Basic grammatical categories of a sentence. Grammatical categories - introduction to linguistics library of Russian textbooks

2.1. Morphological GCs

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic Civil Codes

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

______________________________________________________________________________

General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is built either based on the form, or based on grammatical meaning(GZ).

1. Grammatical category (Greek katē goria‘judgment, definition’) – a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values [LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, s. 227; Alefirenko, s. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of civil codes are civil laws. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific concept.

Members (components) of the Civil Code, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1st, 2nd, 3rd person) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

Materialseverity grammatical meaning (GS). Wed. GZ definition: Grammatical meaning- this is the abstract content of a linguistic unit, which has in the language regular and standard expression. If in a given language some GC is not expressed formally (by grammatical means), there is no reason to talk about GC.

Second necessary sign GC, closely related to the first - the presence of at least twoopposing forms, united by some value:

among the Russians there are nouns GC kind, but the English ones do not;

Russian nouns have case category, but the French do not; in English nouns is doubtful (possessive forms are either considered case or not), despite the fact that English personal pronouns have a case category: I – me, he – him (direct and indirect case are contrasted);

V African language wai No GK time, because there are no contrasting grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single civil code that would be characteristic of all languages of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the civil concept and the way of its expression [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let us compare examples in which the same GP is expressed in different ways:

dog - dogs

foo t–fee t

finish – finished

wri te–wro te

long – longer

good –better

interesting –more interesting

In language uss(one of the languages of Colombia) plural is formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) are plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'People';

consumption of some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'hands';

wai‘oar’ – lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'Brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal inflection:

gwu la ‘cloak’ – gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. – 1993). Quote from: Reformatsky, p. 263].

write -on -write,

decideA -th – decide-And -th,

personalAnd army - gather,

cutá th – opené shut up,

speak -say .

Types of grammatical categories

There are several classifications of HA.

1. Depending on number of opposing members the same Civil Code in different languages can be organized in different ways.

Binomial GK:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. sort of in Romance (masculine ↔ feminine) and Iranian languages (according to animate / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in the Slovenian, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the singular and dv forms are contrasted. and many more. For example, Khant.:

hot'house', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  T ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'tree', yuh-ng  n 'two trees', yuh- T ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

in Papuan languages there is also triple number;

2. Civil codes are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of civil code was developed primarily based on material morphological categories. Question about syntactic categories less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological GCs characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories there are

inflectional- those whose members are represented forms of the same word within its paradigms(cf. Russian forms case nouns; sort of,numbers And case adjectives; forms faces at the verb);

classification- those whose members represented by different words, because these are categories that are internal to a word and do not depend on its use in a sentence (cf. Russian categories sort of nouns, animate / inanimate nouns, kind verb) [LES, p. 115].

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal type civil code: GK gender, case, animate-inanimate;

Verb type GC: Civil code of tense, type, voice, mood.

GK language are in close cooperation and show a tendency towards interpenetration:

cat. time closely related to cat. moods, and also kind: temporary forms are usually contrasted within indicative mood representing real events; if a language has a lot of “tenses”, then this types temporary forms: perfect= finished / imperfect= unfinished action in the past, aorist= point action in the vulgar present continuous etc.

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects noun and verb.

Lecture 9

Statement of claim for collection of tax penalties.

After a decision has been made to hold an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur accountable for committing a tax offense or in other cases when extrajudicial collection of tax sanctions is not permitted, the relevant tax authority files a statement of claim in court to collect from this person a tax sanction, established by law about taxes and fees.

Before going to court, the tax authority is obliged to offer the person held accountable for committing a tax offense to voluntarily pay the appropriate amount of the tax penalty. If a person held accountable for committing a tax offense refuses to voluntarily pay the amount of a tax sanction or misses the payment deadline specified in the request, the tax authority files a claim in court for recovery from of this person tax sanction established tax code, for committing this tax offense.

