suffering. They are in constant conflict, there is a conflict of opposing forces:
Later, this structure was transformed by him into a personality structure and psychic sphere divided into three formations: “I”, “Super-I”, “It”. Drives began to be considered in accordance with the principles of pleasure - sexual drives, with the principle of reality - the instinct of self-preservation - the drive of the “I”. They are united in a group of drives to life (eros).
Freud transferred this structure to the understanding of social and cultural processes in society. Events of human history, interaction between man and nature, cultural development and the rejection of primitive experience... is nothing more than a reflection of the dynamic conflicts between the I, the Id and the Super-Ego, which psychoanalysis studies in the individual, the same processes repeated on a larger scale (S. Freud).
In 1902, Freud was joined by representatives of various professions (doctors, writers, artists) who wanted to study psychoanalysis and apply it in their practice, from which new directions in the study of the unconscious emerged. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) (Fig. 26) believed that there are other, no less significant motives that can become leading in the formation of personality, one of the main ones is the desire to overcome one’s inferiority. Carl Gustav Jung (1875 - 1961) (Fig. 27) introduced the collective unconscious, introduced more complex structure personality and its individuation, introduced mental functions and energy orientation as criteria for constructing a personality typology, expanded the understanding of libido to a diffuse creative force, manifested in different ways.
Later, within the framework of this direction, quite a lot of independent theories appeared that came up with modifications of the doctrine of the unconscious in psychoanalysis. Among them are Wilhelm Reich, Otto Rank, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Sullivan and others.
An important moment in the development of psychoanalysis was a change in approach to psychological protection, in the concepts of Fromm, Sullivan, Horney, it was already considered in conflicts between the individual and others. Anna Freud analyzed the psychological mechanisms of the self in new positions of the personality structure, highlighting as main structure personality, I (Ego). Developing the ideas of Ego psychology, Erik Erikson (1901 -1980) (Fig. 28) combined the psychoanalytic approach with the ideas of humanistic psychology, into ideas about the importance of awareness and preservation of identity with oneself and with society, its integrity.
This trend has become widely known throughout the world and has influenced art, literature, medicine, anthropology and other areas of science related to humans. In this direction, for the first time, the structure and stages of personality formation were studied and described, driving forces and mechanisms personal development, methods for diagnosing and correcting the emotional-need sphere of a person have been developed.
In the late 50s and early 60s. large trends that arose during the period of open crisis and subsequently underwent significant transformations - neobehaviorism, neo-Freudianism, Gestalt psychology - are beginning to lose popularity. Their internal inconsistency, the difficulties encountered by these approaches in explaining behavior and the psyche, required a revision of the initial positions, primarily the behavioristic approach as a possibility of objective psychology.
The most important circumstance contributing to this situation was the emergence of new productive directions in the field experimental research and theories. These are studies of cognitive activity by means of its modeling, cognitive psychology, humanistic psychology, logotherapy by V. Frankl, research human consciousness within the framework of brain sciences - neurophysiology, neuromorphology, neuropsychology. Human psychogenetics has become widespread. Intercultural research is developing.
A critical attitude towards the provisions of behaviorism and psychoanalysis led to the emergence of the “Third Force” in the USA - humanistic psychology . This direction made itself known in the 60s, although its main methodological principles began to take shape in the 40s. based on the school of existentialism. The main provisions of the new direction - the humanistic school of personality psychology were formulated by Gordon Allport (1897 - 1967). (Figure 29) A new understanding of personality was presented as open and self-developing system, importance for developing contacts with people around you. At the heart of development human personality lies the need to explode the balance and, to reach new heights, the need for self-development.
Previous approaches did not provide an explanation for a person’s desire for self-improvement, the development of one’s spiritual uniqueness, and the creative realization of one’s potential, which led to the formation of humanistic psychology as an interdisciplinary direction. Leading representatives are Gordon Allport, Carl Rogers (1902-1987), Abraham Maslow(1908-1970), Rollo May.
The subject of this direction is a healthy holistic personality with its real problems, faith in kindness and a person’s own strengths, taking into account the reality of feelings and values, individual intentions, emphasizing the uniqueness of the individual. Every person is unique. People, they argue, make acts of free choice and are not guided by reinforcements and unconscious forces. Each individual who makes a choice is endowed with the responsibility for developing a value system that will serve as a guiding force for him to achieve a meaningful and full life. They called this achievement self-realization, or self-actualization.
Maslow (Fig. 30) proposed a theory of motivation that became universally known; self-actualization was considered the highest need. For one individual it can be expressed in the field of art, for another in science, and for a third in conquering mountain peaks. He believed that self-actualized people were the healthiest and that studying the values of these people could lead to the formation of a scientifically based universal ethical system.
This direction is more practical in nature, primarily within the framework of psychotherapy, as well as educational problems. Thanks to this practical orientation, this psychology gains influence and becomes widespread. Much credit for this direction of development of humanistic psychology belongs to Carl Rogers. (Figure 31) He developed the theory of a fully functioning creative personality and the corresponding person-centered psychotherapy, known as “client-centered therapy.” It represented a radical departure from the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, allowing the individual to determine the path to his own recovery and the most full expression myself.
One of the most popular types of psychotherapy is logotherapy, developed by Viktor Frankl (1905 - 1997). (Fig. 32) The basic motive of a person is meaning, for it is the search for meaning that is a sign of truly human existence. The absence or loss of meaning creates an existential vacuum. Meaning has specific content, it is individual and constitutes the essence of existence in relation to each person. Finding meaning makes a person responsible for his life. Logotherapy was created to discover the meaning – logos – of one’s existence.