A statement of claim for the collection of a tax sanction from an organization or individual entrepreneur is submitted to an arbitration court, and from an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur - to a court of general jurisdiction.

The statement of claim shall be accompanied by the decision of the tax authority and other case materials obtained during the tax audit.

IN necessary cases simultaneously with filing a statement of claim, the tax authority may send to the court a petition to secure the claim in the manner prescribed by the civil procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation) and the arbitration procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 8 of the Arbitration Procedure Code).

1. The concept of grammatical category. Principles of identifying grammatical categories in language.

2. Basic grammatical categories of the name.

3. Basic grammatical categories of the verb.

4. Morphological and syntactic grammatical categories.

1. Grammatical category is a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the defining feature is the categorizing feature, for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of meanings of individual times, persons, voices, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.

A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-way linguistic units.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case. The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the category of gender is represented in the Russian language by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of male and female. and Wed kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many more h.

In the structure of grammatical categories, the most significant seems to be principle of unification grammatical classes and units that make up this category. The basis for such a combination is a generalized meaning (for example, the meaning of time), which unites – as a generic concept – the meanings of the components of a given category. The systematic nature of a language is not simply external organization language materials, but in the fact that all homogeneous elements of the structure of language are interconnected and receive their significance only as opposed parts of the whole.

Semantic opposition is precisely such a relationship, subordinate to the specified principle. For grammar this quality is especially important; Thus, we can talk about the category of gender or case only if there are at least two opposed genders or cases in given language; if there is no such opposition, but there is only one form (as for gender in English or in Turkic languages or for case in French), then this category does not exist in this language at all.

Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions (for example, the meaning of singularity opposed to the meaning of plurality). Grammatical oppositions (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories.

2. The Russian noun is characterized by inflectional categories of number and case and classifying categories of gender, animateness/inanimateness and personality.

Grammar number category is an inflectional form for nouns and is constructed as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. Inherent Old Russian language special forms dual number have not been preserved in modern Russian, there are only residual phenomena (plural forms of names of paired objects: banks, sides, ears, shoulders, knees; noun forms hour, row, step in combinations like two hours).

For the names of countable objects and phenomena, the singular form denotes singularity, the plural - a quantity of more than one: table– plural tables, day– plural days, tree– pl. h. trees, storm– plural thunderstorms. Nouns with abstract, collective, real meanings belong to singularia tantum: thickness, pampering, beast, milk, or to pluralia tantum: chores, finances, perfume, canned food.

In cases where the words singularia tantum can form plural forms, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: Wed "species multiple" type wine– plural guilt, beauty– beauty, "emphatic plural" when denoting large quantity type water– plural water, snow– snow, etc.

The number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by a numeral: new book – pl. h. new books, The student is reading/reading– pl. h. Students are reading/reading. In indeclinable nouns and pluralia tantum nouns denoting countable objects, syntactic method number expression is singular: new coat, one coat– pl. h. new coats, three coats; just scissors– pl. h. two scissors, one day– pl. h. four/several/many days.

Case in Russian expresses the relationship of nouns to other words in phrases and sentences. The inflectional morphological category of case is constructed as a contrast between six main series of forms and five additional ones, differing in inflections, and the inflections of nouns simultaneously express the case meaning and the meaning of number. For indeclinable nouns, case meanings are expressed only by the forms of agreed or coordinated words (in a sentence being a modifier or a nominal predicate).

Six main cases:

nominative

· genitive,

· dative,

accusative

· creative,

· prepositional.

In the system of six cases, the nominative case is opposed as a direct case to the other five - indirect cases. He is original form paradigms, speaking in the most independent syntactic positions; indirect cases express, as a rule, the dependence of the noun on the word that controls it. Being controlled forms, indirect cases appear in combination with prepositions (prepositional-case forms) and without them (non-prepositional forms): see the house And head towards home; drive the car And sit in the car. Of the six cases, one (nominative) is always prepositional; one is used only with prepositions, and therefore is called prepositional; the remaining four cases (middle in the paradigm) appear both with and without prepositions. For indirect cases It is also important which part of speech they syntactically obey; the verb and adjective use of case forms differ.