Humanistic psychology for the first time drew attention not only to deviations, difficulties and negative aspects in human behavior, but also on positive aspects personality. She turned to man in his uniqueness and made the subject of research the personal sphere, subjectivity, recognizing freedom of choice. A person chooses his own path in life and takes responsibility for his self and his achievements in life. This direction is still one of the most significant psychological schools. It became most widespread in Europe, and since the 90s. XX century and Russian researchers turned to human problems from the perspective of a humanistic direction.
In the mid-60s. arises in the USA cognitive psychology , criticizing the views of behaviorists on the denial of the role of consciousness and the internal organization of mental processes. This direction also opposed the simplified approach of behaviorists to human training, which could not serve as a basis for improving the educational process.
In cognitive psychology decisive role plays a system of cognitive reactions that are associated with both external stimuli and internal variables. A person is represented in this concept as a system engaged in active searches for information and processing information: recoding into another form, selecting certain information for further processing, or excluding some information from the system.
At the origins of cognitive psychology are Jerome Bruner (b. 1915), Herbert Simon (1916 - 2001). Leon Festinger (1919 - 1989) and others, leading representatives are Ulrich Neisser (b. 1928), George Miller (b. 1920).
The main area of research in cognitive psychology is cognitive processes- memory, psychological aspects language and speech, perception, problem solving, thinking, attention, imagination and cognitive development. The cognitive approach has also extended to the study of the emotional and motivational spheres of the individual, as well as social psychology.
Cognitive psychology has presented quite a few explanatory models of cognitive processes, but the person has been left out of consideration. In this connection, cognitive psychology is forced, along with cognitive processes, to admit special beginning, a hypothetical participant, a bearer of mental activity. At the same time, there was a reduction in the study of the psyche.
Nevertheless, cognitive psychology is quite widespread today. Special Development this direction received in social psychology, where the study of social cognitions and their role in intergroup interaction is becoming increasingly important. Work in this area contributed to the emergence of the ecological approach, one of the most common areas of modern psychology.
Modern psychology is a very extensive system of knowledge. It contains many industries that are relatively independent developing directions scientific research.
In the 60s In connection with brain research, there is renewed interest in the problem of consciousness and its role in behavior. Research has emerged that aims to clarify the connection between brain structure and mental processes. Research has appeared on functional asymmetry brain in mental organization. Professional differences in the use of the hemispheres and features of mental processes among representatives of different cultures are explored.
At the same time, research on human psychogenetics expanded widely. At the center is the question of the relationship between genetic factors and conditions external environment in the formation of the human psyche. The most developed area of psychogenetics is intelligence, although perception, psychomotor, abilities, temperament and personality are also studied in order to identify the genetic determination of their components.
The problem of mental development in ontogenesis and qualitative changes in consciousness during historical development formed the basis of the genetic approach, the founder of which was Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980). (Figure 33) As a result of his research, he came to the conclusion that mental development- This is the development of intelligence that a child goes through. He developed the problem of the origin of intelligence, described the mechanisms of transition from one stage to another. Enriched psychology with identified phenomena children's thinking. Which are called “Piagetian phenomena”. Showed that the intelligence of a child is different compared to an adult. This approach has many followers. Piaget's ideas about moral development children gained new insight into the theories of Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 - 1987).
The study of human development depending on socio-cultural factors determined the interest in intercultural research, which was developed in foreign psychology since the 50s These studies aimed to test the universality of mental processes and identify the characteristics of cognitive activity of different cultures and peoples of Africa, the Far North (Alaska), the islands of Oceania, and Indian tribes.
The changes taking place in social conditions pose new challenges for psychology. New industries are emerging aimed at solving the problems of emigration, tolerance, terrorism, the emergence and resolution of conflict. Applied areas are also developing: management psychology, organizational behavior, medical psychology and many others.
In the second half of the 20th century. a “new wave” movement arose, which grew out of the practice of psychotherapy, as an understanding of the experience gained, its generalization and transfer to other specialists. The most well-known “new wave” approaches are Ericksonian hypnosis, neuro-linguistic programming, positive psychotherapy, and solution-focused psychotherapy. These directions have shown that any theoretical postulates, principles, models can be changed depending on the goals, objectives, conditions, resources of the patient and psychotherapist.
The huge variety of theoretical concepts, personality theories, methodological tools, practice-oriented directions poses methodological questions for psychologists about understanding the specifics psychological knowledge, the subject of psychology, the correlation of data obtained in various directions.
Has undergone many metamorphoses and changes. Every era, every new century, each decade brought something of their own to psychology, thanks to which today there is not just psychology as an independent and self-sufficient discipline, but a psychology that has all sorts of branches and directions. In this article we will talk about the ten most popular psychological trends in our time. These include:
Below is a brief description of each of these areas.
NLP
It is one of the directions in practical psychology and psychotherapy, based on special techniques for modeling verbal and nonverbal behavior a person who is successful in some field, as well as a set of special connections between memory, eye movements and speech patterns.
NLP appeared in the 60s and 70s of the last century thanks to the work of a group of scientists: Richard Bandler, John Grinder and Frank Pucelik, who worked under the patronage of the famous anthropologist Gregory Bateson. NLP is not recognized by the academic scientific community, and many techniques, according to the conclusions of opponents of this method, cannot be scientifically substantiated. However, nowadays NLP is very popular, has huge amount supporters and is practiced by many organizations during psychological training, as well as by various training and consulting companies.