Genus category for nouns it is classifying, or non-inflectional (each noun belongs to a specific grammatical gender) and is constructed as a contrast between three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns are semantically defined as words capable of denoting a male being, nouns feminine- as words capable of denoting a female being, and neuter nouns - as words that are not capable of indicating gender. At the same time, animate nouns of masculine and feminine gender (names of people and partly names of animals) have a direct connection with the designation of gender (cf. father And mother, teacher And teacher, lion And lioness), and for inanimate nouns (partially also for the names of animals) - indirect, manifesting itself as the possibility of stylistic rethinking in the image of a creature of the corresponding gender (cf. rowan And oak V folk song"Thin Rowan", as well as Father Frost, Frog Princess etc.). Gender distinctions of nouns are expressed only in the singular, therefore pluralia tantum nouns do not belong to any of the three genders. A special place are occupied by the so-called common nouns, capable of denoting a person of both male and female gender and, accordingly, possessing grammatical features masculine and feminine ( orphan, touchy, crybaby).

The gender of nouns is expressed both morphologically - by the system of inflections of the noun in the singular, and syntactically - by the generic form of the agreed or coordinated word (adjective or other word inflected like an adjective, predicate verb). Since the system of singular inflections does not unambiguously indicate a certain gender for all inflectional types of nouns (for example, nouns of the second declension can refer to both feminine and masculine: m.r. servant, female servant), the syntactic expression of the gender of nouns is consistently unambiguous. For so-called indeclinable nouns, this way of expressing gender is the only one (cf. recent interview, m.r. long-tailed kangaroo etc.).

The ability to indicate gender is also possessed by the forms of agreed and coordinated words in combination with common nouns ( round(m.r.) orphan And round(female) orphan), as well as with masculine nouns - names of persons by profession, position ( doctor, engineer, director), which can be combined when indicating the female gender of a person (only in the form nominative case) with feminine forms of coordinated and (less often) agreed words: The doctor has arrived, we have a new doctor(colloquial).

3. The type of verb is a category that expresses differences in the course of an action. This category distinguishes verbs not perfect form(answer the question “What to do?”: fly) and perfective verbs (answer the question “What to do?”: fly in).

The transitivity of a verb is characterized by its compatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, watch a movie; The intransitivity of the verb is characterized by incompatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: have measles.

Special group make up reflexive verbs, which are indicated by the suffix -xia: hold on, laugh.

Voice of the verb is a category that expresses the relationship between the subject and object of an action. Verbs active voice– verbs in which the subject names character: dad eats an apple; verbs passive voice appear in a passive construction when the complement becomes the object of the action: the door opened with a key.

Indicative – expresses an action that existed, exists and will exist: went and looked. In this mood, verbs have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number.

The conditional, or subjunctive, mood expresses an action that does not really exist, it is only possible or desirable: I would read it. It is formed using a verb in the past tense and a conditional particle would.

Imperative mood - expresses a request, order or prohibition, is not real. Formed by adding the ending tense to the stem -And: bring it, give it; graduation -those: take it, say; by adding particles let him, let him: let him go, let him go.

Time– a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses: present, past and future. The tense of the verb is closely related to the category of the form: NSV - sell – sold – will sell; NE – sold - sell.

In a sentence, the verb can be simple verbal predicate: Sasha got up early; complex verb predicate: She wanted to sleep; inconsistent definition: The thought of leaving didn't make me happy.

In the Russian language there are verbs that denote an action without a doer (person), therefore they are called impersonal. Sentences with such verbs are also called impersonal: My ears are ringing. It's getting warmer outside. It's getting dark.

4. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammar classes words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories may be different: for example, the grammatical category of gender is represented in the Russian language system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of male and female. and Wed gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two series of singular forms. and many more h. This characteristic is historically variable: cf., for example, three forms of number in Old Russian, including dual, and two in modern Russian.