Psychoanalysis
It is a psychological theory developed by the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Psychoanalysis is also considered the most effective treatment method mental disorders based on this theory. Thanks to the activities of such scientists as K.G. Jung, A. Adler, G.S. Sullivan, K. Horney, J. Lacan and E. Fromm, this direction received strong development. Among the main provisions of psychoanalysis, one can highlight the fact that human behavior, experience and cognition are determined mainly by internal irrational unconscious drives; the structure of personality and its development are determined by the events that occurred in early childhood; the confrontation between the conscious and unconscious can lead to mental disorders, etc.
In its modern interpretation, psychoanalysis consists of more than twenty different concepts human development, and approaches to treating mental illnesses through psychoanalysis are as different as the theories themselves.
Gestalt psychology
The school was founded at the beginning of the 20th century by the Czech psychologist and philosopher Max Wertheimer. The harbingers of its appearance were studies of perception, and the focus is on the desire of the psyche to organize the experience a person receives into an understandable unit. According to the ideas of Gestalt psychology, the basic psychological data are gestalts - integral structures that are not distinguished from the total number of components that form them. They have their own laws and characteristics.
Recently, Gestalt psychology has changed its position in relation to human consciousness and claims that the analysis of this consciousness should primarily be aimed not at individual elements, but at holistic mental images. Together with psychoanalysis and phenomenology, Gestalt psychology became the basis of Gestalt therapy, where the main ideas were transferred from the processes of perception to a general understanding of the world.
Hellinger arrangement
Systemic-family constellations are a phenomenological method of systemic family therapy, the main important discoveries in which were made by the German philosopher, psychotherapist and theologian Bert Hellinger. The method itself is intended to correct systemic family traumas, called system dynamics, and eliminate their consequences.
Therapists working with this technique have determined that many people's problems are related to past family traumas, such as murder, suicide, early deaths, rape, moving, breaking up family relationships, etc. Hellinger constellations differ from other similar methods in that they are short-term and are used only once. In his books, Hellinger classifies this technique not so much as a psychotherapeutic area, but rather as a spiritual practice.
Hypnosis
Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness that is characterized by both signs of wakefulness and sleep, during which dreams can occur. Thanks to hypnosis, two states of consciousness can coexist at the same time, which in ordinary life are mutually exclusive. The first information about hypnosis dates back to the third millennium BC - hypnosis was practiced in Ancient India, Egypt, Tibet, Rome, Greece and other countries.
The idea of hypnosis is based on the dual nature of the psyche, in which there is conscious and unconscious. And it happens that the unconscious has more influence on the psyche than the mind. Therefore, nowadays, with the help of hypnosis, experienced specialists resolve all sorts of problems of people that cannot be eliminated by more traditional methods.
Positive psychotherapy
The method of positive psychotherapy is one of the main ones in its field. It was founded by the German neurologist and psychiatrist Nossrat Pezeshkian in 1968, but was recognized by the European Association of Psychotherapy in 1996, and by the World Council of Psychotherapy only in 2008.
This psychotherapeutic technique belongs to the category of transcultural, psychodynamic psychotherapeutic techniques with a humanistic position. According to it, the most important given of human nature is abilities (both innate and acquired). And the methodology itself is structured in such a way that it includes a rational and purely scientific Western approach, as well as Eastern wisdom and philosophy. In 2009, the founder of positive psychotherapy was nominated for Nobel Prize for services to physiology and medicine.
Client-centered therapy
Client-centered therapy has been proposed as a psychotherapeutic method American psychologist Carl Rogers as an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Initially, the author presented a hypothesis according to which a person is able to change himself independently, and the psychotherapist only plays the role of an observer controlling the process. However, later there was an emphasis on improving methods that would help the specialist better understand the client’s condition and changes in it during therapy. It is thanks to the main idea of the method (to come to an understanding of a person’s self-perception) that the method got its name. There is another important point: in client-centered therapy, the most important role is given to building the relationship between the patient and the therapist as the key to achieving success in treatment.
Art therapy
Art therapy is special kind psychological correction and psychotherapy, which is based on creativity and art. In a narrower sense, art therapy can be called treatment through visual creativity, the purpose of which is to influence the psycho-emotional state of a person.
The term “art therapy” was coined in 1938 by British artist and therapist Adrian Hill while describing his work in medical settings with tuberculosis patients. Then the method was applied in the USA in working with children who were taken from Nazi concentration camps during the Second World War. Over time, art therapy gained more and more adherents, and in 1960 the American Art Therapy Association was founded in the United States.
Body-oriented therapy
Body-oriented psychotherapy is a therapeutic practice that allows you to work with neuroses and problems of people through skin-to-skin contact. The founder of this direction is considered to be the student of Sigmund Freud, the American and Austrian psychologist Wilhelm Reich, who at one time moved away from psychoanalysis and focused on the body.
This therapy is based on the concept of “muscular (characterological) armor”, according to which muscle clamps are formed as a defense against worries that arise in children based on sexual desires and accompanied by the fear of being punished. Over time, the suppression of this fear becomes chronic, resulting in the formation of specific character traits that form this shell.
Reich's ideas were later continued by Ida Rolff, Gerda Boyesen, Marion Rosen and Alexander Lowen. In Russia, this area of psychotherapy often includes the Feldenkrais method.