In Russian morphology, grammatical categories are distinguished: inflectional, members of which can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender of adjectives, degrees of comparison), and non-inflectional (classifying, classifying ), members of which cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, gender and animate/inanimate nouns). Whether some grammatical categories (for example, aspect and voice) belong to an inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of debate.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identified (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms as part of a phrase or sentence (for example, gender), and non-syntactically identified (referential, nominative), expressing primarily different semantic abstractions abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extra-linguistic reality (for example, type, time); grammatical categories such as number or person combine features of both of these types.

Sometimes the term “grammatical category” is applied to broader or narrower groupings compared to the grammatical category in the specified interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other – to individual members of categories (“masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

In morphology, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from the grammatical category - such subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature, influencing the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; verbs are personal and impersonal; so-called ways of verb action, etc.

The concept of a grammatical category was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories has been less studied; the boundaries of the application of the concept of grammatical category to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to identify a grammatical category of the communicative orientation of an utterance, constructed as a contrast between narrative, motivating and interrogative sentences; grammatical category of activity/passivity of sentence construction; grammatical category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood, forming the paradigm of the sentence, etc. The question of whether the so-called word-formation categories belong to the grammatical category is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by grammatical category? What are the principles for identifying grammatical categories in a language?

2. Name the main grammatical categories of the name.

3. Name the main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. What morphological and syntactic grammatical categories do you know?

In widely accepted definitions of geopolitical significance, its meaning is brought to the fore. However, a necessary feature of grammatical language is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-sided (bilateral).

G.K. are divided into and. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, G. k.,; The consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (). The number of contrasting members within such categories can be different: for example, in G. the gender class is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the masculine, feminine and neuter gender, and in the G. class number - a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural. In developed languages, inflectional phrases are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its framework (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person, number, case, gender, ), and non-inflectional (classifying, classification), i.e. those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and ). The belonging of some GKs (for example, in the Russian language - aspect and voice) to an inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of debate.

G. words also differ between syntactically identified (relational), i.e., indicating primarily forms in the composition or (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identified (referential, nominative), i.e., expressing first of all, various semantic abstractions abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extra-linguistic reality (for example, in the Russian language - type, tense); G. words, such as number or person, combine the characteristics of both of these types.

They differ: 1) in the number and composition of G. k. (cf., for example, the category of the verb aspect specific to some languages - and others; the category " " - a person or thing - in a series; the category inherent primarily in languages with; the category politeness, or respectfulness, characteristic of a number of Asian languages, in particular and, and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker’s attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question); 2) by the number of opposed members within the same category (cf. six cases in the Russian language and up to forty in some); 3) by which parts of speech contain one or another category (for example, nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics can change in the process of historical development of one language (cf., for example, three forms of number in, including the dual, and two in modern Russian).

Some features of the detection of categorical meanings are determined by the morphological type of language - this applies to both the composition of categories and the way of expressing categorical meanings (cf. expressions of inflectional morphological meanings, for example, case and number, which predominate in languages, and the separate expression of these meanings in). In contrast to the strict and consistent obligatory nature of expression characteristic of inflectional-synthetic languages, in isolating and agglutinative languages the use of forms with special indicators is not mandatory for all those cases where this is possible in meaning. Instead, basic forms that are neutral in relation to the given are often used. For example, in , where the signs of G. k. numbers are seen, nouns without the plurality indicator “-men” 們 can denote both one person and many persons; It is possible to use a name in the form of the absolute case in cases where, according to the meaning, the form of any of the indirect cases could be used. Accordingly, the division of geometrical complexes into morphological and syntactic ones is not traced in such languages as clearly as in languages of the inflectional-synthetic type; the boundaries between one and the other geometrical complexes are erased.

Sometimes the term "G. To." applies to broader or narrower groupings compared to GK in the specified interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“ masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

In morphology, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from grammatical words—subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; verbs are personal and impersonal; so-called methods of verbal action, etc.