Coaching
Coaching is a relatively recently developed method of training and consulting, which differs from traditional ones in that it lacks strict recommendations and advice, but involves a joint search for solutions to problems with the client. Coaching is also distinguished by a pronounced motivation to achieve certain goals and results in activities and everyday life.
The founders of coaching are considered to be the American coach and creator of the concept of the inner game Timothy Gallwey, the British racing driver and business coach John Whitmore and the founder of the University of Coaches and other coaching organizations Thomas J. Leonard.
The main idea of coaching is to move a person from the area of a problem to the area of its effective solution, allowing him to see new ways and means of maximizing his potential, and also helping to improve things in life. various fields of your life.
Of course, the descriptions presented cannot contain the fullness of these psychological trends, just as they cannot reveal all their features. But our task was only to introduce you to them, presenting a very brief description. And in which direction you should develop is a matter of your personal choice.
We will be glad if you take part in our small poll. Please answer the question: which of the described areas seemed most interesting to you?
Modern psychological science is a conglomerate of different directions, each of which has its own ideas about the essence of the psyche. Therefore, at present, psychologists find it difficult to determine a single theoretical concept. This state of affairs is explained by the wide variety of manifestations of mental phenomena.
General characteristics of the main areas of psychology:
1. Introspective psychology studies consciousness. This is a series of directions in psychological science, used as the only method studying the psyche, observing the content of consciousness (introspection). The origins of introspective psychology go back to the teachings of R. Descartes - J. Locke that human consciousness is cognized fundamentally differently than the external world, through contemplation or internal experience, the object of which are mental images, thoughts, experiences (W. Wundt, E. B Titchener, F. Brentano, K. Stumpf, T. Lipps, O. Kühlne). Thus, in introspective psychology, subjectivism prevails, the main attention is paid to consciousness, and other aspects of the psyche are not taken into account.
2. Behaviorism (behavior- behavior). This direction of psychology arose at the beginning of the twentieth century. in the USA. Founder: John Watson. It is believed that one can study only what is objectively observable, i.e. behavior. Behavior is understood as muscle reactions, vegetative-vascular changes and the activity of the endocrine glands and is described using the formula - S–R, Where S- a stimulus that precedes and causes behavior, and R-behavior. Reinforcements result from behavior. If they are undesirable, then behavior is inhibited; if they are favorable, it is reproduced. Behaviorism is mainly criticized for not taking into account the influence of the internal (motives, desires, attitudes, interests) on the external (behavior). There is no answer to the question: “Why do people, given the same external stimuli that are identical to them, give different reactions?”
3. Depth psychology includes:
psychoanalysis by S. Freud;
individual psychology of A. Adler;
analytical psychology K.G. Jung.
Basic provisions.
The psyche is the unconscious, the content of which consists of innate instincts aimed at obtaining pleasure. According to Z. Freud, this is sexual instinct and aggression (desire for destruction, thanatos), according to K.G. Jung – archetype (collective unconscious), according to A. Adler – the desire for superiority, perfection, overcoming feelings of inferiority.
Structure of the psyche:
superego ( superego) – moral standards and prohibitions learned unconsciously (conscience, guilt):
I (ego) – actually perceived information about the world and regulation of an individual’s actions. I lives in the real world;
Id (it, alterego) – blind instincts (sex and aggression) seeking satisfaction.
The drives of the unconscious are in conflict with cultural norms. This creates tension from which the individual escapes through the following defense mechanisms:
a) repression - forgetting and suppressing unpleasant, asocial, socially disapproved impulses;
b) denial - throwing out unpleasant life events from memory. For example, phantom pain in amputated limbs, hysterical flight, amnesia;
c) projection – alienation of unacceptable feelings and attribution of them to others;
d) rationalization - when hiding unacceptable feelings, a person goes to extremes, into a rational explanation of unconscious processes;
e) regression - in the face of adversity, a person begins to behave like a child, refusing to make independent decisions. For example, enuresis of a child when a newborn appears in the family;
f) sublimation - “sublimation”, transferring the energy of the unconscious into a socially acceptable channel. For example, war games for adult men, a whipping doll, which help relieve aggression in a socially acceptable way.
Thus, mental and social development man is walking through establishing a balance between instincts and cultural norms. In this case, the role of the conscious is ignored. A person becomes a slave to his instincts.
4.Gestalt psychology (gestalt– a holistic form, image) arose in the study of cognitive processes (K. Koffka, M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, F. Perls). The main attention is paid to the study of higher mental functions as integral structures. The main position of this direction of psychology is as follows: human mental activity is characterized by a desire for integrity and completeness. Any unfinished action leaves a trace in the psyche in the form of tension, which seeks to be discharged in real or symbolic terms. This position is used in Gestalt psychotherapy, so any unfinished actions are better remembered by a person. Associative psychology (associationism) is a direction of Gestalt psychology, which asserts that mental processes are united according to the principle of association, and the psyche itself is a mental image that is a product of association.
5.Cognitive psychology , whose representatives are J. Piaget, J. Brunner, J. Fodor, M. Eysenck, J. Cattell, arose in the late 50s - early 60s of the twentieth century as a reaction to behaviorism, which denied the role of the internal organization of mental processes. The subject of study is cognitive (cognitive) processes, intellectual characteristics of a person. During this period, intellectual tests were created to assess the level of development of a person’s cognitive sphere. Representatives of this direction failed to unite disparate lines of research on a single conceptual basis.
6.Humanistic psychology (A. Maslow, K. Rogers) – existential direction of psychological science ( existence- meaning of life). The main position of this direction of psychology is that the leading motive of a person is his desire for self-actualization, which is understood as a continuous flow of development. Every person has inner potential that strives to be revealed. Psychoanalysis and behaviorism are not recognized human freedom: in one case a person is a hostage of blind instincts, in the other - of environmental conditions. A normally developing person is always the master of life and has the opportunity to choose.
7.Psychology of the activity approach (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, P.Ya. Galperin) originated and is developing in Russia.
Key points:
The development of the psyche is carried out through activity - the interaction of a person with the environment. The psyche itself manifests itself in external and internal activities. External activity includes objective-practical activity, and internal activity includes perceptual, mental, mnestic, imaginative, speech activity;
consciousness is an internal plane of activity, therefore the psyche is a combination of internal and external;
human mental functions are indirect in nature, i.e. the subject controls his own psyche thanks to concepts, meanings, and logical operations learned from cultural and historical experience. With the help of these mental tools (meanings and concepts), people regulate their psyche and activities.
Conclusion. In every direction of psychology and scientific school lies the idea of a “unit” of the psyche:
consciousness (introspective psychology);
behavioral act (behavioral psychology);
reversible reactions (J. Piaget, cognitive psychology);
meaning and experience (L.S. Vygotsky, psychology of the activity approach);
objective activity (A.N. Leontiev, psychology of the activity approach);
cognitive processes (cognitive psychology);
installation (the theory of installation by D. N. Uznadze);
figure and ground (Gestalt psychology);
indicative basis of activity (P.Ya. Galperin, psychology of the activity approach);
unconscious (depth psychology).
This once again proves the absence of a unified conceptual theory about the psyche and testifies to the great diversity of its manifestations.
Self-test questions:
What are the specifics of psychology as a science? Define the tasks of psychology.
Give a description of the main stages in the formation of psychology as a science.
Reveal the features of the materialistic and idealistic understanding of the essence and origin of the psyche.
Name the main properties of mental reflection.
What are the main functions of the psyche? Give examples.
What caused the emergence of various areas of psychology as a science?
What is the essence of each branch of psychology?
Literature
Psychology. Tutorial for humanitarian universities. Ch. 1 /Under general ed. V.N. Druzhinina. – St. Petersburg, 2002. Ch. 2.
Directions of modern psychology.
This is very brief overview, we will outline the main directions of modern psychology in order to clarify the generally accepted and well-known terms - and psychology. The client comes for a consultation with, sometimes not suspecting that today in the world there is no single science - psychology and a single system of psychological knowledge, but there is various directions with excellent standards and working methods. It's not about whether different schools are good or bad. psychology rather, each school allows you to achieve good results in those clients who correspond to it in their psychological organization, characteristics individual development, the tempo-rhythm of your consciousness. It would probably be ideal if every psychologist integrated the knowledge of all schools and mastered many methods of practical psychology to achieve success with every client.
PSYCHOANALYSIS.
Direction in modern psychology, founded by S. Freud at the beginning XX century. The emphasis of this direction is aimed at studying the dynamics libido(Often libido is reduced only to the sexual sphere. This is not so. According to Freud, libido is a universal form of psychic energy that carries within itself the potential for any action that brings pleasure - it can be creativity, aesthetics, work, sports, sex). The most important period of childhood is during which stereotypes of sexual behavior are formed, which are the area of the most censored relationships. It is in childhood the consciousness of each person is faced with insoluble contradictions between moral norms and instinctive impulses, as a result of which the “forbidden” is repressed, giving preference to social, family, religious morality, that is, yielding one’s natural nature to the authority of adults. Like an iceberg most mental activity is hidden under the surface of consciousness and subject to the influence of uncontrollable forces - this was known before Freud, just as the term unconscious existed. Freud examined in detail the structure of the conscious and unconscious and described the mechanisms of the processes occurring in them. What existed in the pre-Freudian psychology as outlines or projects, it took on the form of a complete theory of human personality. Psychoanalysis explores such mental processes as repression, reactive formations, sublimation, replacement, projections, instincts, aggression - everything that is hidden in the depths of the unconscious, in that underwater part of the “iceberg”, which is not subject to the control of the mind, but at the same time is the true ruler person. Awareness of “hidden information” makes it possible to achieve a pronounced therapeutic effect in the fight against neuroses, depression, psychotic conditions, and diseases.
One of the fundamental works of S. Freud is “The Interpretation of Dreams.” Dreams in psychoanalysis are considered as evidence of unfulfilled desires and fears.
Psychoanalysis is usually carried out in one-hour sessions. This is a lengthy process, consisting of tens or even hundreds of sessions over many months or even years.
Despite the fact that today, after a century, psychology is revising some positions of Freud's teachings, not a single modern school can do without his concepts.
The most famous of Freud's followers, the Swiss psychiatrist, psychologist and philosopher C. G. Jung expanded the concept of the unconscious and founded, in fact, new school, which today is known as
JUNGIAN ANALYSIS . In addition to the individual unconscious - a product of personal history, C. Jung introduced the concept of the “collective unconscious”, that is, the substance of the mind that belongs to all humanity as a whole. In such a “collective” or “social” unconscious, special motivational factors operate, called “archetypes” - primordial images. You should not assume that the collective unconscious is just some kind of negative sphere from which it is necessary to rebuild. In fact, the collective unconscious rather acts as a common information base that can and should be used for one’s benefit. Negative influence manifests itself only where there is blind adherence to the system. All knowledge, talents and abilities, all the best that humanity has accumulated over its long history, are designed to really help every person. The task of the Jungian analyst is to be able to synthesize all this in his practice, constantly improving and creatively modifying for each specific case and in accordance with the requirements of the time. Unlike Freudian psychoanalysis, which strives for accurate scientifically based interpretations, which, unfortunately, can sometimes be revealing and cause rejection in the client, Jungian analysts conduct sessions on the basis that only what is true for the client himself is true. They will try not only to discuss the problem from all possible points of view, but also to help awaken any creative endeavors in the client, which may manifest themselves in a love of drawing, clay modeling, writing fairy tales, keeping a diary, etc.