The concept of morphology was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories is less developed; the boundaries of the application of the concept of geometrical language to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to distinguish: G. k. the communicative orientation of the utterance, constructed as a contrast between narrative, motivating, and interrogative sentences; G. k. activity/passivity of sentence construction; GK of syntactic tense and syntactic mood that form sentences, etc. The question of whether the so-called categories belong to GK is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

Shcherba L.V., On parts of speech in the Russian language, in his book: Selected works on the Russian language, M., 1957;
Doculil M., On the question of the morphological category, “Questions of Linguistics”, 1967, No. 6;
Gukhman M. M., Grammatical category and structure of paradigms, in the book: Studies on general theory grammar, M., 1968;
Katsnelson S. D., Typology of language and speech thinking, Leningrad, 1972;
Lomtev T.P., Sentence and its grammatical categories, M., 1972;
Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninovskie readings, M., 1975;
Bondarko A.V., Theory of morphological categories, Leningrad, 1976;
Panfilov V.Z., Philosophical problems Linguistics, M., 1977;
Lions J., Introduction to theoretical linguistics, trans. from English, M., 1978;
Kholodovich A. A., Problems grammatical theory, L., 1979;
Russian grammar, vol. 1, M., 1980, p. 453-59.

V.V. Lopatin.

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. 1990 .

See what “Grammar category” is in other dictionaries:

GRAMMAR CATEGORY- a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. For example, the grammatical category of number in the Russian language is represented by a system of two series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of singular and... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Grammatical category- Grammatical category closed system mutually exclusive and opposing grammatical meanings (grammemes), which specifies the division of a vast set of word forms (or a small set of high-frequency word forms with ... ... Wikipedia

grammatical category- a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. For example, the grammatical category of number in the Russian language is represented by a system of two series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of singular and... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary

grammatical category- 1) Contrasting homogeneous categorical grammatical forms: units. number (country, table, window) pl. number (countries, tables, windows), etc. 2) A system of grammatical forms united by a common grammatical meaning, but contrasted by... ... Dictionary linguistic terms T.V. Foal

grammatical category- (Greek kategoria judgment, definition). 1) A set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. So, the values individual cases are combined into the category of case, the meanings of individual tense forms are combined into the category of time, etc. The category of gender... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

Grammatical category- the system is opposed. each other grammatical forms united by a homogeneous meaning. Mandatory the signs of G.K. are: a) the presence of at least two elements, b) the unity of the system of meanings and the forms associated with them, for example, in specific. there are so many languages... Russian humanitarian encyclopedic dictionary

Grammatical category- 1) a class of mutually exclusive grammatical meanings, opposed to each other according to common feature, for example the values " singular" and "plural" form the G. k. "numbers". Each G. K. corresponds to a Paradigm (or series... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Time (grammatical category)- Time is a grammatical category of a verb, expressing the relationship of the time of the situation described in speech to the moment of utterance of the utterance (i.e., to the moment of speech or a period of time, which in the language is denoted by the word “now”), which is taken as ... ... Wikipedia

2.1. Morphological GCs

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic Civil Codes

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

______________________________________________________________________________

General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is constructed either based on form or based on grammatical meaning (GZ).

1. Grammatical category(Greek katē goria‘judgment, definition’) – a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values [LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, s. 227; Alefirenko, s. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of civil codes are civil laws. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific concept.

Members (components) of the Civil Code, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1st, 2nd, 3rd person) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

The second necessary sign of GC, closely related to the first, is the presence of at least twoopposing forms, united by some value:

among the Russians there are nouns GC kind, but the English ones do not;

in African language wai No GK time, because there are no contrasting grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single civil code that would be characteristic of all languages of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the civil concept and the way of its expression [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let's compare examples in which the same GP is expressed in different ways:

dog - dogs

foo t–fee t

finish – finished

wri te–wro te

long – longer

good –better

interesting –more interesting

In language uss(one of the languages of Colombia) the plural is formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) are plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'People';

consumption of some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'hands';

wai‘oar’ – lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'Brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal inflection:

gwu la ‘cloak’ – gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. – 1993). Quote from: Reformatsky, p. 263].

write -on -write,

decideA -th – decide-And -th,

personalAnd army - gather,

cutá th – opené shut up,

speak -say .