PSYCHODRAMA
Direction psychology began its history in the 20s XX centuries thanks to the talent of the outstanding doctor and philosopher Ya. L. Moreno. History testifies to a meeting between J. Moreno and Z. Freud, during which young Moreno declared - “You allowed people to speak, I will allow them to act.” For the first time, psychotherapeutic sessions were transformed from individual to group, moving from a closed psychoanalytic office to a real human environment. Thus, Ya. Moreno solved the problem of manifesting the inner reality of a person directly in the situation of the social environment, in fact, that environment, in a collision with which a psychological conflict is produced.
A psychodramatic session begins with a warm-up - this can be motor or meditative exercise, designed to raise the energy level in the group and get participants excited about certain topics. Then the protagonist (the actor playing the main role) is selected, that is, the participant for whom the whole group will work during this session. The choice happens like this - the presenter and participants who want to understand their topic move forward from the general circle and tell what they would like to work with, and the people sitting in the outer circle listen carefully. When the topics are clear to everyone, representatives of the outer circle make their choice based on the criterion “which topic is most relevant to me now.” It is the topic that is chosen, and not the person who presents it, since only in this case the topic chosen for work will be a group one.
Once the choice is made, the action phase begins. Scene by scene, the protagonist, with the help of the group members, dramatically plays out the situation that worries him. First, the protagonist chooses from among the group members the one who will play himself in those cases when he himself will be in a different role. Then participants are selected to play the roles of characters important to his life situation (this can be like real people, as well as his fantasies, thoughts and feelings, and even dreams). Forms of enactment range from literal reenactment real events to the staging of symbolic scenes that never took place in reality. The psychodramatic scene ends when protagonist finds a solution to a problem situation or feels that he has received enough information about the situation. After the action stage passes sharing– exchange of impressions between “participants in the action” and “spectators”. First, the participants who played the roles share their experiences “from the role,” that is, they talk about what it was like for them to be, for example, the mother of the protagonist. Then the whole group shares feelings “from life”, that is, the participants talk about similar situations that happened in their lives, about the feelings they had during the action or observation of it. On sharing Anything that can hurt is strictly prohibited protagonist or group members - thoughts, assessments, advice about situations. You can only talk about your feelings and the events of your life.
PsychodramaToday, in its original form, it is not widely distributed, however, its elements are widely used in all areas of psychology.
LOGOTHERAPY
Psychotherapeutic strategy developed by V. Frankl in the 40s XX century, based on the belief that personal development is impossible without the search and realization of the meaning of life. If a person has no meaning in life or it is such that it is really unattainable, then existential frustration (stagnation in life) arises, leading to neuroses and mental illnesses. In progress logotherapy The goal is to help the client find meaning in his life, which cannot simply be borrowed from others, no matter how attractive it may be. To solve this problem, the method of Socratic dialogue was developed, in which discussion takes place personal experience, which concerns primarily three areas in which individual meaning in life can be found. These are: creativity, experiences and a conscious attitude towards circumstances that cannot be influenced. One of the main areas in which an individual can receive support in his search for meaning is religious faith. Logotherapy has its own unique therapeutic techniques such as method paradoxical intention, dereflexia, etc.
Logotherapy is effective in helping in various situations: neuroses, phobias, fears, difficulties in relationships, depression, problems in the field of sexuality, overcoming psychological trauma and violence, etc.
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Oformed as an independent movement in the 50-60s and is rather a set of similar philosophical views on a person, which gives practical opportunities to build a well-founded therapeutic process. The foundation of humanistic psychology was laid by such world-famous thinkers as E. Fromm, A. Maslow, C. Rogers, G. Allport. etc. According to ideas humanistic psychology, a person is endowed with an innate and irresistible desire for self-realization and self-actualization, and both the innermost level of consciousness and the level of self-awareness in the space of society are important. IN to a certain extent, self-actualization cannot proceed without conflict: freedom and sociality, creativity and responsibility, love and duty are collisions that require deep philosophical understanding for every person. Special attention is given to the fact that the reality perceived by a person according to the stereotypical ideas of the majority is conditional, while the true reality is only the internal experiences of the person himself.
One of the basic beliefs of humanistic-oriented people is that every person contains the potential for “recovery” in relation to all phenomena human life. Under certain conditions, a person can independently and fully realize this potential. Therefore, the work of humanistic psychologist is aimed, first of all, at creating favorable conditions for the restoration of personality in the process psychological consultations. Humanistic psychologist is distinguished by a special degree of unconditional acceptance of the client, support, empathy (sympathy), attention to individuality, stimulation of choice and decision-making, authenticity. However, despite its apparent simplicity, humanistic psychotherapy is based on a serious phenomenological scientific basis and uses a wide range of therapeutic technologies and methods. Humanistic therapy helps: find yourself, resolve internal and interpersonal conflicts, accept difficult decisions, cope with dependencies, get out of, overcome loneliness, learn to enjoy life, restore intuition and spontaneity, restore health, overcome conflicts in relationships with loved ones, recover from suffering psychological injuries and violence, improve quality of life.
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
– (Latin existentia – existence) was formed on the basis of the works of such researchers as L. Binswanger, M. Boss, E. Minkowski, R. May and others. Psychological direction, studies: 1). Problems of time, existence and non-existence; 2) Highest values. Problems of freedom, responsibility and choice; 3) Personal mission. Problems of communication, love and loneliness; 4) The essence of God. Existential psychology comes from the primacy of human existence, with which his basic life needs are organically connected; oblivion of which leads to a state of stress, anxiety or depression.
Purpose existential psychology is the solution to the problem of restoring the authenticity of a specific personality - the correspondence of its existence in the world to its inner nature.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
(German) gestalt- a holistic form or structure) began to develop in Germany at the beginning XX centuries. This direction is based on the postulate that primary data psychology are integral structures (gestalts), which in principle cannot be derived from the components that form them. However, having a number of needs, and competing needs, a person is inclined to “simplify” the picture of the world around him, highlighting only certain dominant needs for their implementation. In this case, a person sees only what he wants to see and does not notice his surroundings. The need to become fixed, obsessive and therefore fundamentally insoluble. Failure to meet needs leads to a deficit lifestyle. The task of the Gestalt therapist is to ensure that the client recognizes his need and learns to interact with it. The inability to feel a need makes a person’s behavior disorganized and ineffective, accompanied by anxiety or depression and expressed by a contradiction between conscious aspects and unconscious phenomena of behavior. In this case, the therapist’s task is to help the client clarify his need by exploring phenomenology and showing the client how it manifests itself in him, how the need is replaced and where it is interrupted. Gestalt therapy, the main ideas and methods of which were developed by F. Perls, is based on the ability of the psyche to self-regulate, on the creative adaptation of the body to environment and on the principle of human responsibility for all his actions, intentions and expectations. The main role of the therapist is to focus the client’s attention on awareness of what is happening “here and now,” limiting attempts to interpret events, paying attention to feelings that are indicators of needs, and the client’s own responsibility for both the implementation and prohibitions on the implementation of needs. Many Gestalt - psychologists They believe that when set up correctly, Gestalt therapy, unlike psychoanalysis, does not cause resistance from the client.
The main working methods and techniques of Gestalt therapy are awareness, focusing attention, taking responsibility, working with polarities, monodrama.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
- directionV psychology, studying the processes of cognition (Latin cognitio - cognition), the work of memory and the role of cognition in motivation and behavior. In its practical part, it is built on the principles of therapy developed by A. Beck. The basis of this method is the fact, proven by numerous experiments, that cognition (meaning the construction of a picture of the world) is the main determinant of the emergence of certain emotions, which in turn determine the meaning of holistic behavior. At the same time, the occurrence of mental disorders (neuroses, depression, conflicts, etc.) negative states) is explained primarily by an incorrectly constructed description of one’s personality. Answers to the questions - How do I see myself?, What future awaits me?, What is the world around me?, of course, do not have standard solutions, however, they can be both adequate and inadequate to reality. Inadequate answers lead a person to erroneous actions and, accordingly, to “catastrophe.” In accordance with this, within the framework of cognitive psychotherapy The goal is for the client to understand that it is the judgments he usually uses (“automatic thoughts”) that determine his painful state, and to learn the correct ways of knowing by practicing them. The procedure of this method includes three stages. At the first stage ( logical analysis) the patient develops criteria for detecting errors in his own judgments that arise in critical situations; at the second stage (empirical analysis) he develops techniques for correlating judgments with an objective situation; at the third stage (pragmatic analysis) builds an optimal awareness of oneself and one’s actions.
TRANPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY
formed in the 60s XX centuries based on the research of many famous psychologists and psychiatrists, but the undoubted leader in this area is S. Groff. Transpersonal psychology, for the first time, openly conducts large-scale research psychology a person, taking into account the pre-personal period of life, that is, the intrauterine and preceding cycle of spiritual existence outside the bodily form. All three periods are presented as a single cycle of existence of a given individual, which allows us to consider positive or negative collisions earthly man from a much higher point than it was before.Transpersonal psychology studies consciousness in a wider range of its manifestations: the plurality of states of consciousness in multidimensional existence, higher states of consciousness, parapsychological phenomena, meta-needs and meta-values. Accordingly, as therapeutic methods used previously unacceptable from a scientific point of view: meditation, holotropic breathing, active imagination, religious and mystical experience, altered states of consciousness. The transpersonal approach in trainings is of particular relevance. personal growth, treatment of drug addiction, alcoholism, suicidal tendencies, psychoses and neuroses, as types of spiritual crisis.
- direction psychology, which took shape in the 70s of the 20th century in the United States of America. The founders of NLP are two charismatic personalities - linguist D. Grinder and R. Bandler. The NLP school is more a set of numerous techniques than a concept about a person and his psychological reality. The basis for the development of the technique was the study of a number of highly successful historical figures and identifying patterns of their communication behavior with others. Based on these models, techniques have been developed that allow the client to quickly and effectively change thoughts, behavior and beliefs that interfere with development, achievement of goals and understanding of the world around him. A number of techniques are aimed at achieving the desired result when interacting with other people and successful communication. NLP - exclusively practical direction, which puts the result as the main criterion. NLP Technician There are many: six-step reframing, a generator of new behavior, a model swing, a museum of new beliefs, anchoring resource states and many others, all of them are very effective in certain cases and work on the principle “If you do this, you get results.” The weakness of NLP, according to many experts (we subscribe to this opinion), is the lack of understanding of the “picture of the world” and the construction of adequate models of behavior that can work effectively in a wide range of tasks, in changing conditions of reality.