Types of grammatical categories

There are several classifications of HA.

1. Depending on number of opposing members the same Civil Code can be organized differently in different languages.

Binomial GK:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. sort of in Romance (masculine ↔ feminine) and Iranian languages (according to animate / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in the Slovenian, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the singular and dv forms are contrasted. and many more. For example, Khant.:

hot'house', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  T ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'tree', yuh-ng  n 'two trees', yuh- T ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

in Papuan languages there is also triple number;

2. Civil codes are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of GC was developed primarily on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories is less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological GCs characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories there are

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal type civil code: GK gender, case, animate-inanimate;

Verb type GC: Civil code of tense, type, voice, mood.

GK language are in close cooperation and show a tendency towards interpenetration:

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects noun and verb.

The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (particular) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.

A grammatical category unites grammatical forms with a homogeneous grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms specific language called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of case in modern Russian consists of six forms with grammatical meanings: nominative, genitive, etc. cases; grammatical category of case in English includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.

Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a whole series of words or syntactic constructions and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.

In a word, grammatical meanings are a mandatory addition to the lexical ones. The differences between them are as follows:

a) lexical meaning is inherent specific word, grammatical - a series of words.

b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, signs, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) on the relationship of the content of the statement to reality (mood, tense, person); 3) on the speaker’s attitude to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments– confidence / uncertainty, categorical / presumptive).

c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with empty lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives of the age of approximately 15-25 years, and as an address it is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. IN in this case the word girl does not indicate age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.

The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, gender inanimate nouns– stream – river – lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.r.); neuter animate nouns – Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, kuche ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).

Grammatical form - external (formal) side language sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. Grammatical form is a representative of a grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the form genitive case, verb in the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and the material means of its expression.

Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways: synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method there are various means expressions of grammatical meanings.

Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix species pair): mother (ip.) – mothers (r.p.); run (infinitive) – ran (past tense); did (non-sov. kind) – did (owl. look).

2. Emphasis – hands (ip.p., plural) – handsu (p.p., singular).

3. Alternation at the root (internal inflection): collect (non-sov. view) – collect (sov. view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.

4. Reduplication – doubling of the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical device (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic device). IN Malay language orang ‘person’ – oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication – Tagalog. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.

5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another base: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form in ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation in the root – τρέφ / τροφ.

Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. The actual analytical tools are special grammatical means for education analytical forms: teach - I will read (future time); fast ( positive degree) – faster ( comparative degree) – the fastest (superlative).

2. Means of syntactic connections - the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For unbending words Russian language is the only means of expressing them grammatical gender. Unbowed animate nouns As a rule, they belong to the masculine gender: a funny kangaroo, a green cockatoo, a cheerful chimpanzee. The gender of inanimate indeclinable nouns is usually determined by the generic word: harmful tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).

3. Function words– grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (ip.) – stand by the highway (r.p.) – approach the highway (d.p.) – drive onto the highway (v.p.) ) – turn around on the highway (pp.); found out (indicative mood) – would know ( subjunctive mood).

4. Word order – grammatical meanings are determined by the position of a word in a sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second - as a passive one (object): The horse sees the mouse (horse - ip., subject; mouse - v.p., complement) - The mouse sees the horse (mouse - i.p., subject horse – v.p., addition).

5. Intonation – expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓The money went to the phone: 1) from logical stress on the word money and a pause after it; verb went used in indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase “The money was spent on purchasing a telephone”; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase “You need to put money on the phone.”

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What is grammar?

2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?

3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?

4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?