COACHING
formed in the 90s XX century (training concept at the intersection psychology, philosophy, sports and management) (Initially, coaching was focused only on the business space, but now it is successfully used for almost all social groups). – is classified as a training area, but in reality it is informal training. The events are held in an interview format and are positioned both by business departments: management, marketing, finance and other areas, for example, sports, and by personal parameters: leadership, creativity, communication skills, etc., ending with categories - life , that is, health, spiritual harmony, the art of being happy. The coaching methodology is based on unlocking the initially existing internal potential person as a result of (not fully understood) interaction coach and the client-player.
Coaching is highly effective training, as a result of which the client acquires the ability to effective action in changing conditions. However, it should be taken into account that the unlocking of the consciousness of the client-player occurs in a fairly limited zone from the entire complex and multidimensional structure of thinking and decision-making.
Coaching is usually carried out in half-hour to hour-long sessions, possibly over the phone, which can be very convenient in some cases.
Psychology is the science of the soul. With its help we can analyze human behavior, correct internal state, identify areas in which an individual can be better realized, and much more.
The multiple areas of psychology that exist today were formed over a long period of time and arose as needed: when specialists faced complex problem problems that could not be solved using existing methods, they were forced to apply new approaches, which, being effective, then became separate industries.
In this article we will identify the main ones, as well as those that have emerged relatively recently.
Main directions in psychology
Initially, psychology is divided into two types: fundamental (theoretical, basic) and applied (practical). They are interconnected: practical psychology “pushes” theorists to what needs to be studied, and they, in turn, supply information to practitioners so that they can apply the developed systems. Therefore, these two sectors are equal and equally important.
Fundamental knowledge psychology are grouped into the branch of general psychology. Here the subject of research is the general, regardless of the area of life in which they manifest themselves.
The applied branch deals with issues that are limited by people's occupations or various situations, social status, age and other parameters. It aims to practically improve a specific area: for example, family psychology, rehabilitation, etc.
Subjects of study of general psychology:
- personality and its characteristics (general);
- sensation;
- perception;
- thinking;
- memory;
- imagination;
- will;
- temperament and character.
Subjects of study applied psychology
- educational sphere (behavior and self-perception of students, educators, teachers, etc.);
- labor;
- medical;
- managerial.
Here we see such areas of psychology as: educational psychology, labor, engineering, management psychology, legal, developmental and medical.
Pedagogical and developmental psychology are interconnected. Depending on the child’s age, assistance is provided in his adaptation to society and adjustments are made to his abilities for the successful acquisition of knowledge. Support is also provided for adults who need training: a psychologist assesses their characteristics and abilities, and, taking this into account, gives advice on teaching methods and increasing the efficiency of mastering new knowledge.
Among the applied branches of psychology, psychodiagnostics also stands out, which studies data on the psyche of children and adults. Among the methods, the most popular is the psychological test, which either consists of questions or requires the patient to draw a picture, choose a color, and so on.
Medical psychology borders on psychiatry, since the object of its research is the borderline states of patients, where the transition from psychological problem to mental illness. This is a very responsible area of activity for a psychologist, since it depends on him whether the human condition will remain within normal limits or develop into a pathology that requires drug treatment from a psychiatrist.
Main directions of modern psychology
The 20th century has become very important stage in the development of psychology, since he opened the world brilliant people who made a great contribution to the discovery of new methods and ways of studying the individual and working with him. Among them are a lot of unusual views on the classical understanding of personality, where the same atypical adjustment techniques are used
Such areas of psychology as psychoanalysis, coaching, logotherapy, psychodrama, cognitive psychology and NLP in modern world are quite common, and, most importantly, recognized as effective. Each method is the key to a specific personality and a way to resolve the situation, so it is very important to determine which one listed methods can have maximum impact on the patient.
Psychoanalysis was introduced by Sigmund Freud and is aimed at studying the dynamics of libido, on which, according to the founder of the movement, the structure of the psyche and the basic behavioral characteristics of a person depend. Also, this section of psychology is characterized by an emphasis on human childhood, when the basic models and stereotypes, ideas about life and the world are formed.
Then the ideas outlined by S. Freud were continued by Carl Jung, making some adjustments. He expanded the scope of psychoanalysis, adding to the individual. Here he introduces the concept of archetypes - the original images that are present in everyone’s personality, but manifested to varying degrees. To study one’s own psyche, C. Jung suggested paying attention to dreams, in which a person’s personality and his personality are revealed with the help of images. true desires and emotions.
Such areas of psychology as psychodrama and logotherapy are now not as widespread as others modern industries. In psychodrama, there is an exchange of experience between group members with the participation of physical actions that are aimed at revealing the personality and its creative potential. Logotherapy offers to find the meaning of life, after which a person will be able to solve all his problems. However, the meaning of life must be achievable so that frustration does not arise. The main method of logotherapy is Socratic dialogue, which is effective for neuroses, phobias and depression.
Thus, psychological techniques and there are quite a lot of directions, and today it is impossible to speak of psychology as a single and integral science; rather, it is a combination of branches and systems of psychological knowledge.
